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A Pilot Evaluation of a Social Media Literacy Intervention to Reduce Risk Factors for Eating Disorders
Abstract
Objective:
This pilot study investigated the effectiveness of a social media literacy intervention for adolescent girls on risk factors for eating disorders.
Method:
A quasi-experimental pre- to post-test design comparing intervention and control conditions was used. Participants were 101 adolescent girls (Mage ?=?13.13, SD?=?0.33) who were allocated to receive three social media literacy intervention lessons (n?=?64) or to receive classes as usual (n?=?37). Self-report assessments of eating disorder risk factors were completed one week prior to, and one week following the intervention.
Results:
Significant group by time interaction effects revealed improvements in the intervention condition relative to the control condition for body image (body esteem-weight; d?=?.19), disordered eating (dietary restraint; d?=?.26) and media literacy (realism scepticism; d?=?.32).
Discussion:
The outcomes of this pilot study suggest that social media literacy is a potentially useful approach for prevention of risk for eating disorders in adolescent girls in the current social media environment of heightened vulnerability. Replication of this research with larger, randomized controlled trials, and longer follow-up is needed.
... Numerous interventions have endeavored to address growing concerns regarding social media's deleterious impacts on adolescent body image and eating behaviors. 32 Most are delivered in school settings, and many have yielded positive results, including increases in body esteem, 33 body appreciation and satisfaction, 34,35 and reductions in dietary restraint. 33 However, many evaluations of these interventions are uncontrolled, unrandomized trials with limited follow-up assessments. ...
... 32 Most are delivered in school settings, and many have yielded positive results, including increases in body esteem, 33 body appreciation and satisfaction, 34,35 and reductions in dietary restraint. 33 However, many evaluations of these interventions are uncontrolled, unrandomized trials with limited follow-up assessments. 33,35 This review focuses primarily on the smaller number of studies that have used more rigorous methodologies, including randomized control trials (RCTs), to examine the impact of interventions targeting the effects of social media on adolescents' body image. ...
... 33 However, many evaluations of these interventions are uncontrolled, unrandomized trials with limited follow-up assessments. 33,35 This review focuses primarily on the smaller number of studies that have used more rigorous methodologies, including randomized control trials (RCTs), to examine the impact of interventions targeting the effects of social media on adolescents' body image. ...
Social media has negative effects on adolescent body image and disordered eating behaviors, yet adolescents are unlikely to discontinue engaging with these platforms. Thus, it is important to identify strategies that can reduce the harms of social media on adolescent mental health. This article reviews research on social media and adolescent body image, and discusses strategies to reduce risks associated with social media use. Topics covered include interventions aimed at mitigating social media’s negative impacts, the body-positivity movement, and policies regulating adolescents’ social media use. Overall, this review highlights specific factors (such as staffing, duration, modality, facilitator training, and cultural sensitivity) to consider when designing and implementing social media interventions targeting adolescents. This review also discusses psychosocial outcomes associated with body positivity on social media. Finally, policy efforts to reduce the negative impact of social media on adolescents’ body image and eating behaviors are described. In sum, there is a strong need to conduct further research identifying optimal approaches to reduce the harms of social media for adolescent body image and eating behavior.
... However, to counteract problematic social media use, Lahti et al. (2024) recommend both universal and targeted interventions. Others have proposed interventions for preventing specific health outcomes, such as reducing risk factors for eating disorders (McLean et al., 2017), or improving body image and well-being (Gordon et al., 2020). Interestingly, several interventions have focused on reducing or eliminating social media time, even though it is uncertain whether time spent on social media impacts health (Radtke et al., 2021). ...
... Another intervention for adolescents aimed to increase social media literacy and reduce risk factors for eating disorders in 12-year old's (McLean et al., 2017). The intervention consisted of three 50-min lessons to increase social media literacy relating to different aspects of social media. ...
... This included the influential and targeted nature of advertising, critique of digitally manipulated images, reducing appearance comparisons, developing resilience to upward comparison, reducing the frequency of peer appearance-related commenting, and reducing the focus on and importance of appearance in interactions. In their pilot study, the intervention group had favorable effects compared with the control group regarding body image, disordered eating, and media literacy (McLean et al., 2017). A program delivered at schools aiming to increase social media literacy related to body image and well-being (Gordon et al., 2020) has also been developed. ...
Social media plays a significant role in adolescents’ lives, with both positive and negative effects. Implementing interventions to mitigate the negative aspects and enhance the positive ones could improve adolescents’ well-being. Unfortunately, there is a scarcity of evidence-based interventions available. To fill this gap, we have developed a school-based program based on combining evidence-based and consensus-based approaches, incorporating input from adolescents, school personnel, researchers, and municipal advisers. This paper describes the program’s content and principles, and presents the results from a pilot evaluation, which assesses feedback from pupils and teachers, thereby informing potential enhancements and the program’s overall significance. The intervention description encompasses theoretical perspectives, behavior change techniques, and procedural details. Pupils (n = 266; 16+ years) evaluated the program concerning satisfaction, relevance, importance, and usefulness through a questionnaire. Additionally, exploratory focus group interviews were conducted with seven teachers and eleven pupils to gather their perspectives on the program’s relevance, impact, and potential changes to the theme-based teaching. Results from the pilot showed an average score of 7.3/10 for overall satisfaction with the program. Sub-questions assessing perceived relevance, engagement, and usefulness averaged between 6.7 and 7.5. Gender differences were observed, with boys tending to rate the program lower than girls. In focus group interviews, the pupils expressed increasing awareness of their own and others’ social media use, that the topic was important and exciting, and that the program generally worked well. The pupils’ evaluation indicates the need for this kind of program described in this study.
... No que tange às populações, a maioria dos estudos incluídos nesta revisão foi realizada com adolescentes (GOLAN;HAGAY;TAMIR, 2014;WERTHEIM, 2013;MCLEAN et al., 2016MCLEAN et al., , 2017WADE et al., 2017). Regehr et al. (2020) citam que as pesquisas com adolescentes envolvendo a imagem corporal são importantes, pois é nessa fase da vida que esse grupo se encontra mais suscetível a ser influenciado pela mídia em função de série de mudanças que está ocorrendo no próprio corpo (MOSTAFA et al., 2018). ...
... Slater, Cole e Fardouly (2019) citam outras redes sociais como o Facebook e Snapchat e, também, a autonomia dos usuários em o que publicar e o que seguir, entretanto, apesar dessa autonomia, ocorre a idealização do corpo perfeito devido à alta frequência de exposição dos pares. Os comentários e curtidas são formas de feedbacks sobre a aparência, gerando um ambiente de comparações e internalização de um corpo ideal de magreza, por isso se tornam necessárias estratégias para lidar com o uso das mídias sociais (MCLEAN et al., 2017). ...
... Com o aumento de usuários nas redes sociais, principalmente, de adolescentes e de jovens adultos (NADERER; PETER; KARSAY, 2021;DI GESTO et al., 2022), torna-se indispensável pensar em intervenções e estratégias em Social Media Literacy, que são estratégias de media literacy voltadas para as redes sociais, que possuem o papel de proteção em relação ao impacto das mídias na imagem corporal. Esses ambientes proporcionam diversas pressões para a insatisfação corporal, além de conterem diversos tipos de interesses, como comerciais, influências de celebridades, filtros para edição de foto, entre outros (MCLEAN et al., 2017;GORDON et al., 2021). ...
A mídia, em conjunto com os pais e amigos, envolve aspectos socioculturais que configuram a principal tríade influenciadora da imagem corporal. Quando associado de modo acrítico, as mensagens midiáticas podem influenciar a imagem corporal de forma negativa. Desse modo, a media literacy surge como uma estratégia para o uso crítico da mídia, por meio da definição da competência de acesso, análise e entendimento das mensagens, principalmente, quando voltadas ao corpo. Assim, o objetivo deste estudo é analisar a produção científica referente à media literacy e imagem corporal de adolescentes e jovens adultos por meio de uma revisão integrativa da literatura. A seleção dos estudos ocorreu em três bases de dados, sendo essas: Scopus, Psyinfo e Web of Science. A seleção dos estudos aconteceu em fevereiro de 2022. Foi utilizado o cruzamento dos seguintes descritores: “media literacy” AND “body image”. Foram identificados 880 estudos. Destes, 22 artigos compuseram a presente revisão. Observou-se que adotar estratégias baseadas nos princípios da media literacy, ou seja, no realismo, semelhança e pensamento crítico em relação à mídia podem desencadear a promoção de uma imagem corporal positiva em adolescentes e jovens adultos, sendo fundamental que programas educacionais e/ou socioeducativos direcionados à referida população considerem a adoção da media literacy. Palavras-chave: Mídia. Educação Física Escolar. Alfabetização Midiática. Letramento Midiático. Abstract The media, together with parents and friends, are sociocultural aspects that configure the main influencer triad of body image. When uncritically associated, media messages can influence body image negatively. From a way, the Literacy Media emerges as a strategy for the critical use of the media by defining the competence of access, analysis and understanding of messages, especially when focused on the body. Thus, the objective of this study is to analyze the scientific production regarding the literacy and body image of adolescents and young adults through an integrative literature review. The selection of studies took place in three databases, namely, Scopus, Psycho and Web of Science. The studies selection took place in February 2022. The crossing of the following descriptors was used: “Media Literacy” and “Body Image”. 880 studies were identified. Of these, 22 articles composed the present review. It has been observed that adopting strategies based on the principles of the literacy media, that is, the realism, similarity and critical thinking about the media, can trigger the promotion of a positive body image in adolescents and young adults, and it is essential that educational programs and/ or socio -educational directed to that population consider the adoption of media literacy. Keywords: Media. School Physical Education. Media Literacy
... Interventions focusing on SML have so far demonstrated positive effects towards skills acquisition [20,41], leading the way to more technologically advanced approaches. One such approach is the implementation of web-browser plugins that act as virtual learning companions transferring information to users during content browsing [33]. ...
... A "correct" (i.e., non-harmful) usage of social media is crucial to exploit all the advantages offered by the new media, especially for teenagers who need to be supported in order to cope with the different threats and drawbacks omnipresent in it. SML interventions have demonstrated to decrease social media addiction [25], and to be beneficial towards the acquisition of skills related to digital competences [41] and fake news discernment [20] amongst others. They can be integrated in school curriculum as specific subjects or integrated within each curricular discipline. ...
... For instance, an initiative led by [55] designed a collection of activities for classroom instruction to combat misinformation in social media. On their part, [47] aimed to raise awareness of body image concerns, by designing an intervention manual which was beneficial in the format of six or three interactive lessons [13,41]. More recent interventions, such as the one conducted by [6] during the COVID pandemic found that online asynchronous assignments can help to improve fact-checking through a lateral reading course. ...
Social media platforms provide opportunities for users across the world to connect and communicate between them and engage into acts of social support and entertainment. Yet it can also bring negative consequences as it has been associated with poor mental health and life dissatisfaction. This underlines the importance of delivering social media literacy (SML) interventions that raise awareness of the dangers and threats that are hidden within. To this date, SML initiatives have shown their benefits towards the acquisition of SML skills through the forms of school interventions and mini-games. However, studies on promoting SML through social media platforms need to be also encouraged and innovative approaches to provide interactive scenarios with hands-on experiences need to be formulated. Hence, the project COURAGE introduces a new approach towards SML by proposing the integration of educational opportunities within a controlled social media platform. To provide students the opportunity to learn whilst they naturally explore social media we propose the integration of virtual learning companions. In this paper we report seven empirical approaches towards SML skills acquisition powered by virtual learning companions. The paper concludes with a discussion towards the benefits and limitations of using this type of SML interventions.
... School-based interventions have been shown to improve media literacy and reduce body dissatisfaction and eating concerns [27,28]. For example, a social media literacy intervention for adolescent girls improved media literacy, body image, and disordered eating behaviors [29]. Additionally, media literacy education interventions positively impacted dietary restraint and reduced depressive symptoms in adolescent girls [30]. ...
... The results showed that media literacy interventions effectively improved adolescents' conceptual, attitudinal, and critical media literacy, fostering greater skepticism toward digital marketing of weight-control products. Previous studies have demonstrated that school-based media literacy programs can enhance media literacy and reduce body dissatisfaction and eating concerns among adolescents [27,29,30]. These findings highlight the importance of integrating media literacy into health education to enhance adolescents' media literacy skills. ...
This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a media literacy education intervention on adolescents’ responses to digital marketing of weight-control products, focusing on media literacy, persuasion resistance efficacy, and purchase intention. Using a quasi-experimental design, the study involved 326 11th-grade students from a municipal high school in Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, with 189 students in the intervention group and 137 in the comparison group. Conducted in 2023, the intervention group participated in baseline and follow-up assessments and attended four 50 min media literacy sessions, while the comparison group completed only baseline and follow-up assessments with standard instruction. The results indicated that the media literacy intervention had positive effects on adolescents’ conceptual, attitudinal, and critical media literacy, as well as their persuasion resistance efficacy in relation to digital marketing of weight-control products. However, no significant effect was observed on purchase intention. In conclusion, media literacy interventions can effectively enhance adolescents’ media literacy and their ability to resist persuasion.
... When used appropriately, social media can support recovery by facilitating interaction with online recovery communities. An online qualitative survey of adults engaged with recovery accounts on Instagram highlighted both positive and negative aspects of social media during recovery, similar to our findings [46]. Contact with peers on recovery accounts fosters a sense of community and understanding, with recovery journeys serving as motivation and inspiration. ...
... This selective use, documented in other studies, correlates with decreased eating disorder-related cognition and behaviours [3,44]. Furthermore, educational interventions on social media literacy have been shown to reduce risk factors for developing eating disorders, highlighting the potential of guidance in facilitating awareness and active avoidance [46]. However, social media can also expose users to certain triggers during recovery. ...
Background: Social media have become integral in adolescents’ lives, presenting both opportunities and risks, especially concerning psychiatric issues like eating disorders, prevalent in this vulnerable age group. Methods: This qualitative study employed semi-structured interviews with seven adolescent girls (aged 15–17) diagnosed with eating disorders. Interviews covered seven predefined topics, recorded and transcribed for thematic analysis. Results: Participants identified four key themes: exposure to selective content, biased interpretation, behavioural adaptation, and evolving perspectives during recovery. They highlighted social media’s role in exacerbating body dissatisfaction and altering behaviours related to eating disorders. Conclusions: This research underscores the critical need for awareness and guidance in adolescents’ social media use to mitigate negative impacts, emphasizing the potential link between exposure to specific content and cognitive-behavioural changes in those with eating disorders. Further investigation is warranted to deepen our comprehension of these dynamics.
... Also, the results showed that body image has a negative and significant effect on the eating disorders of female athletes, which means that the more negative the body image of female athletes is, the more eating disorders they have. The findings of this research are consistent with the research of Qaderyan Anarmarzi [33], Boberová and Husárová [34], Hockin-Boyers et al. [35], McLean et al. [36] and Kagie [37]. ...
... Also, the results showed that media literacy significantly affects the eating disorders of female athletes through the mediating role of body image. The findings of this research are similar to those of Hockin-Boyers et al. [35] and MacLean et al. [36]. ...
Background and Purpose: Social media play a crucial role in setting cultural standards for the ideal body, which are often unrealistic and emphasize the importance of thinness for girls. This research aimed to explore the effect of media literacy on eating disorders with the mediating role of body image of female athletes in Izeh City, Iran. Materials and Methods: This correlational research was applied in terms of purpose. The statistical population includes all females of Izeh City who were engaged in professional and non-professional sports activities from 2021 to 2022. The samples were collected using available sampling (N=256). To collect data, we used 4 questionnaires: personal characteristics questionnaire, a standard media literacy questionnaire by Karman and Karatash (2009), a standard eating disorders questionnaire by Fairburn and Beglin (1994), and a standard body image questionnaire by Garner (2004). Its validity was confirmed using content validity and convergent and divergent validity. The reliability of the questionnaires was confirmed using the Cronbach α as follows: media literacy: 0.945, body image: 0.821, and eating disorders: 0.708. Data were tested using the Pearson correlation test and structural equation modeling. Results: Media literacy negatively and significantly affected female athletes’ eating disorders (r= -0.196) and body image (r=-0.365). Also, body image negatively and significantly affected female athletes’ eating disorders (r=-0.566). Moreover, media literacy indirectly and significantly affected female athletes’ eating disorders (r=0.202) with the mediating role of body image. Finally, the test of the eating disorders model based on media literacy with the mediation of body image had a good fit (GOF=0.492). Conclusion: Considering the effect of media literacy on girls’ eating disorders, the health organization should include healthy eating and the consequences of eating disorders in educational topics in schools.
... The increased exposure of users makes individuals end up making upward comparisons with users worldwide, by which they consider themselves deficient, leading to self-dissatisfaction (Marks et al., 2020). For adolescent girls, the increasing use of social networking sites and posting photos on social media is associated with and most likely contributes to the development of risk factors for eating disorders, such as body dissatisfaction, internalization of thinness ideals, drive for thinness, and dietary restraint (Mclean et al., 2017). The pressures social media places on body dissatisfaction and disordered eating are unique due to its highly visual environment in which appearance ideals and the pursuit of thinness are promoted. ...
... After conducting investigations of the effectiveness of social media literacy intervention on 101 Australian adolescent girls by giving three 50-minute interactive lessons about challenges posed by social media, McLean finds that the self-esteem of intervention groups and their realism skepticism have improved significantly. Mclean (2017) suggests that a combined approach combining media literacy and peer influence can help address the appearance pressures that young people experience due to the unique context of social media in which peer interactions and a highly visual and readily accessible format are the main features. Body acceptance is a crucial element to have a positive body image. ...
With the increasing convenience that social media provides for people, its negative effects are becoming more prominent. The issue of eating disorders caused by social media is becoming more apparent. This article reviews past research and finds that social media causes people to have eating disorders through inducing appearance anxiety and low self-esteem, among other factors. It has been found that effective ways to alleviate the negative impact of social media on eating disorders include improving media literacy, changing people's acceptance of appearance, developing positive body image, and planning social media content. Through this review, a theoretical foundation has been established for future efforts to improve the openness of social media and change its negative impact on people.
... En todo caso, los estudios recogen la necesidad de trabajar la alfabetización mediática y la utilidad de hacerlo. Proyectos diseñados para concienciar de lo poco realistas que son estas imágenes y mitigar sus influencias, confirman los efectos positivos: se reduce la insatisfacción corporal y se promueve una imagen positiva; incluso mínimas sesiones, consiguen resultados significativos (McLean et al. (2017). Aunque se ha demostrado que aquellas que trabajaron con el principio de inducción de la disonancia cognitiva, fueron las más efectivas (Kurz et al. 2022), faltan estudios sobre la manera de hacerlo (Campagna et al., 2024). ...
... Interest in social media use as an educational intervention, particularly in the public health world of health promotion and health education, is not new [47,48]. Public health educational interventions (for both youth and adults) through social media have focused on diabetes prevention, sexual health promotion, promotion of physical activity, eating disorder prevention, and other health-related issues [11,[49][50][51][52]. The use of social media in educational health interventions among youth and young adults is seen as providing a mechanism for individuals to actively engage with their personal health [53]. ...
This narrative review offers a deep dive into the theoretical and empirical literature on adolescent online health information-seeking behavior, specifically in relation to sexual health. It presents ways in which motivational influences impact adolescent social media use to seek sexual health information and offers insight into how Longo’s comprehensive and integrated model for understanding health information, communication, and information-seeking and self-determination theory may be used as frameworks for improved understanding in adolescent use of social media for seeking information related to sexual health. The main objectives of this article are, first, to examine the existing literature pertaining to social media, namely its main characteristics and uses by adolescents, its use as an educational tool, and its relation to health information; second, to explore information-seeking and learning through online platforms, particularly social media; and third, to provide a framework utilizing self-determination theory to better understand adolescent motivation in health-seeking behavior. This manuscript advances current knowledge and practices in supporting adolescent skill-development surrounding information-seeking and evaluation behaviors. Such practices will only become more beneficial as young people seek information in various settings (e.g., online, social media platforms, and artificial intelligence systems), particularly sensitive information such as that related to sexual health.
... Interventions to enhance social media literacy typically focus on increasing critical awareness and evaluation of the unrealistic and idealised nature of social media images and developing skills to reduce appearance comparisons. These interventions have shown some improvements in media literacy (e.g., Bell et al., 2021;McLean et al., 2017), but findings have been less consistent in reducing internalisation of appearance ideals and body image disturbances (e.g., Gordon et al., 2021). By extension, one might propose that building skills to enhance resilience may also drive down the amount of use or modify the type of use, including harmful behaviours. ...
While much research has explored the impacts of social media use, less is known about what factors drive use. The present study examined the relationships between potential drivers of social media use; namely social media literacy, motivations, and internalisation of appearance ideals, and determined whether they work in combination or individually to predict a range of social media uses and behaviours over time, including intensity, frequency, exposure to fitness and celebrity content, photo editing, appearance comparisons, and types of use. Australian adolescent girls (n = 704) and boys (n = 938) aged 11-16 years completed online surveys at baseline and 6-month follow-up. Bivariate correlations and multiple regressions were performed separately by gender. Results revealed weak associations between drivers and found they uniquely contributed to social media behaviours , though this was dependent on use outcome. Thin-and muscular-internalisation were related to some appearance-focused use (e.g., comparisons, following celebrity and fitness accounts) among girls and boys, respectively. Critical thinking was associated with lower Snapchat use among boys and motivations were related to intensity and type of use (i.e., viewing, posting). These findings suggest multicomponent holistic interventions targeting numerous drivers may be most appropriate in modifying social media behaviours among adolescents.
... School-based culinary programs and nutrition education initiatives have successfully increased adolescents' food skills, nutrition knowledge, and cooking confidence, leading to healthier eating patterns (Labbé et al., 2023;Ruiz et al., 2021;LeRouge et al., 2019). Social media literacy programs have proven effective in reducing risk factors for eating disorders among adolescents, particularly by addressing body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors (Muth et al., 2022;Agam-Bitton et al., 2018;McLean et al., 2017). ...
This health literacy intervention study, conducted on adolescent students, aimed to evaluate the impact of a comprehensive educational program on promoting healthy eating habits. The intervention sought to enhance adolescents’ knowledge about nutrition, foster self-regulation skills, and ultimately improve their overall health, including their body mass index (BMI). Through a multi-component approach that combined theoretical learning with practical activities and the integration of digital tools such as the MyFitnessPal app, the study targeted improvements in food literacy, which encompasses nutrition knowledge, food label interpretation skills, and cooking abilities. These elements are critical in influencing adolescents’ food choices and eating behaviors, with a focus on increasing the consumption of fruits and vegetables while reducing the intake of fast food and processed snacks. The intervention was structured around a series of educational workshops and interactive sessions, facilitated by professionals experienced in nutrition. These sessions covered topics such as food composition, the importance of a balanced diet, and strategies for avoiding excessive consumption of processed and high-energy-density foods. A distinctive feature of the program was its use of digital tools to enhance engagement and allow for the practical application of learned concepts through food tracking and activity monitoring. Preliminary results indicate positive outcomes in terms of increased food knowledge and improved dietary habits among participants. Notably, there was a significant improvement in adolescents’ BMI, highlighting the potential of food literacy interventions to contribute to better physical health outcomes. The study underscores the importance of adopting multidisciplinary and technology-enhanced approaches in educational programs aimed at promoting healthy eating among adolescents. The study’s findings suggest that well-structured food education programs, tailored to address the specific needs of adolescents, can facilitate positive changes in eating behavior. This highlights the critical role of food literacy in adolescents’ health and wellbeing and points to the need for continued investment in research and development to optimize intervention strategies. The integration of digital technologies and a focus on self-regulation strategies are identified as promising avenues for future research and educational practice, reinforcing the call for innovative investments in food education and health promotion among the youth.
... In relation to appearancerelated ideals, educational programs should address the unrealistic standards perpetuated online, while fostering resilience and promoting positive self-image. Educational programs and social media literacy programs in school have been suggested to increase adolescents' reflections about their own and others social media use [42,66,67]. Gordon et al. [42,67] introduced a four-lesson social media literacy program in a junior high school that aimed to decrease body dissatisfaction, dietary restraints and focus on increased muscles among young adolescents. ...
Background
Social media use, perfectionism, and disordered eating have all increased over the last decades. Some studies indicate that there is a relationship between self-presentation behaviors and being exposed to others’ self-presentation on social media, and disordered eating. Studies also show that the relationship between focus on self-presentation and highly visual social media is stronger than for non-visual social media, hence facilitating upward social comparison. Nevertheless, no previous studies have investigated the link between adolescents’ focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media, and perfectionism and disordered eating, which is the aim of the present study.
Method
The present study is based on a cross-sectional survey from the “LifeOnSoMe”-study (N = 3424), conducted in 2020 and 2021. Respondents were high school students (mean age 17.3 years, 56% females) in Bergen, Norway. Multiple regression analysis was performed, where SPAUSCIS, a measure of self-presentation and upward social comparison, was the independent variable. Perfectionism and disordered eating were dependent variables. Self-reported age, gender, and subjective socioeconomic status were used as covariates, as well as frequency and duration of social media use. Regression models were performed to compare proportions across the median split of SPAUSCIS.
Results
The multiple regression analysis showed that increased focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media were positively associated with both perfectionism (standardized coefficient 0.28) and disordered eating. A stronger association for girls than boys was found for disordered eating (standardized coefficient 0.39 for girls and 0.29 for boys). There was no gender moderation for perfectionism.
Conclusions
Findings suggest that focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media is associated with perfectionism and disordered eating. We recommend promoting a healthy use of social media. This could be established by increasing adolescents’ ability to reflect on and think critically about self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media.
... Social media literacy has been conceptualized through different theoretical lenses, including actor-network theory, domestication theory, social cognitive theory, critical literacy, and cultural capital (Nagle, 2018;Rutten & Vandermeersche, 2013;Vanwynsberghe, 2014). In an effort to provide a practical and conceptual operationalization of the term "literacy" in the context of social media, researchers have relied on existing literacy frameworks such as new media literacy (Ahn, 2013); traditional media literacy (Gordon et al., 2020;Schreurs & Vandenbosch, 2021); media literacy research (Livingstone, 2014;McLean et al., 2017;Mingoia et al., 2019); information literacy (Bridges, 2012); or a combination of information, digital, and new literacy (Machin-Mastromatteo, 2012). ...
The role of social media in the global society and economy has increased substantially over the years across different populations, age groups, and contexts. Using social media can be both beneficial and risky. People’s ability to navigate it safely and effectively largely depends on their social media literacy skills, which has significant implications for individuals and society. Drawing on the critical literacy and affordances-in-practice frameworks, we explore the concept of critical social media literacy (CSML) through a systematic literature review to determine whether and how its components—users’ goals, use context, inquiry, reflection, and action—have been addressed in the literature. Twenty out of the 50 publications identified reflected all the components of the CSML framework at different levels. We focused on empirical studies to identify instructional approaches and recommendations to support the development of CSML skills. Implications for research and practice, including curriculum connections, are also discussed.
... To address the rising prevalence of eating disorders, psychologists have begun attempting to create treatment plans to reduce the risk factors associated with social media. One approach they have taken is a social media literacy intervention, whose effectiveness was evaluated in a pilot study by McLean and others in 2017 [13]. This intervention is used to change the individual user's mindset and approach to the information on social media. ...
As a society, people are approaching an informational age, a period where people are in constant communication through various applications and platforms. One emerging tool is social media, an online platform that can be used to communicate, post information, share opinions, and document photos. As more people use social media, there are risks of misinformation and triggering content being spread. This phenomenon is beginning to affect its users’ mental health, such as mood regulation and eating behaviors. Eating disorders are becoming more prevalent, especially in adolescents and teenagers. Researchers have conducted studies analyzing the influences social media has on users’ mindsets and eating behaviors. They found that social media has contributed to the rise of eating disorders by fostering unhealthy peer comparisons, promoting an unhealthy ideal body, and normalizing disordered eating patterns. The content the users’ view online affects their mental functioning and leaves them more susceptible to developing an eating disorder to achieve a societal standard at any cost. To combat this dilemma, psychologists have started focusing on social media usage related interventions to minimize the risk factors contributing to eating disorders. These interventions consist of social media literacy campaigns, raising awareness about the influence of social media, and developing a growth mindset. Changing the way the user uses social media is how psychologists are attempting to solve this issue. Future research should focus on long-term benefits of these interventions and continue focusing on ways to decrease the negative impacts of social media on individuals’ mindset and behaviors.
... Items in the 'attribution subscale' (e.g., "My looks help me to get dates") assess perceived judgments of others about appearance and weight. However, some scholars chose to exclude this subscale (e.g., [24,45]), since evaluation from others is not a core aspect of body image and the subscale often showed lower reliability compared to the other two subscales of the BESAA (e.g., [17,32,48]). ...
Background
Body dissatisfaction (BD) is a growing concern in Latin America; reliable and culturally appropriate scales are necessary to support body image research in Spanish speaking Latin American countries. We sought to validate a Latin-American Spanish version of the Body Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adults (BESAA; Mendelson et al. 2001).
Methods
The BESAA was translated, culturally adapted, and validated in a sample of adults in Colombia (N = 525, 65% women, Mage 24.4, SD = 9.28). We assessed factor structure (using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and exploratory structural equation model (ESEM)), internal reliability (using Cronbach’s alpha and omega), validity (using the Body Appreciation Scale BAS and Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire SATAQ), test–retest stability in a small subsample (N = 84, using Intraclass correlations ICC) and measurement invariance across gender. To evaluate the generalizability of the scale, we assessed reliability, validity, and factor structure in a second sample from rural Nicaragua (N = 102, 73% women, Mage 22.2, SD = 4.72), and assessed measurement invariance across Nicaraguan and Colombian participants.
Results
The scale showed good internal reliability and validity in both samples, and there was evidence of adequate test–retest stability in the Colombian sample. EFA showed a three-factor structure with subscales we labelled ‘appearance-positive’, ‘appearance-negative’ and ‘weight’, that was confirmed using CFA and ESEM in the Colombian sample. Measurement invariance was confirmed across the Colombian and Nicaraguan samples, and across gender within the Colombian sample.
Conclusion
The Latin-American Spanish version of the BESAA (BESAA-LA) appears to be a psychometrically sound measure with good reliability, validity and invariance across gender and countries. These results support the use of this scale to measure body satisfaction/dissatisfaction in Latin American adult populations.
... It might be beneficial for health professionals working with individuals using WRSM apps to provide counseling on social media literacy and screen/monitor for disordered eating. 67 Also of concern, our findings suggest that both physical activity-and dietary-focused WRSM app use were associated with higher levels of compulsive exercise. It may be that individuals who are weight and shape concerned, and therefore more likely to engage in compulsive exercise, are more likely to use WRSM apps. ...
Weight-related self-monitoring (WRSM) apps are often used by emerging adults to assist in behavior change. However, little is known about the relationship between WRSM among the general population of emerging adults and various physical activity and screen time behaviors. This paper examines associations between WRSM app use and various forms of physical activity and screen time among a population-based sample of emerging adults. Data come from EAT 2018 (N = 1,568, mean age = 22.0 ± 2.0 years), a population-based sample of emerging adults from Minneapolis/St. Paul, Minnesota. Participants reported on the types of WRSM apps used (physical activity and/or dietary focused), in addition to how much time they spent doing physical activity, whether they practiced yoga, compulsive exercise, recreational screen time, social media use, and whether they viewed dieting/weight loss materials. Linear and logistic regressions were used to assess adjusted means and prevalences of outcomes. We found that physical activity-focused WRSM app users engaged in more hours of total (8.7 vs 7.2, P < .001), and moderate-to-vigorous (5.1 vs 4.3, P = .002) physical activity compared to non-users. Similar results were found for dietary WRSM app users compared to non-users. However, WRSM app users had higher levels of compulsive exercise and were more likely to view dieting/weight loss materials (Ps < .001). Findings suggest that although physical activity is higher among WRSM users, the types of physical activity and screen time behaviors WRSM users are engaging in may be harmful.
... As supported by a growing body of literature, self-compassion appeared to foster positive body image among participants, with some citing efforts to be more compassionate, appreciative and loving towards their bodies, including valuing body functionality, and the unique aspects of their appearance (Berry et al., 2010;Rodgers et al., 2017;Turk & Waller, 2020). Supporting cognitive dissonance aims, some participants reported greater awareness of the unrealistic appearance comparisons on social media and felt encouraged to rethink their social media use (McLean et al., 2017;Stice, Becker, & Yokum, 2013). Some participants reported that the programme increased their awareness of appearance bias and encouraged them to be more conscientious and compassionate towards the body image struggles that other people experience, thereby indicating benefits of social justice approaches and compassion for others (Gilbert, 2014;Perkins et al., 2022;Russell-Mayhew and Grace, 2016;Zavattaro, 2021). ...
Body dissatisfaction is prevalent among adolescents and a primary risk factor for eating disorders, yet there are few body image interventions for older adolescents that support development of positive body image. Therefore, we assessed the feasibility, acceptability and preliminary effectiveness of BodyKind, a four-lesson, mixed gender, teacher-led, school-based curriculum for older adolescents, that combines principles of self-compassion, compassion for others, cognitive dissonance, and social activism to address contemporary adolescent body image concerns (i.e., appearance bias, comparisons on social media) and strengthen positive body image development. The sample contained 147 adolescents, predominantly racial/ethnic minorities (>95%), 54.8% male, 41.5% female and 4.1% gender-minority students aged 15-18 years (M=16.24, SD=.96) from a low-income, inner-city high school in the Midwestern US. Two teachers received training and delivered the curriculum to students. This single arm, mixed methods trial assessed student and teacher acceptability, teacher fidelity and student intervention outcomes. Despite reasonable teacher fidelity, recruitment/attendance rates, post-intervention data loss (35% attrition) limited evaluations of program effectiveness and study feasibility. Important learnings regarding study feasibility will inform optimisation for future school-based trials. Findings demonstrate high acceptability of BodyKind among teachers and adolescents in a lower socioeconomic school setting, and further randomized controlled effectiveness trials are required.
... Looking ahead, if we acknowledge that smartphone use correlated with higher BD and elevated ED symptomatology, what are the possible interventions? One measure regards prevention: there are promising results in the improvement of body images via improving SM literacy [52,53]. Although smartphone and SM use data may provide insights into a person's psychological wellbeing (including experiencing ED symptoms), contemporary data-analytic approaches have also given promise for extracting meaningful knowledge from data-rich text data on SM [54][55][56]. ...
Background
Previous research has linked smartphone and Instagram use to higher body dissatisfaction (BD) as well as eating disorder (ED) symptomatology. However, these studies have typically been limited to using self-report measures for technology use which, as shown by scientific literature, might not be reliable. In the present work, we combine self-reported assessments as well as tracked smartphone and Instagram use.
Methods
The effective sample comprised N = 119 women (34 with ED diagnosis history) who were queried about BD and ED symptomatology, and who provided the data about their smartphone and Instagram use duration for each day of the previous week.
Results
The study results show that women with an ED diagnosis history scored higher on both BD as well as ED scales. Although women with an ED diagnosis history had higher smartphone screen time, there were no statistically significant differences in Instagram screen time. Tracked smartphone use duration was positively correlated with both BD and ED symptomatology, but the role of Instagram use needs to be further elucidated.
Conclusions
The results of this study show that while BD and ED symptomatology are correlated with smartphone use, it may be that Instagram use is not the main contributor to that relationship.
... While progress has been made in school-based body image intervention approaches, many gaps remain; rstly, most existing evidence-based programmes target early adolescents (12-13-year-olds), but there are fewer programmes that address body image concerns of older adolescents, despite the nding of the peak onset of eating disorders is between mid-late adolescence (41). Additionally, many existing programmes fail to address contemporary adolescent body image concerns, such as social media-related concerns [although there are exceptions, (42,43)], or do not focus on the body image concerns of males and adolescents across the gender spectrum (44,45). Also, many interventions are researcher-led, and there is a need for scalable and self-sustainable effective programmes that are teacher-led and that work towards building contexts to support positive body image development (36,44). ...
Background
Poor body image is prevalent among adolescents and associated with several negative outcomes for their physical and psychological health. There is a pressing need to address this growing public health concern, yet there is a lack of evidence-informed universal programmes for older adolescents that address contemporary body image concerns (i.e., social media). BodyKind is a four lesson, school-based, teacher led, universal body image programme that incorporates empiricallysupported principles of cognitive dissonance, self-compassion, compassion for others and social activism, to support positive body image development. Building on previous pilot trials in the USA, this paper outlines the protocol for a cluster randomised control trial (RCT) and implementation evaluation of the BodyKind programme which was culturally adapted for the Irish cultural context.
Methods
We aim to recruit 600 students aged 15–17 years in Transition Year (4th year) across 26 second-level schools in Ireland. Using minimisation, schools will be randomly assigned to receive BodyKind (intervention condition, n = 300) or classes as usual (waitlist control, n = 300). Teachers in intervention groups will receive training and deliver the programme to students over four weeks, at a rate of one lesson per week. Primary outcomes of body appreciation, body dissatisfaction and psychological wellbeing and secondary outcomes of self-compassion, compassion for others, body ideal internalisation, social justice motives and appearance-based social media use will be assessed at pre-, post- and 2 month follow up. Mediation and moderation analyses will be conducted to identify how and for whom the intervention works best. An implementation evaluation will assess the quality of programme implementation across schools and how this may influence intervention outcomes. Waitlist control schools will receive the programme after the 2-month follow up.
Conclusion
This study will be the first to implement a cRCT and an implementation evaluation to assess the impact of this multicomponent school-based body image programme designed to support healthy body image development. If shown to be effective, BodyKind will have the potential to improve adolescent body image and wellbeing and inform efforts to implement sustainable and scalable programmes in schools.
Trial registration
The trial was retrospectively registered on 18/07/2023 on the OSF registry [osf.io/nhje4]]
... First, describing the relationships between frequency of gay dating apps usage, body dissatisfaction, body image inflexibility, and disordered eating may warn young gay men of the potential detrimental consequences of gay dating apps usage on their eating behaviors and body image. Second, social media literacy education that has been helpful in preventing the risk of eating disorders may need to be expanded from social media to include dating app usage to reduce the risk of eating disorders in gay men (Doley et al., 2022;Halliwell et al., 2011;McLean et al., 2017). Finally, according to the results of our mediating analyses, the role of body image inflexibility should be considered when developing interventions for disordered eating among in Chinese gay men who use gay dating apps. ...
There is a paucity of research on the links between gay dating apps usage and body dissatisfaction and disordered eating, especially for muscularity dissatisfaction and muscularity-oriented disordered eating in non-Western contexts. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the associations between gay dating apps usage, body image inflexibility, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating with the inclusion of both body fat and muscularity dissatisfaction and both thinness-and muscularity-oriented disordered eating in a sample of Chinese young gay men. A total of 247 Chinese young gay men (mean age: 21.92 ± 2.74 years) were recruited. Gay dating apps usage, body fat dissatisfaction, muscularity dissatisfaction, body image inflexibility, and thinness-and muscularity-oriented disordered eating were evaluated. Pearson correlation and mediation analyses were conducted. Gay dating apps usage was positively correlated with body fat dissatisfaction (r = .20, p = .002), muscularity dissatisfaction (r = .17, p = .006), thinness-oriented disordered eating (r = .21, p < .001), and muscularity-oriented disordered eating (r = .29, p < .001), and these relationships could be mediated by body image inflexibility. Findings support technologically-informed prevention and intervention strategies for eating and body image disturbances in gay men in the Chinese context.
... Αντίστοιχα, κρίνεται απαραίτητη η παροχή προγραμμάτων παρέμβασης γραμματισμού στα ΜΚΔ σε ευάλωτες ομάδες μαθητών, για την αντιμετώπιση της ψυχολογικής πίεσης που ασκείται ανάμεσα στους συνομήλικους κατά τη χρήση των ΜΚΔ. Οι παραπάνω παρεμβάσεις μπορούν να ενταχθούν στο ευρύτερο πλαίσιο της Αγωγής Υγείας σε μία σχολική τάξη για την αυτοαποδοχή και αυτοεκτίμηση του σώματος και τον αναστοχασμό πάνω στις διατροφικές πρακτικές (McLean, et al., 2017). ...
The present article investigates the role of Health Education in the prevention and treatment of eating disorders in students. In this context, the objectives of Health Education and in particular Nutrition Education are presented, while the crucial role of social media in shaping body standards and dietary practices, as well as their impact on the development of eating disorders in adolescent students, are highlighted. To address this issue, this article proposes Social Media Literacy as a means of revising students' nutritional patterns, and it suggests the necessity of implementing social media literacy educational interventions both for training teachers and for promoting adolescent students’ awareness and understanding.
... Particolarmente utili sono gli interventi di social media literacy, body compassion e funcionality appreciation. I programmi di social media literacy, incrementando lo scetticismo degli utenti dei SNs rispetto al realismo dei contenuti che questi propongono e sollecitando un pensiero critico circa gli stimoli con i quali interagiscono e ai quali sono esposti, potrebbero ridurre l'effetto negativo dei SNs sull'immagine corporea (McLean et al., 2017). Attraverso tali interventi si potrebbero informare gli utenti delle tecniche di editing comunemente utilizzate per consentire una migliore presentazione di sé online, al fine di favorire sia una maggiore comprensione del modo in cui certi contenuti vengono loro proposti sui SNs sia lo sviluppo di controargomentazioni con le quali far fronte alle pervasive influenze socioculturali sull'immagine corporea. ...
Perché la nostra immagine corporea è così importante? La risposta è semplice: L’attuale contesto socioculturale è caratterizzato, soprattutto per le giovani donne, da una forte pressione a raggiungere ideali di attraenza e perfezione. Nella società occidentale, i livelli di insoddisfazione corporea sono particolarmente elevati tra le donne, con conseguenze negative per la salute. L’Italia si pone ai primi posti tra i Paesi con più alta richiesta di interventi di chirurgia estetica, non privi di rischio sul piano psicofisico. In linea con il Modello Tripartito di Influenza, i mass media agiscono sull’immagine corporea attraverso l’interiorizzazione degli ideali di bellezza e il confronto sociale relativo all’apparenza. Un crescente corpo di studi ha mostrato che i Social Network (SNs), come Instagram, che veicolano contenuti, quali foto e video, centrati sull’apparenza fisica favoriscono nelle utenti una maggiore accettazione della chirurgia estetica. Interventi di alfabetizzazione all’utilizzo dei social media sono promettenti nel prevenire gli effetti negativi che l’uso dei SNs può avere sull’immagine corporea delle donne.
... Social media literacy fundamentally provides necessary critical autonomy to ensure that participants are able to maximize opportunities and minimize risks when interacting with social media content (Schreurs & Vandenbosch, 2021). Not only referring to mere technical skills, but social media literacy also emphasizes social and ethical aspects (Manca et al., 2021;Pangrazio & Selwyn, 2018), and therefore it is considered as a combination of technological, cognitive, social, and ethical skills required for interpersonal communication in the social media context (Festl, 2021;Livingstone, 2014;McLean et al., 2017;Polanco-Levicán & Salvo-Garrido, 2022). In this light, social media literacy can also be viewed as the ability to participate in particular practices (Laar et al., 2019) by amplifying critical voices through digital technologies (Manca et al., 2021;O'Byrne, 2019). ...
Lay Description
What is already known about the subject matter
It is widely acknowledged that student engagement plays a pivotal role in the success of online learning.
Computer self‐efficacy was also considered as a significant predictor of online student engagement.
The use of social media can encourage active learning and promote the exchange of ideas and information.
What this paper adds
Confirming that, in a two‐factor structure, technical competence reflected by technical usability indicator and cognitive competence organized as a second‐order construct with three dimensions (content interpretation, content generation, and anticipatory reflection), social media literacy positively influences aspects of online student engagement.
Revealing that the influence of technical competence is still undeniable, but the effect of cognitive competence on online engagement is more significant.
Indicating that anticipatory reflection, content interpretation, and content generation are located in the fourth quadrant of the importance‐performance maps, where they exhibit low performance but high importance.
Implications for practice and/or policy
For an effectual online learning setting where students put down a robust engagement, more supports and opportunities need to be unleashed to help students develop skills for communicating and staying connected in their own critical voices.
The instructions of the online course must be designed in such a way as being able to catch up and call up as much of the student's cognitive competence as possible.
Anticipatory reflection should be prioritized for improvement to augment online student engagement.
... Media literacy provides means for media users to attain empowerment in the society which contributes to the development of social and cultural capital of individuals and society (Bulger & Davison, 2018;Hobbs, 2011). Recently, in 2022, social media literacy has played a significant role in society (Festl, 2021;Gordon, Rodgers, Slater, McLean, Jarman, & Paxton, 2020;McLean, Wertheim, Masters, & Paxton, 2017;Syam and Nurrahmi, 2020), and it needs to be taken into account as the current conceptions of media literacy may not be sufficient to prevent negative consequences of social media (Cho, Cannon, Lopez, & Li, 2022). ...
The procedure and practice in conducting a study on media literacy education intervention need to be clarified to guide quality research. In recent years, only limited Delphi studies have been conducted in the Malaysian context. Despite recognizing the influence of socio-cultural settings on the conduct of any research, empirical literature on the best and most suitable means to conduct Delphi studies within the Malaysian socio-cultural context has not grown in proportion to the evolution of Delphi method application in local social-science studies. This article establishes methodological considerations in employing the Delphi method by investigating issues relating to data source, instrument, data collection procedures and management in the implementation in designing and conducting a successful Delphi study in the Malaysian socio-cultural context. The reflection of Delphi method in identifying media literacy knowledge that is deemed to be important for inclusion in an introductory media literacy Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) will be explored. This study demonstrates a novel and inclusive strategy that might be used in Southeast Asian nations. Our study suggested appropriate strategies in order to develop and carry out more feasible Delphi studies. New researchers should take into consideration the numerous issues and difficulties identified in this study. The main contribution of this study is a set of dependable and useful guidelines that may be used to design and carry out future Delphi studies that include the study's reasoning, justification of its advantages, the official logo of the institutions the researchers are affiliated with, and authorization from the funding organisations, which may add weightage to the study's significance. Keywords: Delphi method, Massive Open Online Course (MOOC), media literacy, media competency, curriculum development.
... Open discussions between students, teachers, and parents could reduce the stigma associated with eating disorders and help young people to identify body image concerns and eating problems before they manifest as serious disorders. Preliminary research investigating social media literacy has shown promising outcomes [107]. ...
Background
Eating disorders are a group of heterogenous, disabling and deadly psychiatric illnesses with a plethora of associated health consequences. Exploratory research suggests that social media usage may be triggering body image concerns and heightening eating disorder pathology amongst young people, but the topic is under-researched as a global public health issue.
Aim
To systematically map out and critically review the existing global literature on the relationship between social media usage, body image and eating disorders in young people aged 10–24 years.
Methods
A systematic search of MEDLINE, PyscINFO and Web of Science for research on social media use and body image concerns / disordered eating outcomes published between January 2016 and July 2021. Results on exposures (social media usage), outcomes (body image, eating disorders, disordered eating), mediators and moderators were synthesised using an integrated theoretical framework of the influence of internet use on body image concerns and eating pathology.
Results
Evidence from 50 studies in 17 countries indicates that social media usage leads to body image concerns, eating disorders/disordered eating and poor mental health via the mediating pathways of social comparison, thin / fit ideal internalisation, and self-objectification. Specific exposures (social media trends, pro-eating disorder content, appearance focused platforms and investment in photos) and moderators (high BMI, female gender, and pre-existing body image concerns) strengthen the relationship, while other moderators (high social media literacy and body appreciation) are protective, hinting at a ‘self-perpetuating cycle of risk’.
Conclusion
Social media usage is a plausible risk factor for the development of eating disorders. Research from Asia suggests that the association is not unique to traditionally western cultures. Based on scale of social media usage amongst young people, this issue is worthy of attention as an emerging global public health issue.
... More pronounced improvements were also observed among participants with greater engagement in interactive activities involved in the prevention program [111]. A pilot study examining a social media literacy intervention among adolescent females found that those receiving the intervention showed improvements in body image (body esteem-weight), disordered eating (dietary restraint) and media literacy (realism scepticism) compared to the control group [112]. ...
Background
Eating disorders (EDs) are complex psychological disorders, with low rates of detection and early intervention. They can lead to significant mental and physical health complications, especially if intervention is delayed. Given high rates of morbidity and mortality, low treatment uptake, and significant rates of relapse, it is important to examine prevention, early intervention, and early recognition initiatives. The aim of this review is to identify and evaluate literature on preventative and early intervention programs in EDs.
Methods
This paper is one of a series of Rapid Reviews, designed to inform the Australian National Eating Disorders Research and Translation Strategy 2021–2031, funded, and released by the Australian Government. To provide a current and rigorous review, peer-reviewed articles between 2009 and 2021 published in English were searched across three databases: ScienceDirect, PubMed and Ovid/Medline. Priority was given to high-level evidence including meta-analyses, systematic reviews, Randomised Control Trials, and large population studies. Findings from selected studies pertaining to prevention and early intervention in EDs were evaluated and are presented in this review.
Results
In total, 130 studies were identified in the current review, 72% relating to prevention and 28% to early intervention. Most programs were theory-driven and targeted one or more ED risk factors such as thin-ideal internalisation and/or body dissatisfaction. There is reasonable evidence to support prevention programs reducing risk factors, particularly as part of school or university-based programs, with established feasibility and relatively high acceptance among students. There is increasing evidence around the use of technology (to increase dissemination potential) and for use of mindfulness approaches (targeting emotional resilience). Few longitudinal studies assessing incident cases following participation in a prevention program exist.
Conclusions
Although several prevention and early intervention programs have been shown to significantly reduce risk factors, promote symptom recognition, and encourage help-seeking behaviour, most of these studies have been conducted in older adolescent and university aged students, past the age of peak ED onset. One of the most targeted risk factors, body dissatisfaction, is found in girls as young as 6 years old, indicating a need for further research implementing prevention initiatives at younger ages. Follow-up research is limited; thus, the long-term efficacy and effectiveness of studied programs is unknown. Greater attention should be paid to the implementation of prevention and early intervention programs in identified high-risk cohorts or diverse groups, where a more targeted approach may be necessary.
... Concerning self-reported time on social media, a recent meta-analytic review indicated that self-reported SMU correlates only weakly with device-based measures, suggesting that selfreported SMU does not adequately reflect actual use (Parry et al., 2021); device-based measures provide a more accurate assessment of SMU. 1 Moreover, few studies in the literature utilize an experimental design to assess the effects of SMU on body image (or, indeed, other aspects of mental health). Most experimental social media research on body image has involved implementing social media literacy programs among adolescent girls (Bell et al., 2022;Mclean et al., 2017), or have focused on exposure to only certain social media platforms (e.g., Facebook; for review, see Fardouly & Vartanian, 2016). ...
Adolescence and young adulthood are vulnerable periods in which mental health challenges often emerge. Cross-sectional research has shown that high social media use (SMU) is associated with poor body image in youth, a known predictor of eating disorders; however, high-quality experimental evidence is scarce, limiting the ability to make causal inferences. The present study experimentally examined the effects of reducing smartphone SMU on appearances and weight esteem in youth with emotional distress. A randomized controlled trial was conducted where 220 participants (17–25 years; 76% female, 23% male, and 1% other) were assigned to either an intervention (SMU limited to 1 hr/day) or control (unrestricted access to SMU) group. SMU was monitored via screen time trackers and submitted daily during 1-week baseline and 3-week intervention periods. Baseline and post-intervention measurements were taken to assess changes in appearance and weight esteem. Compared to the controls, the intervention group yielded significant increases in both appearance (p < .022) and weight esteem (p < .026). The intervention group significantly increased in appearance esteem (from M = 2.95 to 3.15, p < .001, dz = 0.33) and weight esteem (from M = 3.16 to 3.32, p < .001, dz = 0.27), whereas the control group did not significantly change (appearance: M = 2.72 to 2.76, p = .992, dz = 0.13; weight: M = 3.01 to 3.02, p = .654, dz = 0.06) from baseline to post-intervention. No effects of gender were detected. Findings suggest that reducing SMU on smartphones may be a feasible and effective method of improving body image in a vulnerable population of youth.
Dijital teknolojiler, sosyal medya ağlarının gündelik yaşamda önemli bir yer kaplamasına olanak sağlamıştır. İnsanların yaşamda önemli bir yer tutan sosyal medyanın, olanakları ve riskleri de içinde barındırdığı düşünüldüğünde verimli ve doğru bir kullanım için sosyal medya okuryazarlığı ön plana çıkmaktadır. Çünkü sosyal medya, insanların sosyal ilişkilerini biçimlendirmektedir. Sosyal medya okuryazarlığı, kullanıcıların aldığı mesajlara karşı bilinçli, sorgulayan ve eleştirel yaklaşarak mesaj üretirken de doğru iletişim sağlama becerilerini kapsamaktadır. Nitekim bu beceriler doğru ve verimli bir sosyal medya kullanımı için bir zorunluluktur. Bu çalışmada sosyal medya okuryazarlığı konusunda yapılan çalışmalar incelenmiştir. Çalışma, sosyal medya okuryazarlığı konusunda yapılan araştırmaların bibliyometrik profilini sunmayı amaçlamaktadır. Web of Science veri tabanında yer alan sosyal medya okuryazarlığı konulu 98 araştırma makalesi bibliyometrik yöntemle incelenmiştir. Çalışma kapsamında elde edilen veriler VoSviewer yazılım programı aracılığıyla haritalandırılmıştır. İncelenen 98 araştırma makalesi ortak yazarlarla birlikte 272 araştırmacı tarafından hazırlanmış ve 71 farklı dergide yayımlanmıştır. Çalışmanın önemli sonuçları arasında sosyal medya okuryazarlığı konusunda yayımlanan çalışmaların %60'ının iletişim ve psikoloji alanından araştırmacılar tarafından hazırlanırken eğitim alanından araştırmacıların oldukça az çalışma yapması yer almaktadır. Çalışmanın en önemli sonuçlarından bir diğeri de sosyal medya eğitimi, sosyal medya davranışları ve sosyal medya tehditleri gibi sosyal medya okuryazarlığı için önemli kavramların odağını oluşturduğu çalışmaların yetersiz olmasıdır.
This report presents insights into the relationship between literacy, critical digital literacy engagement and wellbeing. It reviews the literature alongside new information gathered from focus groups, interviews and a survey of 7,494 young people aged 11 to 16 in 2021.
Objective:
Dieting is a known risk factor for disordered eating, yet many college women engage in this behavior. Given the popularity of diets, and the risks associated with dieting, it is important to enhance understanding of dieters' experiences. This study utilized a qualitative approach to investigate college women's experiences of dieting.
Participants:
Eighty-four woman-identifying undergraduates [42% White, 24% Asian, 20% Black, 14% other; Mage = 19.18 (1.77)] who endorsed dieting were included in the study.
Methods:
Participants provided short-answer responses to open-ended questions. Data were analyzed using a thematic analysis approach.
Results:
The following themes were identified: A complicated relationship, variability of experiences, and social factors. Subthemes highlighted the complexity of college women's dieting behavior.
Conclusions:
Results provide important insight into college women's dieting experiences and their consequences. Future qualitative research should aim to understand how to apply these findings to eating disorder prevention efforts.
Research has revealed an important role for appearance-focused, and in particular photo-based, social media in the development of body image and eating pathology. Social media literacy is a multifaceted construct involving purposeful selection and exposure to social media content and use of protective filtering (deliberately screening and interpreting information in a protective manner), as well as implementing critical skills related to understanding the unrealistic nature of social media content, limiting appearance comparisons with images, and contributing to social media (comments and images) in ways that limit the pursuit of appearance ideals. Previous work has provided partial support for these facets as related to lower levels of body image and eating concerns. However, additional conceptual and measurement work is needed to advance understanding of this protective role and how to foster social media literacy. Although data are scarce, targeting social media literacy in prevention and intervention programs may also be valuable. In this perspective piece, key features that we identify as priorities for future prevention and intervention efforts include developing interventions that target the implementation of social media skills beyond their acquisition. In addition, leveraging social media user generated content for prevention purposes would likely be useful, as would embedding micro-skill delivery within platforms.
Social media use is widespread. Because social media can yield both positive and negative mental health effects, it is critical for clinicians to consider how their clients use social media. The purpose of this review is to examine the extant experimental literature on the positive and negative effects of social media, with an eye towards how clinicians can (1) assess use, (2) educate on harmful use, and (3) promote skills that encourage healthier use.
The existing literature suggests that active social media use that promotes positive connection, reminiscing, or warmth can be beneficial, whereas social media use that involves exposure to and production of highly idealized content, a focus on physical appearance, or a reliance on feedback can be harmful. To encourage healthier social media use, clinicians can encourage the building of intrapersonal skills, including reappraising comparison-inducing content, self-compassion, and mindfulness.
Although additional experimental work is needed to thoroughly inform treatment plans, findings suggest avenues that may be effective for clinicians when treating clients who struggle with their social media use. Changing how clients approach social media, rather than encouraging abstinence from use, may be more effective and practical in this digitally saturated age.
This comprehensive study delves into the intricate dynamics of Instagram's influence on young girls, drawing from the perspectives of 43 participants, a majority of whom hail from India. The research primarily captures the experiences of individuals aged 20-23, reflecting the profound cultural shift brought about by the internet age. Educational backgrounds vary, with 81% being postgraduate students and the remaining 19% pursuing degrees. The study portrays Instagram as a multifaceted platform, serving as both a communication channel and a source of entertainment. Participants actively invest 1-3 hours daily on Instagram, revealing the platform's pivotal role in their lives. Posting behavior is a nuanced process, with users often employing filters and careful selection from multiple photos. The quest for likes and comments emerges as a driving force, impacting emotional well-being. However, intriguingly, a significant portion of users maintains a nonchalant attitude when their posts receive less engagement, highlighting diverse coping mechanisms.The darker side of Instagram unfolds in the form of annoying messages, social comparisons, and body image concerns. More than 50% of respondents admit to occasional feelings of inadequacy whencomparing themselves to others on the platform. The study also uncovers a concerning trend of users attempting to emulate others, leading to a loss of personal identity. Time management proves to be a common challenge, with over 70% of users expressing difficulty in controlling their time spent on Instagram. This, in turn, can contribute to food disorders, as users occasionally forget to eat on time while engrossed in the platform.Despite these challenges, Instagram serves as a valuable emotional support system, alleviating feelings of loneliness and sometimes even combating depression. This dichotomy paints Instagram as a double-edged sword, both enabling and constraining, prompting a nuanced exploration of its impact on the lives of young girls. The findings contribute significantly to the evolving literature on social media's intricate influence on human behavior, emphasizing the need for ongoing research and a nuanced understanding of digital engagement's consequences.
Background
Poor body image is prevalent among adolescents and associated with several negative outcomes for their physical and psychological health. There is a pressing need to address this growing public health concern, yet there are few evidence-informed universal programmes for older adolescents that address contemporary body image concerns (i.e., social media). BodyKind is a four lesson, school-based, teacher led, universal body image programme that incorporates empirically supported principles of cognitive dissonance, self-compassion, compassion for others and social activism, to support positive body image development. Building on previous pilot trials in the USA, this paper outlines the protocol for a cluster randomised control trial (cRCT) and implementation evaluation of the BodyKind programme which was culturally adapted for the Irish cultural context.
Methods
We aim to recruit 600 students aged 15-17 years in Transition Year (4th year) across 26 second-level schools in Ireland. Using minimisation, schools will be randomly assigned to receive BodyKind (intervention condition, n=300) or classes as usual (waitlist control, n=300). Teachers in intervention groups will receive training and deliver the programme to students over four weeks, at a rate of one lesson per week. Primary outcomes of body appreciation, body dissatisfaction and psychological wellbeing and secondary outcomes of self-compassion, compassion for others, body ideal internalisation, social justice motives and appearance-based social media use will be assessed at pre-, post- and 2 month follow up. Mediation and moderation analyses will be conducted to identify how and for whom the intervention works best. An implementation evaluation will assess the quality of programme implementation across schools and how this may influence intervention outcomes. Waitlist control schools will receive the programme after the 2-month follow up.
Conclusion
This study will be the first to implement a cRCT and an implementation evaluation to assess the impact of this multicomponent school-based body image programme designed to support healthy body image development. If shown to be effective, BodyKind will have the potential to improve adolescent body image and wellbeing and inform efforts to implement sustainable and scalable programmes in schools.
Trial registration
The trial was retrospectively registered on 10/10/2023 on ClinicalTrials.gov NCT06076993.
Introduction. Dysmorphic concerns refer to excessive preoccupations with one’s physical characteristics and there is a need to better understand the factors associated with these experiences, especially in young adult women. Given emergent research suggesting a link between the use of Instagram, dysmorphic concerns, and appearance pressures, we tested a mediation model in which appearance-based rejection sensitivity mediated the relationship between Instagram addiction and dysmorphic concerns.
Methods. In this cross-sectional study, 300 young adult women from Romania with mean age of 22.19 years (SD = 2.07) and who possessed an Instagram account were asked to complete an online survey consisting of measures of dysmorphic concerns, Instagram addiction, and appearance-based rejection sensitivity.
Results. Correlational analyses revealed that all three variables were positively and moderately inter-correlated. Mediation analysis supported the hypothesis that appearance-based rejection sensitivity mediates the relationship between Instagram addiction and dysmorphic concerns.
Conclusions. Implications of this study are discussed in terms of the urgency of prevention and intervention strategies, especially given the link between dysmorphic concerns and more extreme manifestations of severity, such as body dysmorphic disorder.
Background
Social media use, perfectionism, and eating disturbances have all increased over the last decades. Some studied indicate that there is a relationship between being exposed to others self-presentation on social media and eating disturbances. Studies also show that the relationship between focus on self-presentation and highly visual social media is stronger than for non-visual social media, hence facilitating upward social comparison. Nevertheless, no previous studies have investigated the link between adolescents focus on their own self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media, and perfectionism and eating disturbances, which is the aim of the present study.
Method
The present study is based on a cross-sectional survey from the “LifeOnSoMe”-study (N = 3725), conducted in 2020 and 2021. Respondents were high school students (mean age 17.3 years, 55% females) in Bergen, Norway. Multiple regression analysis was performed where SPAUSCIS, a measure of self-presentation and upward social comparison, was the independent variable. Perfectionism, eating disturbance and self-reported eating disorder were dependent variables. Self-reported age, gender, and subjective socioeconomic status were used as covariates, as well as frequency and duration of social media use. Regression models were performed to compare proportions across the median split of SPAUSCIS, and potential gender-moderation were assessed for the associations with perfectionism and eating disturbance.
Results
The multiple regression analysis showed that increased focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media were positively associated with both perfectionism (standardised coefficient 0.28) and eating disturbance. A stronger association for girls than boys was found for eating disturbance (standardised coefficient 0.39 for girls and 0.29 for boys). There was no gender moderation for perfectionism.
Conclusions
Findings suggest that focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media is associated with perfectionism, eating disturbance and eating disorder. We recommend promoting a healthy use of social media. This could be established through increasing adolescents’ ability to reflect on and think critically about self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media.
Background
Body dissatisfaction (BD) is a growing concern in Latin America; reliable and culturally appropriate scales are vital to promote body image research in Spanish speaking Latin American countries. We validated a Latin American Spanish version of the Body Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adults (BESAA; Mendelson et al., 2001).
Methods
The scale was translated, culturally adapted, and validated with adults in Colombia (N = 525, 65% women, Mage 24.4, SD = 9.28). We assessed factor structure (using confirmatory and exploratory factor analysis CFA and EFA), internal reliability (using Cronbach’s alpha and omega), validity (using the Body Appreciation Scale BAS and Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire SATAQ), test-retest stability (using Intraclass correlations ICC) and measurement invariance. To evaluate the generalizability of the scale, we assessed reliability, validity, and factor structure in a second sample from rural Nicaragua (N = 102, 73% women, Mage 22.2, SD = 4.72).
Results
The scale showed excellent internal reliability and validity across both samples. Test-retest stability and invariance across gender was established for the Colombian sample. EFA showed a three-factor structure with the subscales appearance-positive, appearance-negative and weight that was confirmed using CFA in both the Colombian and Nicaraguan sample and showed invariance across countries.
Conclusion
The Latin American Spanish version BESAA-LA is a psychometrically sound measure with excellent reliability, validity and invariance across gender and countries. Therefore, we recommend its use in diverse Latin American adult populations to measure body satisfaction/dissatisfaction.
Appearance-related constructs underlying social media are negatively associated with mental health. However, their impact on the Spanish population is still unexplored. The present study aimed to validate the Spanish versions of two appearance-related scales: (1) the appearance-related social media consciousness (ASMC) scale; and (2) the critical thinking about media messages (CTMM) scale. Translation and cultural adaptation of the scales were carried out. The scales' psychometric properties were assessed using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, measurement invariance across gender (boys vs. girls) and age groups (early adolescents vs. middle adolescents), internal consistency, and convergent validity. The sample included 803 Spanish secondary school adolescents aged between 12 and 18 (Mage = 15.1, 47.9% girls, 47.2% boys, 4.9% non-binary gender/others). The exploratory factor analyses replicated original one-factor structures of both scales, which was verified using confirmatory factor analysis. Regarding the ASMC Scale, a re-specified model (allowing for error correlations between Items 1-2) presented an adequate fit. Both models were invariant across gender and age groups. Excellent internal consistency was found. Bivariate correlations between the ASMC and eating disorders related variables (body esteem, disordered eating, self-esteem, sociocultural attitudes towards appearance, and general mental health) supported its convergent validity and proved ASMC to be a potential target for future preventive eating disorder interventions. However, the CTMM scale correlated only with sociocultural pressures, thus, further research is needed to assess the validity of the CTMM in Spanish samples.
To aid in more targeted eating disorder (ED) prevention efforts, we sought to identify sociodemographic and weight-related risk factors for identified triggers for the onset of anorexia nervosa (AN) in youth. We conducted a retrospective chart review of youth admitted for medical treatment of AN between January 2015 and February 2020. From multidisciplinary admission notes, we extracted patient-reported reasons for diet/exercise changes. We used qualitative thematic analysis to identify ED triggers, then categorized each trigger as binary variables (presence/absence) for logistic regression analysis of risks associated with each trigger. Of 150 patients, mean (SD) age was 14.1(2.3) years. A total of 129 (86%) were female and 120 (80%) were Non-Hispanic White. Triggers included environmental stressors (reported by 30%), external pressures of the thin/fit ideal (29%), internalized thin/fit ideal (29%), weight-related teasing (19%), and receiving health education (14%). Younger age was associated with higher odds of weight-related teasing (p = .04) and health education (p = .03). Males had greater odds of internalized thin/fit ideal than females (p = .04). Those with premorbid body mass indices ≥85th percentile for age and sex had greater odds of reporting positive reinforcement (p = .03) and weight-related teasing (p = .04) than those with weights <85th percentile. We use these findings to detail potential targets for advancing ED prevention efforts.
This study presents an initial effort to develop disordered eating pathology (DEP) prevention program with an emphasis on maternal involvement. Disordered eating pathology representing a range of behaviors and attitudes, from negative body image to full-blown eating disorder. It appears mainly in adolescent females and related to psychological and familial factors, including maternal modeling of thinness. A sample of 118 Israeli girls (11-12) was divided into three groups: participants in the program in parallel with their mothers, participants without their mothers, and control. Participants completed self-report questionnaires. Groups were tested three times: pre-intervention, post-intervention, and follow-up. For those girls who participated in parallel with their mothers, higher self-esteem was associated with fewer pathological diet behaviors. Findings deepen understanding of the risk factors involved in the development of DEP. The main study contribution is the important role mothers play in preventing DEP among their daughters.
Social media has become one of the important elements in attracting attention and communicating to the public regarding the implementation of government programs in the last decade. This opportunity was also used by the National Library of the Republic of Indonesia (Perpusnas RI) by creating social media accounts to maintain communication and provide important information to the public via Twitter. The study aims to determine the role of social media, namely Twitter @perpusnas1 belonging to the National Library of the Republic of Indonesia (Perpusnas RI), in increasing literacy. It employs qualitative descriptive research methods, namely research that describes research results more broadly with the help of NVivo 12 Plus software which is valuable and effective in assisting qualitative research efficiently. The study results display the captured data: how much intensity posts, which accounts make the most “mentions,” how networks or relationships are based on usernames and hashtags, and post content focusing on literacy keywords; for example, literacy culture, literacy information, literacy familiarization, and literacy greetings.
Body image concern (BIC) is a prevalent issue thought to be exacerbated by social media. In addition to sociocultural factors, cognitive biases may also contribute to BIC. We explore whether cognitive biases in memory for body image-related words, presented in a mock social-media context, are associated with BIC in young adult women. A sample of 150 University students was presented with a series of body image-related comments aimed at either themselves, a close friend, or a celebrity in a recognisable social media context. Afterwards, a surprise memory task was completed that assessed the participant's memory for body image-related words (item memory), their insight (metamemory), and to whom a specific word was directed (source memory). Self-referential biases were identified for both item memory and source memory. Individuals with greater BIC displayed a greater self-referential bias for correctly and incorrectly sourcing negative words to themselves compared with both friend and celebrity. A greater self-referential effect in metacognitive sensitivity was also associated with higher BIC. We provide novel evidence for a cognitive bias in sourcing negative body image-related information to the self in individuals with higher BIC. The results should inform cognitive remediation programmes aimed at treating individuals with body and eating-related disorders.
Background
Evaluation of media literacy-based interventions for the prevention of eating disorder risk is limited by the lack of appropriate measures with established psychometric properties with which to assess change in media literacy. This study aims to fill this gap by examining the psychometric properties and use in eating disorders risk factor research of six measures of media literacy that assess media processing and critical thinking about general media and critical thinking about appearance-focused media.
Methods
The factor structure, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity, including convergent and discriminant validity, were examined in six measures in two samples of early adolescent females. The measures were the Realism Scepticism, Similarity Scepticism, and Desirability Scepticism subscales of the Media Attitudes Questionnaire, the Fake subscale of the Critical Processing of Beauty Images Scale, the Critical Thinking about Media Messages scale, and Critical Thinking about Media Messages - Appearance Focus scale.
Results
The factor structure of the measures was supported with factor analysis. Items from the Media Attitudes Questionnaire loaded on the three subscales Realism Scepticism, Similarity Scepticism, and Desirability Scepticism and items from each of the Fake subscale, Critical Thinking about Media Messages scale and Critical Thinking about Media Messages - Appearance Focus scale loaded on one scale. In addition, scores on the measures were reliable (adequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability) and valid (adequate construct, convergent, and discriminant validity) in early adolescent females. Two exceptions were Realism Scepticism, which had slightly low test-retest reliability, and the Fake subscale, for which support for construct validity was lacking.
Conclusions
This study provides evidence to support the use of select media literacy measures, particularly the Realism Scepticism subscale and the Critical Thinking about Media Messages scale, in eating disorder risk factor research and the findings will contribute to enhanced evaluation of media literacy-based prevention interventions.
The last decade has seen a huge rise in Internet use, including social media, particularly among youth, and preliminary evidence of a relationship between Internet use and increased body image concerns and eating pathology has emerged. However, to date, considerations of theoretical perspectives that might guide this direction of research are lacking. The aim of the present study was, therefore, to provide an analysis of the different theoretical contexts in which Internet use may be studied, and propose an integrative framework for research among adolescents. It reviews five important theoretical models of the development of body image concerns and eating pathology and discusses their usefulness as frameworks within which to explore the relationships between Internet and social media use and body image concerns and eating pathology. Specifically, it critically evaluates sociocultural theory, feminist and self-objectification theory, impression management theory, social identity theory, and gratification theory. Finally, drawing on these five theories, it presents an integrated model and proposes a framework within which to ground research focusing on the relationships between Internet and social media use, and body image concerns and eating pathology. It ends with suggestions for future research among adolescents within the proposed framework.
This study evaluated a 90-minute single session school-based body image intervention (Dove Confident Me: Single Session), and investigated if delivery could be task-shifted to teachers. British adolescents (N=1707; 11-13 years; 50.83% girls) participated in a cluster randomised controlled trial [lessons as usual control; intervention teacher-led (TL); intervention researcher-led (RL)]. Body image, risk factors, and psychosocial and disordered eating outcomes were assessed 1-week pre-intervention, immediate post-intervention, and 4-9.5 weeks follow-up. Multilevel mixed-models showed post-intervention improvements for intervention students relative to control in body esteem (TL; girls only), negative affect (TL), dietary restraint (TL; girls only), eating disorder symptoms (TL), and life engagement (TL; RL). Awareness of sociocultural pressures increased at post-intervention (TL). Effects were small-medium in size (ds .19-.76) and were not maintained at follow-up. There were no significant differences between conditions at post or follow-up on body satisfaction, appearance comparisons, teasing, appearance conversations and self-esteem. The intervention had short-term benefits for girls’ body image and dietary restraint, and for eating disorder symptoms and some psychosocial outcomes among girls and boys. A multi-session version of the intervention is likely to be necessary for sustained improvements. Teachers can deliver this intervention effectively with minimal training, indicating broader scale dissemination is feasible.
Trial registration: ISRCTN16782819.
The media’s portrayal of women is often sexually objectifying, and greater exposure to objectifying media is associated with higher levels of self-objectification among young women. One reason why media usage may be associated with self- objectification is because women may be comparing their appearance to others in the media. The present study examined (a) the relationship between the usage of different media types (online social media [Facebook], Internet, television, music videos, and magazines) and self-objectification among young women, (b) whether appearance comparison tendencies in general mediated any observed relationships, and (c) whether appearance comparisons to specific types of women on Facebook (self, family, close friends, distant peers, and celebrities) mediated any relationship between Facebook usage and self-objectification. Female participants (N = 150) aged 17–25 years completed questionnaires about their media usage, appearance comparison tendency in general, appearance comparisons to specific target groups on Facebook, and self- objectification. Results showed that Facebook usage and magazine usage were positively correlated with self-objectification and that these relationships were mediated by appearance comparisons in general. In addition, the relationship between Facebook usage and self-objectification was mediated by comparisons to one’s peers on Facebook. These findings suggest that appearance comparisons can play an important role in self-objectification among young women.
Previous correlational research indicates that adolescent girls who use social network sites more frequently are more dissatisfied with their bodies. However, we know little about the causal direction of this relationship, the mechanisms underlying this relationship, and whether this relationship also occurs among boys to the same extent. The present two-wave panel study (18 month time lag) among 604 Dutch adolescents (aged 11-18; 50.7 % female; 97.7 % native Dutch) aimed to fill these gaps in knowledge. Structural equation modeling showed that social network site use predicted increased body dissatisfaction and increased peer influence on body image in the form of receiving peer appearance-related feedback. Peer appearance-related feedback did not predict body dissatisfaction and thus did not mediate the effect of social network site use on body dissatisfaction. Gender did not moderate the findings. Hence, social network sites can play an adverse role in the body image of both adolescent boys and girls.
Although there is a voluminous literature on mass media effects on body image concerns of young adult women in the U.S., there has been relatively little theoretically-driven research on processes and effects of social media on young women’s body image and self-perceptions. Yet given the heavy online presence of young adults, particularly women, and their reliance on social media, it is important to appreciate ways that social media can influence perceptions of body image and body image disturbance. Drawing on communication and social psychological theories, the present article articulates a series of ideas and a framework to guide research on social media effects on body image concerns of young adult women. The interactive format and content features of social media, such as the strong peer presence and exchange of a multitude of visual images, suggest that social media, working via negative social comparisons, transportation, and peer normative processes, can significantly influence body image concerns. A model is proposed that emphasizes the impact of predisposing individual vulnerability characteristics, social media uses, and mediating psychological processes on body dissatisfaction and eating disorders. Research-based ideas about social media effects on male body image, intersections with ethnicity, and ameliorative strategies are also discussed.
The Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-3 (SATAQ-3) and its earlier versions are measures designed to assess societal and interpersonal aspects of appearance ideals. Correlational, structural equation modeling, and prospective studies of the SATAQ-3 have shown consistent and significant associations with measures of body image disturbance and eating pathology. In the current investigation, the SATAQ-3 was revised to improve upon some conceptual limitations and was evaluated in 4 U.S. and 3 international female samples, as well as a U.S. male sample. In Study 1, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses for a sample of women from the Southeastern United States (N = 859) indicated a 22-item scale with 5 factors: Internalization: Thin/Low Body Fat, Internalization: Muscular/Athletic, Pressures: Family, Pressures: Media, Pressures: Peers. This scale structure was confirmed in 3 independent and geographically diverse samples of women from the United States (East Coast N = 440, West Coast N = 304, and North/Midwest N = 349). SATAQ-4 scale scores demonstrated excellent reliability and good convergent validity with measures of body image, eating disturbance, and self-esteem. Study 2 replicated the factorial validity, reliability, and convergent validity of the SATAQ-4 in an international sample of women drawn from Italy, England, and Australia (N = 362). Study 3 examined a sample of college males from the United States (N = 271); the 5-factor solution was largely replicated, yet there was some evidence of an underlying structure unique to men. Future research avenues include additional item testing and modification of the scale for men, as well as adaptation of the measure for children and adolescents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
Despite good theoretical and empirical rationale for assessing tendencies to make upward and downward physical appearance comparisons no measure for these specific constructs exists. The present work developed and tested the psychometric properties of upward and downward physical appearance comparison scales. The scales were administered to participants (N=224) along with measures of general appearance comparison tendencies, body image, disordered eating, Antifat and Antigay attitudes. The scales displayed good psychometric properties. Importantly, the upward but not downward physical appearance comparison scale predicted lower Appearance Evaluation and higher EAT-26 scores. Conversely, the downward but not upward physical appearance comparison scale predicted higher Appearance Evaluation and greater Antifat Attitudes (Dislike). The scales were unrelated to a nonappearance related construct. These new measures fill a gap in the literature and may be of benefit to researchers interested in body image, appearance concerns, eating disorders, social comparison, and obesity prejudice.
Body esteem (BE) refers to self-evaluations of one's body or appearance. This article outlines a BE questionnaire for adolescents and adults that has 3 subscales: BE-Appearance (general feelings about appearance), BE-Weight (weight satisfaction), and BE-Attribution (evaluations attributed to others about one's body and appearance). The subscales have high internal consistency and 3-month test-retest reliability. Females scored lower than males on BE-Weight and BE-Appearance. BE-Weight was the only subscale uniquely related to weight, especially in females, with heavy individuals tending to be dissatisfied with their weight. BE-Appearance was the only subscale that consistently predicted self-esteem. BE-Appearance and BE-Weight covaried more with Neeman and Harter's (1986) Appearance subscale than with other self-esteem subscales; BE-Attribution covaried more with social self-esteem subscales than did BE-Appearance and BE-Weight.
A dismantling study of body dissatisfaction prevention was conducted. Adolescent girls (N = 260) were randomly allocated to a media literacy (Happy Being Me – Media Literacy) or appearance comparison (Happy Being Me – Appearance Comparison) intervention or healthy eating behaviour control (Happy Being Me – Healthy Eating Behaviour) condition. In the Happy Being Me – Appearance Comparison condition, improvements from baseline to post-programme and follow-up for upward appearance comparison and fear of negative appearance evaluation were observed. In the Happy Being Me – Media Literacy condition, improvements were observed from baseline to post-programme for upward appearance comparison and realism scepticism. Findings were similar in a high-risk subsample and overall are moderately supportive of appearance comparison-based interventions, but less supportive of a stand-alone media literacy intervention.
Objective:
The primary aim of the study was to examine the relationship across time between Facebook use and body image concern in adolescent girls.
Method:
A sample of 438 girls in the first two years (Years 8 and 9) of high school (aged 13-15 years) at Time 1 completed questionnaire measures of Facebook consumption and body image concerns, and again two years later (Time 2).
Results:
Facebook involvement increased substantially over the two year time period. Body image concerns also increased. Number of Facebook friends was found to prospectively predict the observed increase in drive for thinness. On the other hand, internalization and body surveillance prospectively predicted the observed increase in number of Facebook friends.
Discussion:
It was concluded that Facebook "friendships" represent a potent sociocultural force in the body image of adolescent girls. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.(Int J Eat Disord 2016).
Body dissatisfaction is now recognized as having considerable negative impact on social, psychological, and physical health, particularly in adolescent girls. Consequently, we have developed a six-session co-educational body image intervention (Happy Being Me Co-educational) designed to reduce body dissatisfaction and its risk factors in Grade 7 girls. In addition to evaluating the program's efficacy, we aimed to identify whether girls would benefit equally when it was delivered as a universal intervention to a whole class including both boys and girls (co-educational delivery), or delivered as a selective intervention to girls only (single-sex delivery). Participants were 200 Grade 7 girls from five schools in Melbourne, Australia. Schools were randomly allocated to receive the intervention in single-sex classes (n=74), co-educational classes (n=73), or participate as a no-intervention control (n=53). Girls completed self-report assessments of body dissatisfaction, psychological (internalization of the thin ideal, appearance comparison, and self-esteem) and peer environment (weight-related teasing and appearance conversations) risk factors for body dissatisfaction, and dietary restraint, at baseline, post-intervention, and at 6-month follow-up. Significant improvements in body dissatisfaction and psychological risk factors were observed in the intervention group at post-intervention and these were maintained at follow-up for psychological risk factors. Importantly, no significant differences between universal and selective delivery were observed, suggesting that the intervention is appropriate for dissemination in both modes.
Social media engagement by adolescent girls is high. Despite its appeal, there are potential negative consequences for body dissatisfaction and disordered eating from social media use. This study aimed to examine, in a cross-sectional design, the relationship between social media use in general, and social media activities related to taking "selfies" and sharing specifically, with overvaluation of shape and weight, body dissatisfaction, and dietary restraint.
Participants were 101 grade seven girls (Mage = 13.1, SD = 0.3), who completed self-report questionnaires of social media use and body-related and eating concerns measures.
Results showed that girls who regularly shared self-images on social media, relative to those who did not, reported significantly higher overvaluation of shape and weight, body dissatisfaction, dietary restraint, and internalization of the thin ideal. In addition, among girls who shared photos of themselves on social media, higher engagement in manipulation of and investment in these photos, but not higher media exposure, were associated with greater body-related and eating concerns, including after accounting for media use and internalization of the thin ideal.
Although cross-sectional, these findings suggest the importance of social media activities for body-related and eating concerns as well as potential avenues for targeted social-media-based intervention. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (Int J Eat Disord 2015).
© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Objective
The current study examined whether certain types of Facebook content (i.e., status updates, comments) relate to eating concerns and attitudes.Method
We examined the effects of seeking and receiving negative feedback via Facebook on disordered eating concerns in a sample of 185 undergraduate students followed for approximately 4 weeks.ResultsResults indicated that individuals with a negative feedback seeking style who received a high number of comments on Facebook were more likely to report disordered eating attitudes four weeks later. Additionally, individuals who received extremely negative comments in response to their personally revealing status updates were more likely to report disordered eating concerns four weeks later.DiscussionResults of the current study provide preliminary evidence that seeking and receiving negative feedback via social networking sites can increase risk for disordered eating attitudes, and suggest that reducing maladaptive social networking usage may be an important target for prevention and intervention efforts aimed at reducing disordered eating attitudes. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (Int J Eat Disord 2014)
Online communication tools, such as social networking sites (SNS), have been comprehensively embraced by adolescents and have become a dominant daily social practice. Recognizing SNS as a key context of adolescent development, this study aimed to investigate associations between heavier SNS use, and adolescent competencies and internalizing problems.
Data was collected in six European countries: Greece, Spain, Poland, the Netherlands, Romania, and Iceland. Participants were 10,930 adolescents aged 14-17 years (F/M: 5,719/5,211; mean age 15.8 ± .7 years); 62.3% were aged 14-15.9 years and 37.7% were aged 16-17.9 years. Participants reported on their use of online communication tools, and their general competencies and internalizing problems (Youth Self Report).
SNS are both ubiquitous-used by 70% of adolescents-and engaging, given that 40% of users spend 2 or more hours daily on SNS (labeled heavier SNS use). Heavier SNS use was associated with more internalizing problems, and the relation was consistently more pronounced among younger adolescents. Moreover, heavier SNS use was associated with lower academic performance and lower activities scores, especially for younger adolescents. In contrast, among older adolescents heavier SNS use was positively associated with offline social competence.
Although heavier SNS use is associated with higher social competence for older adolescents, it is also associated with increased internalizing problems and diminished competencies in academics and activities, especially for younger adolescents. Age, capturing developmental differences in social and regulatory skills, appears to moderate the effects of heavier SNS use on adolescent functioning.
This research evaluates the contributions of three dimensions of appearance culture (appearance magazine exposure, appearance conversations with friends, and peer appearance criticism) and body mass index (BMI) to internalization of appearance ideals and body image dissatisfaction. Four hundred thirty-three girls and 347 boys in Grades 7 through 10 responded to several measures on a self-report questionnaire. The results of path analyses indicated that Internalization mediated the relationship between Appearance Conversations With Friends and Body Dissatisfaction for both boys and girls. In addition, Internalization, Peer Appearance Criticism, and BMI made direct contributions to Body Dissatisfaction for boys and girls, although the strength of the relationships varied by gender. The proposed mediated relation between Appearance Magazine Exposure and Body Dissatisfaction was confirmed only for the girls. The findings provide needed information about the contributions of the peer appearance culture to internalization and body image disturbances for adolescent boys and girls.
The present study aims to determine the predictive validity of the 10-item Dutch Restrained Eating Scale. The ultimate criterion of restrained eating is the degree to which an individual eats less than he or she actually would like to eat. Since a study on both actual food consumption and restriction of food intake is very complicated, if not impossible, the difference between actual and desired intake of energy was studied indirectly, that is, from estimates of deviations from the required energy intake. The relationships were studied between restrained eating scores and the magnitude of the deviation from energy requirement, and between restrained eating scores and intake of fat and sugar, because restriction in intake of these may also reflect dietary restraint. About 20% of the variance of scores on the Restrained Eating Scale could be explained from these measures of food intake, which suggests that the Dutch Restrained Eating Scale has moderate to good predictive validity.
These two studies introduce the Goldfarb Fear of Fat Scale (GFFS) as an assessment device for use with bulimic clients. Study I presents norms and reliability data for a high school sample, as well as pilot comparisons between anorexic and normal women. Study II demonstrates that the GFFS significantly differentiates between bulimics, repeat dieters, and non-dieting women. These results suggest that the GFFS may be utilized clinically as a diagnostic tool and indicator of change, which may assist in the early identification of bulimic individuals.
A detailed comparison was made of two methods for assessing the features of eating disorders. An investigator-based interview was compared with a self-report questionnaire based directly on that interview. A number of important discrepancies emerged. Although the two measures performed similarly with respect to the assessment of unambiguous behavioral features such as self-induced vomiting and dieting, the self-report questionnaire generated higher scores than the interview when assessing more complex features such as binge eating and concerns about shape. Both methods underestimated body weight.
The psychometric properties and correlates of a measure designed to assess fear of negative appearance evaluation are presented. In Study 1, 165 college females completed the Fear of Negative Appearance Evaluation Scale [FNAES; Thomas, C.M., Keery, H., Williams, R., & Thompson, J. K. (1998, November). The Fear of Negative Appearance Evaluation Scale: Development and preliminary validation. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Washington, DC] along with measures of body image, eating disturbance, and depression. Results replicated previous analyses indicating the presence of a single factor, good internal consistency, and significant association with measures of body image and eating disturbance. Additionally, the FNAES accounted for unique variance beyond that explained by general fear of negative evaluation, and other measures of body image and eating disturbance, in the prediction of body shape dysphoria, dietary restraint, and trait anxiety. Study 2 further examined the validity of the FNAES, finding it to correlate significantly with measures of social physique anxiety, body image, eating attitude, and mood. The FNAES did not significantly correlate with body mass index (BMI). Regression analyses found the FNAES to predict levels of body image, eating attitude, and mood beyond variance explained by social physique anxiety. The FNAES appears to measure a conceptually unique aspect of body image that has not been indexed by previous measures and may serve a useful role in risk factor and preventive work.
Body image and the appearance culture among adolescent girls and boys: An examination of friend conversations, peer criticism, appearance magazines, and the internalization of appearance ideals
- Jones