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Use and Exploitation of Sea Urchins
Abstract
Sea urchin, or urchin roe to be more specific, has proven to be a culinary delicacy prized in many European countries, Chile, North America, Asia, and especially Japan, which accounts for around 90% of worldwide demand. This chapter analyzes global trends in the exploitation and international trade of sea urchins. The section on ?Global Supply and Demand of Sea Urchins? reviews the global supply and demand by country and fishing area. Another section on ?Global Trade? analyzes global trade and details Japanese import demand and prices of product forms. The third section ?Processing and Marketing of Sea Urchins? reviews international processing and marketing of sea urchin and consequences for fisheries management. The final section ?Future Prospects and the Role of Sea Urchin Aquaculture? discusses future prospects and the role of sea urchin aquaculture.
... Sea urchins are a valuable seafood. Global sea urchin production is declining from a peak of 108-120,000 t in 1995 as wild populations are overfished (Andrew et al., 2002;Sun and Chiang, 2015). Aquaculture is seen as a way to meet growing demand, but is a nascent industry (Sun and Chiang, 2015). ...
... Global sea urchin production is declining from a peak of 108-120,000 t in 1995 as wild populations are overfished (Andrew et al., 2002;Sun and Chiang, 2015). Aquaculture is seen as a way to meet growing demand, but is a nascent industry (Sun and Chiang, 2015). One impediment to the growth of sea urchin aquaculture is uncertainty about the best way to transport sea urchins to market (James and Evensen, 2022). ...
... The Japanese market imported ~10,700 t of processed and live sea urchin products in 2019/21, equivalent to ~75% of annual global exports (FAO, 2022). Live sea urchins imported to Japan sell for as much as three times the price of sea urchins harvested and exported as fresh or frozen uni (roe) (Sun and Chiang, 2015). Live Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis are air freighted to Japan dry (out of water) in polystyrene foam boxes with frozen gel packs to maintain a low temperature, though specific information on packing protocols is not publicly available (James and Evensen, 2018). ...
... Specifically, in the West Coast of Canada important processing function of the local fresh roe are carried out, and then exported to Asia, mainly to China, Japan, Hong Kong, and Taiwan (Stefansson et al., 2017). Besides being an important trading partner of Asian countries, Canada also supplies the neighbouring United States, with about 460 tonnes per year of live sea urchins, and this is possible thanks to the specific trade agreements between the two countries and the geographic proximity (Sun and Chiang, 2015). ...
... In the States of Oregon, Washington, and California, the most caught species is Strongylocentrotus franciscanus -widely exported to Asiawhile Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis (also known as the green sea urchin) is characteristic of the State of Maine. After being locally harvested and processed, the green sea urchin is usually delivered to New York, where it is either domestically sold or exported to Japan (Sun and Chiang, 2015). ...
... The latter is the main consumer of sea urchins, accounting for 90% of the entire world demand. Moreover, thanks to its culinary tradition and its association with sushi cuisine in bars, restaurants and catering, the sea urchin is highly appreciated by Asian populations (Sun and Chiang, 2015). For these reasons, to meet the growing domestic demand, ponds are being developed for the breeding of sea urchins in Asian seas. ...
Climate change and the accumulation of waste are major challenges facing the world in the 21st century and have substantial impacts on the environment. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that food waste amounts to 1.3 billion tonnes per year. This study aims to explore the potential for reusing sea urchin waste to develop eco-sustainable products. A sustainable business model based on the environmental benefits of sea urchin exoskeleton waste is presented as an example. The powder, which can serve as a calcium supplement for laying hens, is evaluated using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and two different scenarios are considered. The results of the LCA analysis show that the Alternative scenario, which involves the reuse of sea urchin waste, has significantly lower negative impacts compared to the Baseline scenario, based on disposal of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (ORMSW). Although the sea urchin market is niche, the potential benefits from its waste are countless. The LCA-based approach and sustainable business model demonstrate the feasibility of creating new eco-sustainable products from sea urchin waste.
... Approximately 40 edible species are exploited worldwide for their gonads (or roe), a prized delicacy appreciated in many countries like Japan, Australia, New Zealand, United States, France, Italy and Spain (Hammer et al., 2013;Sun and Chiang, 2015). Globally, it is estimated that approximately 70,000 tons of sea urchins are harvested each year (Andrew et al., 2002;Sun and Chiang, 2015;Stefansson et al., 2017), and several species are over-exploited in many regions of the world (Andrew et al., 2002;González-Irusta et al., 2010). ...
... Approximately 40 edible species are exploited worldwide for their gonads (or roe), a prized delicacy appreciated in many countries like Japan, Australia, New Zealand, United States, France, Italy and Spain (Hammer et al., 2013;Sun and Chiang, 2015). Globally, it is estimated that approximately 70,000 tons of sea urchins are harvested each year (Andrew et al., 2002;Sun and Chiang, 2015;Stefansson et al., 2017), and several species are over-exploited in many regions of the world (Andrew et al., 2002;González-Irusta et al., 2010). In the Northeast Atlantic coast, the most harvested and the most profitable species is the European purple sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus (Lamarck 1816), but other species such as Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis (Müller 1776), Psammechinus miliaris (Müller 1776) and Sphaerechinus granularis (Lamarck 1816) are also consumed (Andrew et al., 2002;Monfort, 2002;Martínez-Pita et al., 2008). ...
... Most sea urchin species are harvested for their gonads, or roe as commercially referred. High quality roe usually consists of large golden orange to yellow gonads with a distinct sweet ocean taste commercially identified as uni (Sun and Chiang, 2015). Sphaerechinus granularis adults attained particularly large body diameter and gonads when compared with P. lividus, a species of high commercial interest and the most harvested sharing the same habitat. ...
Sea urchins play an important role in island coastal ecosystems as keystone species
and as potential resources for harvesting and aquaculture. In Southern Europe, the most
valuable and harvested species is the European purple sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus,
but there is a growing interest to explore other edible species like the blunt sea urchin
Sphaerechinus granularis. The echinoderms biodiversity of Madeira archipelago was
previously described, but their local habitat, population densities and size distribution,
important to establish their harvest and aquaculture potential, are poorly known. The
present study aimed to evaluate S. granularis population in the oligotrophic and narrow
insular shelf of Madeira archipelago, mainly regarding its habitat, densities, reproduction
season and roe marketable characteristics. Sphaerechinus granularis was found in low
densities (0.01 ind./m2) from shallow to deep reefs (5–30 m). The highest densities
occurred in shallow waters and breakwaters in association to encrusting algae, turf and
erect brown macroalgae. Here, the low primary productivity ecosystem influenced the
long reproductive season of the local population. This population showed a relatively
high gonadosomatic index (maximum GI of 8), high gonad weight (5.00–12.19 g) with
high proportion of bright yellow and orange gonads (37.5–60%) between February and
November. Additionally, the high level of total carotenoids, the high PUFA (particularly
EPA) content, and the ratio n-6/n-3 close to one support the high nutritional value
of S. granularis roe. The trend of incremental GI between September and November
and the increasing content of PUFA in autumn suggests this could be the preferential
harvesting season. This information is key to evaluate a sustainable exploitation of this
living marine resource.
... In recent years, there is a growing consumers' interest in sea urchin gonads for their exclusive sensory traits (Lourenço et al., 2019) that influences their market price and consumer acceptability (Sun and Chiang, 2015). Sea urchin gonads are also a good source of high-quality protein, long chain polyunsaturated omega-3 and micronutrients, and are low in saturated fat Rocha et al., 2019). ...
... It was generally agreed among all the Chefs interviewed, that some intrinsic attributes influence negatively the consumer acceptance of this product, namely their strong flavour, their repugnant appearance, and the pale and not appealing colour, that tend to present a white liquid and a bitter and acid flavour, as described by AlC and MsC. MsC also mentioned that canned sea urchin gonads present a product with lower quality regarding the odour, flavour and texture and some of the EriC said that cooked sea urchin tended to lose its characteristic flavour and texture, as also referred by Stefánsson et al. (2017) and Sun and Chiang (2015). Nevertheless, the Chefs also mentioned other intrinsic attributes that are better accepted among the consumers, namely their reddish-orange gonad and their sea smell. ...
... Mediterranean cuisine for centuries. In Italy, sea urchin gonads are blended into sauces and patê served with pasta (Sun and Chiang, 2015) and incorporated in pizza, pasta, croutons, among others (Furesi et al., 2014). It can also be served with bread, especially in Sicily, or with wine as an entrance (Wise, 2008). ...
The main goal of this research was to explore and understand Chefs' perceptions regarding sea urchin gonads sensorial features, production and use, with an emphasis on echinoculture. This study used a mixed methodology, where three groups of chefs were interviewed: Michelin star, from Ericeira and from Algarve, these being the two main regions of sea urchin consumption. During the interviews, Chefs exposed that there is some apprehension regarding the consumption of sea urchin mainly due to their appearance. Moreover, this product is yet to be explored in Portugal where it still sits in a niche market, emphasizing the need to advertise benefits and sensory pleasure that this product could provide. Furthermore, the existent preconception and suspicion about aquaculture products and their acceptance should be countered, since the future availability of these gourmet products and other seafood commodities with high-quality will be dependent on their production in sustainable culture systems. The Chefs also performed sensory evaluation through the application of Projective Mapping with Ultra Flash Profiling, showing that sea urchin gonad's sensory properties were mainly influenced by sex. These results emphasize the need for communication and marketing strategies through locals, chefs and gastronomic events, focused on the promotion of consumers awareness about the exclusivity of this product and the importance of aquaculture for the future of the seafood market.
... El presente trabajo compila información reciente y muestra avances en el conocimiento aplicado sobre la acuicultura de varias especies de equinodermos con enfoque hacia la diversificación de la acuicultura marina de nuestra potente y biodiversa región latinoamericana. Es un bloque conformado de nueve países (de norte a sur, México, Belice, Panamá, Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, Brasil, Argentina y Chile) que presentan avances en aspectos clave del cultivo en reproducción, larvicultura, crecimiento, identificación y tratamiento de enfermedades y nutrición de 17 especies de equinodermos con enorme potencial económico (Fig. 1, Fig. 2) que destacan hacia el aprovechamiento en producción sostenible de alimentos y nutracéuticos por la facilidad de producción, demanda en el mercado y alto valor unitario (Sarmiento-Rubiano, 2006;Total-Granda, 2008;Sun & Chiang, 2015). ...
... La producción mundial de equinodermos, específicamente de los erizos y pepinos de mar ocurre desde 1950 y 1970, respectivamente. En general, los datos de producción pesquera y acuícola de equinodermos (en capturas y cifras de desembarques) han sido generados por décadas con base en los informes publicados de las Estadísticas de Pesca de la FAO (FISHSTAT), pero se sabe que existen errores (en cifras confundidas y valores subestimados) que han hecho difícil realizar análisis directos en series de tiempo, y seguimiento con precisión de las capturas para cada recurso por país (Andrew et al., 2002;Sun & Chiang, 2015;Slater, 2015). Por ello, se ha tenido que recurrir a datos de agencias de comercio internacional obtenidos de diferentes gobiernos, y agencias para verificación cruzada del conjunto de datos de Estadísticas de Pesca de la FAO (FISHSTAT) para más de 26 especies de equinodermos que se explotan en Latinoamérica para fines comerciales. ...
... Son 850 especies de erizos de mar registradas a nivel mundial, y 17 especies son capturadas con interés comercial (Sun & Chiang, 2015 (Ayerbe et al., 2018). Las estimaciones a nivel global indican que el total de desembarques notificados entre 1961 y 1998 hubo un pico en 1995 de 120 306 ton, y que disminuyó a 90 257 ton en 1998. ...
Introducción:
La acuicultura de equinodermos en América Latina es incipiente, pero representa una nueva frontera para la producción de alimentos marinos altamente nutritivos, con especies nativas de alto valor comercial que ofrecen un gran potencial en comparación con las debilitadas pesquerías bentónicas artesanales.
Metodología:
Se revisó la literatura sobre pepinos de mar, erizos de mar y estrellas de mar hasta el año 2020.
Resultados:
Para el 2020, había 17 especies nativas con importantes avances en reproducción, larvicultura, crecimiento, tratamiento e identificación de enfermedades y nutrición en México, Belice, Panamá, Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, Brasil, Chile y Argentina.
Conclusiones:
La acuicultura de equinodermos en América Latina está avanzando y se beneficiaría de los sistemas multitróficos para expandirse y diversificarse, reduciendo la presión sobre las pesquerías agotadas.
... The sea urchin roe market is very traditional in Japan, a country that accounts over 80 % of the global consumption the seafood (Brown & Eddy, 2015) Consumer demand for sea urchins is driven by several key market factors, including innovation and experimentation, convenience, and health (Stefánsonn et al., 2017). Sea urchin roe is a delicacy served in sushi bars, restaurants and at wedding banquets (Sun & Chiang, 2015). For centuries the roe has been consumed in Mediterranean countries in sauces, with pasta, breads, as well as in custards and ice-cream (Wise, 2008;Gangi 2011;Stefánsonn et al., 2017). ...
... Sea urchin aquaculture has its own very unique background and history ( Fig. 1) but all of the possible uses of sea urchins clearly indicate that there is a requirement to meet the demands of a number of areas, including quality roe production, naphthoquinone pigments and drug discovery. In spite of the obvious potential and research advances made to date, according to Sun and Chiang (2015), it has been difficult to find successful examples of sea urchin aquaculture. Still, even though it has been stated that sea urchin aquaculture is a risky business (Smith, 2017), many countries and companies have been making efforts to overcome the risks stumbling blocks. ...
... Although Chile accounts for approximately fifty percent of global roe production, entirely by harvesting L.albus, and has the largest sea urchin fishery in the world (Moreno et al., 2007;Sun & Chiang, 2015), aquaculture is not yet developed. Heavy fishing pressure has resulted in a reduction in production by fifty percent along the Chilean Coast, making it unsustainable (Stotz, 2004). ...
Introduction:
“Blue Economy” refers to ocean-based economies with a sustainable approach. It focuses in smaller carbon footprints and efficiency, principles that can be applied to aquaculture. However, it has been difficult to develop successful blue economy projects in sea urchin aquaculture.
Objective:
To compare URCHINOMICS (Norway) and ARBACIA (Argentina), two aquaculture projects with different business models.
Methods:
We used publicly available information to compare both companies on the basis of their value proposition and tensions (e.g. cultural, social economic and technological).
Results:
To be successful, sea urchin aquaculture requires development of appropriate technology, open innovation and cooperation of people with different academic, business and organizational backgrounds.
Conclusion:
The ultimate success of these and similar companies will depend on free interaction of experts from multiple fields and on technological innovation.
... Sea urchin roe is a gastronomic delicacy appreciated worldwide though poorly known in Portugal. In sea urchins, the term roe or uni refers to both male and female gonads, and marketable roe has a bright orange colour, slimy texture and a sweet-salty combination flavour, (Su and Chiang, 2015). Nutritionally, the sea urchins' gonads are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (Dincer and Cakli, 2007), mainly arachidonic acid (ARA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), with a positive effect in preventing cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, inflammation, arrhythmias and cancer (Fetterman et al., 2009). ...
... sea cucumbers). Nevertheless, the reviews conducted by Andrew et al. (2002), Stefánsson et al. (2017) and Su and Chiang (2015) report a relative up-to-date scenario of the sea urchin roe production and market. Each year, 70 000 tonnes of sea urchins are traded worldwide (Stefánsson et al., 2017) and the Japanese market is by far the most important, accounting for around 90% of the international demand (Su and Chiang, 2015). ...
... Nevertheless, the reviews conducted by Andrew et al. (2002), Stefánsson et al. (2017) and Su and Chiang (2015) report a relative up-to-date scenario of the sea urchin roe production and market. Each year, 70 000 tonnes of sea urchins are traded worldwide (Stefánsson et al., 2017) and the Japanese market is by far the most important, accounting for around 90% of the international demand (Su and Chiang, 2015). In Europe, the French, Italian and Spanish markets are the most representative (Monfort, 2002;Stefánsson et al., 2017) with a roe market value quite variable. ...
Sea urchin roe is a gastronomic delicacy appreciated worldwide and Portugal is the third largest consumer nation of seafood. However, sea urchin roe is recognized as a seafood by few members of the national coastal communities. Motivated by an increasing interest of gastronomic and aquaculture sectors in producing this seafood, a survey was conducted among the participants of gastronomic festivals aiming to characterize the motivations and preferences regarding sea urchin roe. The results showed that a high percentage of consumers would be willing to eat sea urchin roe in a restaurant, and approximately half of these were not motivated to buy it in the supermarket. The consumers willing to buy sea urchins in the supermarket, would buy it as the whole urchin or the chilled/frozen roe., even that it represents a challenge to households. In conclusion, sea urchin roe can be characterized as a high valued shellfish to be consumed in restaurants.
... The unprecedented seawater temperature increases associated with the current global warming of the planet represent a significant challenge in terms of animal welfare and marine farming [6]. Among the high number of marine species depicting attention in the field of aquaculture, sea urchins have gained recognition due to their economically and ecologically significance as a prized delicacy worldwide (in "sushi", "sashimi," or "cazuela") [7][8][9][10] and as a regulator of seagrass and rocky reef communities [11]. ...
... Lytechinus variegatus is distributed from the United States to Brazil [18] and inhabits substrates characterized by seagrass meadows and sandy or muddy bottoms. The species live on the intertidal coastline and are regularly exposed to fluctuating conditions, which makes them a useful indicator of the impact of temperature changes [8,10,11,[19][20][21]. This species exhibits rapid growth, with its gonads maturing in a relatively short period, and it is easily managed and breeding in captivity, making it a potential candidate for aquaculture [22][23][24]. ...
As seawater temperatures rise in the ocean due to global temperature change, altered mean precipitation, and weather patterns, native species face uncertain futures. The alteration in thermal tolerance was assessed in wild‐captured tropical sea urchins ( Lytechinus variegatus ) from the Caribbean Sea and then maintained under controlled conditions. Three experiments were performed: (1) favorable growth temperature: after maintaining wild sea urchins at three different seawater temperatures (22, 24 and 26°C) for 70 days, it was observed that 22°C was the best temperature for growth performance. Sea urchins showed daytime behavior (higher activity at 9:00−10:00 h), during this time period; (2) thermal preference (TP): determined with the help of a horizontal camera with a thermal gradient (19–30°C), it showed that the acclimation temperature influenced the TP of sea urchins, since a significantly higher number of animals opted for the temperature at which they had been acclimated; and (3) critical thermal maximum (CTmax) and critical thermal minimum (CTmin): sea urchins exposed to a progressive temperature change, starting from the acclimation temperature, tolerated the increase in temperature (up to 14°C) better than the decrease (up to 12°C). These results thus contribute to our knowledge of sea urchin thermal biology and provide information about the assessment of thermal comfort conditions in sea urchin farming.
... Sea urchins are marine invertebrates classified in the phylum Echinodermata, playing a critical role in ecology and having significant economic value (Dalzell, 1998;Harris and Weisler, 2017;Sun and Chiang, 2015). The morphological feature of sea urchins, particularly their spines, enables them to survive and defend against predators such as mollusks, crustaceans, and fish (Ayyagari and Kondamudi, 2014). ...
... However, human activities have led to declining Diadema setosum populations in coral reef ecosystems, as observed in East Buton, Sulawesi, Indonesia (Salman, 2023). Sea urchin gonads have become a widely consumed food source in various countries, including Japan, Europe, America, Chile, and Canada (Sun and Chiang, 2015), as well as in Indonesia (Kaharudin et al., 2024), due to their high nutritional value and economic importance (Ode Karmilah et al., 2021;. The high demand for sea urchin gonads has led to overfishing, threatening sea urchin populations (Nane and Paramata, 2020). ...
... Global fish and shellfish consumption has increased over the past few decades (FAO, 2022a(FAO, , 2022b. Sea urchin gonad is a premium shellfish delicacy with high commercial value, and it is consumed in Japan, China, Korea, the United States, Canada, Chile, and a few other European countries (Sun and Chiang, 2015). The Tokyo Metropolitan Central Wholesale Market, Japan-the largest wholesale sea urchin market in the world (Sun and Chiang, 2015)-witnessed a steep rise in the yearly average price of sea urchin gonads from 6625 JPY kg − 1 in 2011 to 20,502 JPY kg − 1 in 2021 (Metropolitan Central Wholesale Market, 2022). ...
... Sea urchin gonad is a premium shellfish delicacy with high commercial value, and it is consumed in Japan, China, Korea, the United States, Canada, Chile, and a few other European countries (Sun and Chiang, 2015). The Tokyo Metropolitan Central Wholesale Market, Japan-the largest wholesale sea urchin market in the world (Sun and Chiang, 2015)-witnessed a steep rise in the yearly average price of sea urchin gonads from 6625 JPY kg − 1 in 2011 to 20,502 JPY kg − 1 in 2021 (Metropolitan Central Wholesale Market, 2022). Additionally, the commencement of the import of live urchins, fresh gonads, and frozen gonads into Europe and Oceania since 2012 (FAO, 2022c) indicates a rise in their global demand. ...
... There is a globally unmet demand for the luxury seafood product, sea urchin gonads (termed roe by the industry or uni in Japan). This is largely driven by the Asian market, but urchins are grown, sold, and consumed across the world, including regions such as North America (Eddy et al., 2015;Sun and Chiang, 2015;Stefańsson et al., 2017). Regional demand can range from local restaurants serving uni raw as sushi or incorporating it into a sauce served with cooked pasta, to regional processors who can remove and prepare uni into aesthetically appealing packaged trays in preparation for shipping. ...
... Regional demand can range from local restaurants serving uni raw as sushi or incorporating it into a sauce served with cooked pasta, to regional processors who can remove and prepare uni into aesthetically appealing packaged trays in preparation for shipping. Marketable uni should ideally have a firm and nongamete-shedding texture and bright orange or yellow in color with a pleasant sweet-salty flavor (Sun and Chiang, 2015). Sea urchins have been wild harvested for at least six decades, with highest yields produced during the times when sushi became popular during the 1960s, however, most catches dropped dramatically following this period due to overexploitation (Stefańsson et al., 2017). ...
The global demand for sea urchin as seafood is currently unmet. Despite exploitation of > 40 species across the world, there is a need to identify other candidate species, especially in regions where diversification in production is sought where species are considered native. The Eastern US presents an opportunity to determine the marketability of the currently unexploited Arbacia punctulata which is naturally distributed from Massachusetts and southwards into the Gulf of Mexico. To determine whether A. punctulata had market potential, it was fed one of the following diets to determine whether the gonad tissue (uni) could be manipulated to increase gonad mass and improve gonad color for the market: dried Ulva lactuca, Salmon pellets (Skretting), Tilapia pellets (Ziegler) or an Urchinomics diet designed for sea urchins either fed for 8 weeks or 12 weeks. All of the pelleted feeds (Salmon, Tilapia and Urchinomics) increased gonad mass and altered the color. The colors of the uni were generally darker than the colors that the market would typically prefer but some individuals did exhibit colors which have been classed as acceptable to the European market. This work highlights that further research is worthwhile to assess the market potential of A. punctulata.
... Sea urchin gonads are crucial for their market value. Such as Japan, consumers prefer sea urchin gonads in the pre-mature stage which have a light-yellow or light orangeyellow color (Sun and Chiang 2015;Araújo et al. 2024). Conversely, mature individuals that release gametes are generally regarded as less desirable because of their paler, less visually appealing coloration . ...
Enhancing growth, gonad yield, and health status in cultured sea urchins is crucial. This study examined the growth, gonadal development, and immune response of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius subjected to five distinct photoperiod regimes (light–dark ratio of 0L: 24D, 8L: 16D, 12L: 12D, 16L: 8D, and 24L: 0D) for a duration of 13 months. The findings indicated that sea urchins in the 0L treatment achieved the largest body weight overall, however, they attained the maximum specific growth rate (SGR) only during the initial 0 to 3 months stage. In the latter phases, sea urchins subjected to the 12L or 16L treatment attained the highest SGR. This outcome indicated a heightened requirement for light as body size increases. The photoperiod regime significantly influenced the gonad yield of the experimental sea urchins (P < 0.05), with individuals in the 16L treatment attaining the greatest gonad weight and the highest gonad index by the conclusion of the experiment. The photoperiod regime did not significantly influence the gonadal coloration of the experimental sea urchins. Histological analysis indicated that the proportion of mature individuals decreases with the reduction of daily light duration. The 0L and 8L photoperiods may regulate the excessive gonadal development in young S. intermedius. At the end of the experiment, no significant change in the phagocytic rate or phagocytic index was seen between the treatments. Finally, long-term photoperiods did not influence the survival rate or immunity of S. intermedius. Our findings indicated that in land-based aquaculture systems, the sea urchin S. intermedius may be cultivated in dark or under reduced daily light to achieve rapid growth, followed by cultivation in a 16L photoperiod to enhance gonad output at harvest.
... Sea-urchin aquaculture has traditionally relied on kelp as a major feed source (Liu and Chang 2015). However, the increasing demand for sea-urchin roe worldwide calls for novel feed solutions (Sun and Chiang 2015). To reduce reliance on kelp and facilitate the expansion of sea-urchin aquaculture, several studies have explored alternative diets aimed at enhancing the quality of sea-urchin roe during grow-out (Lourenço et al. 2019). ...
The unicellular alga Dunaliella salina is a good source of β-carotene whereas the macroalga Porphyra sp. is rich in flavor-enhancing amino-acids such as glycine. Therefore, this study focused on the development of new dietary formulations for Paracentrotus lividus, including D. salina, Porphyra or glycine, aimed at improving roe color and flavour. Five isonitrogenous and isoenergetic diets were produced by cold extrusion and soft drying, meant to protect carotenoids. Sea urchins were fed these diets every 2 days in a recirculating aquatic system, at 18ºC. At the end of 8 weeks all diets proved equally effective in promoting growth and improving the gonadossomatic index. However, there were differences in the feed conversion ratio, which was lower in sea-urchins grown upon a diet based on commercial macroalgae mix and supplemented with D. salina at 1.5% (D2). Notable differences were found between males and females on carotenoids deposition in both gut and gonads, gonadal proximal composition, volatile compounds and anti-oxidant activity. This suggests sex-related differences in both nutrient assimilation and several metabolic processes. Gut carotenoids were influenced by both sex and diet, but gonads carotenoids were only affected by sex. All diets supplemented with Dunaliella improved gonad colour, resulting in redder and darker gonads when compared to a control (non-supplemented) diet. In particular D2 allowed to produce gonads with a higher colour saturation (C*) and the lowest hue angle (h*), comparable to a gourmet reference. Glycine supplementation and Porphyra led to an increase of sweet tasting amino acids in P. lividus roe. Dunaliella salina and Porphyra also increased umami tasting amino acids. The overall results point to D2 as the most promising formulation for P. lividus grow-out, as it allowed to obtain good colour roe at a lower feed conversion ratio.
... Sea urchins are important commercially because their gonads (termed roe or uni in Japanese) are a delicacy in many countries; sea urchins are a traditional cuisine in several Mediterranean and Asian countries, particularly in Japan, where they account for approximately 80 %-90 % of the global supply (Sun and Chiang, 2015;Stefánsson et al., 2017). The processed gonads can be utilized as raw material for sushi or incorporated into a variety of soups and sauces (Suckling et al., 2022); they can also be creatively used in desserts such as custards or ice cream (Stefánsson et al., 2017). ...
... Sea urchin gonads are gourmet seafood delicacy in many parts of the world, including in Japan, in the Mediterranean, in the West Indies, in Chile, in California among Native Americans, and in New Zealand among the M aori (Andrew et al. 2002;Sun and Chiang 2015). Eating sea urchin is popularly assumed to induce a slight euphoria as it contains anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamine or AEA) (Bisogno et al. 1997)-an endocannabinoid neurotransmitter responsible for modulating, among others, pleasure and pain signals (Devane et al. 1992). ...
Maritime adaptation is a key component of the Neolithization process in Eastern Arabia. It is expressed by the development of diversified fishing techniques, the exploitation of hard marine animal materials (e.g., seashells, shark teeth, stingray's barbs, etc.) for both tools and personal adornments production, advanced seafaring, and colonization of offshore islands. Although a diet based mainly on the consumption of marine fish and molluscs, the importance of other seafood have been greatly underestimated in previous zooarchaeological studies. Large quantities of marine crabs (NISP = 10,619) and sea urchins (NISP = 2454) have been retrieved from newly excavated Neolithic sites in the United Arab Emirates. These data highlight local developments of interest for specific seafood and their intensive exploitation over several centuries of human occupation. This study focuses on methods for identifying the main edible marine crab and sea urchin species retrieved from archaeological sites in Eastern Arabia. Results from the Neolithic sites of Delma island and the Umm al-Quwain lagoon are discussed. 2
... Sea urchin gonads, often called "roe" or "uni," are highly prized seafood delicacies known for their distinctive umami flavour and pleasing texture (Sun and Chiang, 2015), making them a renowned ingredient in sushi and other gourmet dishes. Although sea urchin gonads are not a traditional staple in European cuisine, an ever-increasing preference and consumption of sea urchin gonads' is observed in Europe, especially in the Mediterranean region (Rocha et al., 2019). ...
Despite the crucial role of microbial community composition in the quality and stability of seafood, little emphasis has been given to the microbiota profile of sea urchin gonads. This study investigates the microbial quality and community composition of sea urchin gonads (Echinus esculentus) as a function of harvesting season (autumn, winter, spring, and summer) and location (one site proximal to urban activity areas while the other is located in open water close to the coastline). Significant season-dependent variations were found in psychrotrophic and aerobic plate counts, with higher counts in summer, followed by autumn, spring, and winter. H2S-producing bacteria and Pseudomonas spp. counts were unaffected by harvesting season or location. Sea urchin gonad microbial composition proved resilient and dynamic, primarily shaped by seasonal variations, and minimally influenced by location. Winter and spring samples exhibited higher diversity than autumn and summer. Key genera like Pseudomonas, Psychromonas, Vibrio, Chryseobacterium, Shewanella, and Photobacterium varied seasonally. Pseudomonas, Vibrio, and Photobacterium are crucial in assessing microbial quality and safety due to their roles as specific spoilage organisms (SSOs) and, in some cases, human pathogens. Though relative abundances differed slightly between locations, harvesting location did not notably impact microbial community shaping in gonads. However, the results suggest that harvesting locations near areas with urban activity may lead to contamination with specific bacterial species, possibly due to water quality variations. These findings emphasize the importance of considering seasonality when evaluating sea urchin gonad microbial quality. Identifying key genera enhances insights into potential SSOs and human pathogens, enhancing food safety considerations in the consumption of raw or lightly processed sea urchin gonads and guiding the development of preservation methods to extend shelf life.
... In some nations, such as Japan, sea urchin gonads, commonly known as "uni", are an integral component of local culture and cuisine. With almost 126 million residents, Japan is the greatest consumer of sea urchins in the world, consuming 80-90% of the world's sea urchin production [1]. Meanwhile, Chile, with about 6435 km of coastline, is the largest supplier of sea urchins, with more than 55,000 tons per year [2]. ...
Understanding and controlling reproductive cycles and gonad maturation in cultivated species are crucial in aquaculture. The sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus, known for its edible gonads, requires careful maturation control for both reproduction and commercialization. This study explores the impact of temperature, photoperiod, and diet on gonad development to enhance year-round aquaculture practices. Using two independent cultivation systems, we manipulated environmental conditions to mimic different seasons. Sea urchins were exposed to natural or manipulated temperature and photoperiod conditions and fed either natural (Ulva spp.) or formulated diets. The gonadosomatic index (GI) and histological analysis were used to assess gonad development. The results revealed a clear correlation between environmental conditions, diet, and gonad maturation. Manipulated conditions accelerated maturation, with sea urchins showing advanced stages compared to natural conditions. Furthermore, sea urchins fed formulated diets exhibited higher GI values, indicating enhanced maturation. Histological analysis confirmed accelerated maturation, particularly in females. This study underscores the feasibility of controlling gonad maturation through environmental manipulation and diet, enabling year-round marketable gonad production. Providing formulated diets rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, notably docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), enhances the commercial value of sea urchins. These findings optimize aquaculture practices for P. lividus, highlighting its adaptability to the maximal production of gonads throughout the year.
... Sea urchin roe is a highly valued culinary delicacy worldwide, especially in Asia, North America, Chile, and European countries, accounting for nearly 90% of the global demand (Sun & Chiang, 2015). In Japan, the consumption of sea urchin roe was only confined among the coastal villagers; however, with the introduction of technologies like refrigerated transportation, it is now predominantly available to many populace (Unuma et al., 2015). ...
Sea urchin roe, as raw material, is highly perishable and is usually served raw or fresh. Therefore, preserving the freshness of the raw products by maintaining good sensory characteristics, such as appearance/color, odor, flavor, texture, and general acceptability, during distribution has been a concern of local producers. Here, we evaluated the sensory characteristics of dried, rehydrated, and fresh (control) sea urchin Tripneustes gratilla roe under different steaming times: 1 min, 2 min, and 3 min. Roe samples were evaluated for sensory characteristics, i.e., color, odor, texture, flavor, and general acceptability, by the panelists using a 3-point hedonic scale. Findings revealed that there were no significant differences (p<0.05) among general acceptability, texture, and flavor scores between sea urchin roes' processed forms (dried, rehydrated, and fresh) and steaming time (1, 2, and 3 min). However, in terms of color, the dried roe was significantly different (p<0.05) from the fresh roe but not from the rehydrated roe, while no significant change (p<0.05) in color was noted between different steaming times. For odor attribute, there was a significant difference (p<0.05) between the processed forms, where fresh roe was significantly different (p<0.05) from dried and rehydrated roes, but steaming time did not significantly affect (p>0.05) the roes' odor. This study suggests that steaming for 1-3 min as pre-treatment for dried, rehydrated, and fresh sea urchin T. gratilla roe generally renders good sensory attributes. It also indicates that drying and rehydration of steamed sea urchin roe could be used as preservation techniques for a fragile and perishable sea urchin T. gratilla roe. However, further analyses are needed, particularly on the shelf-life and proximate and microbial analyses.
... In some nations, such as Japan, sea urchin gonads, commonly known as "uni," are an integral component of local culture and cuisine. With almost 126 million residents, Japan is the greatest consumer of sea urchins in the world, consuming 80-90% of the world's sea urchin production [1]. Meanwhile, Chile, with about 6,435 km of coastline, is the largest supplier of sea urchins, with more than 55,000 tons per year [2]. ...
Understanding and controlling reproductive cycles and gonadal maturation in cultivated species are crucial in aquaculture. The sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus, known for its edible gonads, requires careful maturation control for both reproduction and commercialization. This study explores the impact of temperature, photoperiod, and diet on gonadal development to enhance year-round aquaculture practices. Using two independent cultivation systems, we manipulated environmental conditions to mimic different seasons. Sea urchins were exposed to natural or manipulated temperature and photoperiod conditions and fed either natural (Ulva spp.) or formulated diets. The gonadosomatic index (GI) and histological analysis assessed gonadal development. Results revealed a clear correlation between environmental conditions, diet, and gonadal maturation. Manipulated conditions accelerated maturation, with sea urchins showing advanced stages compared to natural conditions. Furthermore, sea urchins fed formulated diets exhibited higher GI values, indicating enhanced maturation. Histological analysis confirmed accelerated maturation, particularly in females. The study underscores the feasibility of controlling gonadal maturation through environmental manipulation and diet, enabling year-round marketable gonad production. Providing formulated diets rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, notably docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), enhances commercial value. These findings optimize aquaculture practices for P. lividus, highlighting its adaptability to yield-maximizing production strategies. Understanding and controlling reproductive cycles and gonadal maturation in cultivated species are crucial in aquaculture. The sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus, known for its edible gonads, requires careful maturation control for both reproduction and commercialization. This study explores the impact of temperature, photoperiod, and diet on gonadal development to enhance year-round aquaculture practices. Using two independent cultivation systems, we manipulated environmental conditions to mimic different seasons. Sea urchins were exposed to natural or manipulated temperature and photoperiod conditions and fed either natural (Ulva spp.) or formulated diets. The gonadosomatic index (GI) and histological analysis assessed gonadal development. Results revealed a clear correlation between environmental conditions, diet, and gonadal maturation. Manipulated conditions accelerated maturation, with sea urchins showing advanced stages compared to natural conditions. Furthermore, sea urchins fed formulated diets exhibited higher GI values, indicating enhanced maturation. Histological analysis confirmed accelerated maturation, particularly in females. The study underscores the feasibility of controlling gonadal maturation through environmental manipulation and diet, enabling year-round marketable gonad production. Providing formulated diets rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, notably docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), enhances commercial value. These findings optimize aquaculture practices for P. lividus, highlighting its adaptability to yield-maximizing production strategies.
... The nutritional contribution (NC) of canned sea urchin gonads was calculated based on protein, eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (EPA + DHA), macro (Na and K) and micro (I and Se) elements, considering a portion of 25 g since this product is usually consumed as a side dish, appetizer or even used as an addition to give flavour and texture to several recipes (Baião et al., 2021;Sun & Chiang, 2015 ...
... The oocytes of A. dufresnii females were collected before the start of the experiment and at its conclusion, after being fed with the treatments. They were induced to spawn by injecting 0.3 mL of KCl [0.5 M] into the peristomal membrane (Sun & Chiang, 2015). Once injected, the females were placed in direct contact with previously filtered and UV-treated seawater, and a pool of oocytes was collected from each experimental replicate. ...
Introduction:
Care towards nutrition is essential for the quality of a sustainable aquaculture product. Since the balance in food affects the growth and production of gametes. The circular economy is made possible through the use of discarded materials.
Objective:
The aim of this research was to study the fatty acid composition and metabolic pathways in the gametes of Arbacia dufresnii, with a focus on the implications of incorporating shrimp byproducts into aquaculture feeds.
Methods:
Four different treatments were designed to maintain optimal nutritional quality, particularly in lipids and proteins, based on previous studies. The fatty acid profiles of the feeds and gametes were analyzed by using gas-chromatography, and statistical analyses were conducted to determine significant differences.
Results:
Significant differences were observed in the abundance (%) of omega-3 (ω-3) and omega-6 (ω-6) fatty acids. The (ω-3) metabolic pathway was more pronounced in the gametes of wild animals and those fed with the experimental feeds. In contrast, the (ω-6) metabolic pathway was less relevant in these groups. The (ω-3) /(ω-6) ratio was highest in the gametes of wild animals. Feeds enriched in fatty acids enhanced their bioaccumulation in the gametes reaching higher concentrations than wild animals. The availability of fatty acids in foods allowed their bioaccumulation in gametes, with concentrations equal to or higher than those observed in animals in their natural environment for certain fatty acids.
Conclusions:
Incorporating shrimp byproducts in aquaculture feeds demonstrated a promising strategy for resource utilization and organic input generation. The fatty acid composition in the gametes of A. dufresnii was influenced by the diet, highlighting the potential of balanced feeds to enhance the bioaccumulation of essential fatty acids. These findings provide valuable insights for the development of sustainable aquaculture practices and the production of nutritionally enriched seafood products.
... Sea urchins and starfish embryos have been used for embryological studies (Boveri, 1901;Briggs & Wessel, 2006;Dufossé, 1847;Garner et al., 2016;McClay, 2011;Williams & Anderson, 1975), ecotoxicology analysis (Rahman et al., 2009), and more recently for neurogenesis and molecular studies (Garner et al., 2016;Hinman & Burke, 2018;McClay, 2011). In addition, throughout history, humans have been consuming both sea urchins and sea cucumbers, being highly valued fishing and aquaculture resources, considered a gastronomic delicacy in many regions of the world (Lawrence, 2007;Stefansonn et al., 2017;Sun & Chiang, 2015). The green sea urchin Arbacia dufresnii (Blainville, 1825) is an abundant coastal species from the coast of Buenos Aires in Argentina (35⁰ S) to Puerto Montt in Chile (42⁰ S) including some islands of the South Atlantic Ocean (Bernasconi, 1947;Brogger et al., 2013). ...
Introduction:
Short-term gametes storage is an inexpensive and simple technique that allows the use of the same batch of eggs or sperm at different times, maximizing the application of research protocols and the use of gametes in production. Arbacia dufresnii is a sea urchin species with proven aquaculture potential and already used in the nutraceutical industry. Aging of its gametes is unknown and is a needed information to scale up the production.
Objective:
Determine the effect of male and female gamete aging on the fertilization success of Arbacia dufresnii. This will allow optimizing the use of gametes after collection decoupling spawning from fertilization.
Methods:
A. dufresnii individuals were induced to spawn and gametes were kept at 12 ± 1 °C throughout each bioassay. Sperm was separated into two treatments: activated sperm in seawater (AS), and dry sperm (DS). Two bioassays were made: Bioassay 1 evaluated the effect of time on fertility by performing fertilization tests at 0 h, 24 h, 48 h, 72 h, and 96 h after spawning. Bioassay 2 evaluated the contribution of each type of aged gamete on fertility, combining aged gametes (96 h) with fresh gametes (0 h).
Results:
Bioassay 1: the fertilization success obtained by combining eggs (E) with AS or DS presented important differences. While the fertilization success remained acceptable (greater than 50 %) for up to 72 h using ExDS, it only remained acceptable for up to 48 h using ExAS. Bioassay 2: acceptable fertilization success was found by combining aged E (96 h) with fresh sperm, or aged DS (96 h) with fresh E, but not using aged AS with fresh E.
Conclusions:
The findings of this work show that fertilization success in A. dufresnii gametes remains relatively unchanged for up to 48 h after spawning when combining ExAS, and for up to 72 h when combining ExDS. However, when combining aged E or aged DS with a fresh gamete, post-collection fertilization can be extended up to 96 h. In this work, the first steps have been taken to understand the conservation time of A. dufresnii gametes with minimum intervention.
... Considering the information gathered by several authors [32,[48][49][50], the high number of nutritive phagocytes in the early stages of the gametogenic cycles gives a firmer structure to the gonads. At this point, P. lividus gonads are dense, firm and pleasant-tasting, whereas the higher number of mature gametes in the gonads (mature stage-IV) makes them very fragile, lacking firmness and unpleasant-tasting. ...
A population of sea urchins, Paracentrotus lividus, from the central west coast of Portugal was studied to characterise their reproductive biology and possible relationships with environmental factors. An annual gametogenic cycle was found, with a broad spawning season, from May to November, according to a relatively synchronous gamete maturation process. Depending on the environmental factors (temperature, photoperiod), two separate periods could be distinguished, with more individuals maturing and spawning at the same time. When this happened, the first event evolved when temperature rose to a critical point, and the second occurred afterwards, when temperature decreased significantly. Notwithstanding, it was found that individuals matured later than previously described for other populations (e.g., north of Portugal), mostly in late spring, with a higher gonadosomatic index in May. A new classification scale was proposed for identifying the stages of P. lividus gametogenic cycle, based on new findings. It contributed to its simplification and easier comprehension. This study provides useful information for a differentiated sustainable management of P. lividus, according to local conditions. Establishing a closed harvesting season might be considered, based on the differences observed between Portuguese populations and other European ones.
... Some populations of regular sea urchins exposed to wave action have developed digging behaviors to bury themselves slightly, whereas species not exposed to such conditions typically exhibit cryptic behaviors [34]. Sea urchins, as well as sea cucumbers, are valuable species, and the commercialization of sea urchins' gonads, also known as roe, is economically significant around the world [34,35]. ...
Simple Summary
This study discusses the moral issues surrounding the study of echinoderms, a class of marine animals that is attracting interest from scientists. The significance of safely handling these animals is stressed and promotes an ethical standard that is customized to their needs. Our strategy was heavily influenced by the 3Rs principle, which advocates for substituting aware living vertebrates with non-sentient material in research. Echinoderms are excellent models for experimental inquiry because they are typically thought to be non-sentient. Although it is not possible to assess their mental states at this time, there is ample evidence of social behavior in many species, suggesting that ignoring interactions with them could be detrimental to their wellbeing. Recently, progress has been made toward developing an ethical framework for invertebrates, such as crustaceans, echinoderms, and cephalopods. To protect the welfare of echinoderms even in the absence of specific standards, we suggest an enlarged version of the 5Rs framework that includes responsibility and respect. In addition to advancing our knowledge of these interesting species, this research establishes a critical standard for the responsible and sympathetic care of all animals in scientific research.
Abstract
This paper explores the ethical considerations surrounding research on echinoderms, a group of invertebrates that has recently garnered attention in the scientific community. The importance of responsible animal handling and the need for an ethical framework that encompasses echinoderms are emphasized. The 3Rs principle, advocating for the replacement of conscious living vertebrates with non-sentient material in research, is discussed as a guiding tool in current animal research practices. As invertebrates are generally classified as non-sentient animals, the replacement dimension tends to favor them as prevalent models in experimental research. While it currently lacks the means to assess the mental states of invertebrates, there is undeniable evidence of social behavior in many species, suggesting that a lack of interactions with these organisms could potentially adversely affect their wellbeing. In the last few years, considerable progress has been made in developing an ethical framework that takes invertebrates into account, particularly cephalopods, crustaceans, and echinoderms. In this context, we discuss the development of a broader conceptual framework of 5Rs that includes responsibility and respect, which may guide practices ensuring welfare in echinoderms, even in the absence of any particular normative.
... Some populations of regular sea urchins exposed to wave action have developed digging behaviors to bury themselves slightly, whereas species not exposed to such conditions typically exhibit cryptic behaviors [34]. Sea urchins, as well as sea cucumbers, are valuable species, and the commercialization of sea urchins' gonads, also known as roe, is economically significant around the world [34,35]. ...
This paper explores the ethical considerations surrounding the research on echinoderms, a group of invertebrates that has recently garnered attention in the scientific community. We emphasize the importance of responsible animal handling and the need for an ethical framework that encompasses echinoderms. The 3R's principle, advocating for the replacement of conscious living vertebrates with non-sentient material in research, is discussed as a guiding tool in current animal research practices. As invertebrates are generally classified as non-sentient animals, the Replacement dimension tends to favor them as prevalent models in experimental research. While we currently lack the means to assess the mental states of invertebrates, there is undeniable evidence of social behavior in many species, suggesting that a lack of interactions with these organisms could potentially adversely affect their well-being. In the last few years, considerable progress has been made in developing an ethical framework that takes invertebrates into account, particularly cephalopods, crustaceans, and echinoderms. In this context, we discuss the development of a broader conceptual framework of 5R’s that includes Responsibility and Respect, which may guide practices ensuring welfare in echinoderms, even in the absence of any particular normative.
... Nevertheless, information pertaining fisheries and population dynamics of P. lividus is scarce (Emlet, 2002). In addition, statistical data about the global catch of sea urchin are lacking, making it difficult to obtain accurate estimates of the world sea urchin production (Sun & Chiang, 2015). ...
... The consumption and fishing of sea urchins has progressively spread in different countries around the world (Andrew et al. 2002). There are currently at least 21 commercial species of sea urchins that are deeply rooted in the market, especially in Asian countries, where total sea urchin production reaches 73,000 T per year (Castilla-Gavilán et al. 2018), which, in economic terms, represents a total of between 200 and 300 million USD (Shimabukuro 1991, Sun & Chiang 2015, Castilla-Gavilán et al. 2018). Most of this production (>70%) comes from the Pacific region (Micael et al. 2009, FAO 2016, where Japan has been the main market for sea urchins, as well as the world's leading producer of sea urchins (with an annual domestic demand of approximately 50,000 metric tons) and, therefore, this country is the main regulator of sales prices in the market (www.fao.org). ...
Many authors have tested a large number of tagging methodologies on sea urchins, either with the aim to study
the growth of urchins, their movement patterns, the dynamics of their populations, or their ecology and development in the
natural environment. Different types of markings, both external and internal, have been used for the individual identification
of sea urchins since the year 1935. Since the year 1969, marking techniques based on different chemical substances were also
implemented, either by immersion in fluorochrome baths or by injecting these substances directly into the sea urchin. There is
a clear need to collect all the existing information to date related to the marking methodologies for sea urchins, to establish the
most appropriate marking methodology for each species of sea urchin, depending on the objective and duration of the study to
be performed.
This report presents for the first time a complete review of tagging methodologies used until the date in different species of
sea urchins, from physical methods, such as the use of Passive Integrated Transponder (PIT) Tags, Anchor tags, and so on, to
chemical ones, in which different fluorochromes are used that adhere to the calcified structures of the sea urchin and are subsequently
detected using a fluorescence microscope.
We also analyzed the effectiveness of the methods used in each case, comparing the survival rate, the tag retention rate, or the
recapture rate of tagged urchins obtained with each tagging methodology.
The evolution of the physical tags for sea urchins should be oriented toward the development of more durable markings
over time, which allow marking urchins of smaller diameter and which in turn present a higher retention rate in the long term,
both in captivity conditions and in the natural environment. The chemical tags should be aimed at reducing costs through the
development of methods, where the mark can be visualized without the need of fluorescence microscopes, the development of
methods in which the dyes can be reused, and finally to the development of techniques that allow to visualize the fluorochrome
marks externally, without the need to sacrifice the urchin for the mark detection.
... Described as the organs that accumulate the most trace elements, its gonads and gut are of interest in studies assessing contamination levels in coastal marine ecosystems (Augier et al., 1989;Warnau et al., 1998;Geraci et al., 2004). P. lividus is also a species of economic importance due to its valued consumption in several countries (Fernández-Boán et al., 2013;Powell et al., 2014;Sun and Chiang, 2015), and ecological significance, controlling the dynamics of seaweeds and seagrass through its grazing activity (Lawrence and Sammarco, 1982;Boudouresque and Verlaque, 2013). ...
Among the most common contaminants in marine ecosystems, trace elements are recognized as serious pollutants. In Corsica (NW Mediterranean Sea), near the old asbestos mine at Canari, trace elements from the leaching of mine residues have been discharged into the sea for several decades. The aim of this study was to assess the levels of contamination in this area and the potential effects on Paracentrotus lividus (Lamarck, 1816) using pollution indices, accumulation factors and biochemical tools. For this purpose, the concentration of 24 trace elements was measured in sea urchins (gonads and gut content), macroalgae, seawater column and sediment collected at 12 stations nearby the old asbestos mine and at a reference site. The bioaccumulation of trace elements occurs as follows: macroalgae > gut > gonads. TEPI contribute to highlight contamination gradients which are mainly due to the dominant marine currents allowing the migration of mining waste along the coastline. This hypothesis was supported by TESVI, which identified characteristic trace elements in the southern area of the mine. High hydrogen peroxide content, associated with elevated catalase and glutathione-S-transferase enzyme activities, were also identified at these sites and at the reference site. Trace elements contamination as well as several abiotic factors could explain these results (e.g. microbiological contamination, hydrodynamic events, etc.). The results obtained in this study suggest that oxidative stress induced by contamination does not affect the health of Paracentrotus lividus. This work has provided a useful dataset allowing better use of sea urchins and various tools for assessing trace element contamination in coastal ecosystems.
... Sea urchin roe is a highly valued culinary delicacy worldwide, especially in Asia, North America, Chile, and European countries, accounting for nearly 90% of the global demand (Sun & Chiang, 2015). In Japan, the consumption of sea urchin roe was only confined among the coastal villagers; however, with the introduction of technologies like refrigerated transportation, it is now predominantly available to many populace (Unuma et al., 2015). ...
Sea urchin roe, as raw material, is highly perishable and is usually served raw or fresh. Therefore,
preserving the freshness of the raw products by maintaining good sensory characteristics, such as
appearance/color, odor, flavor, texture, and general acceptability, during distribution has been a
concern of local producers. Here, we evaluated the sensory characteristics of dried, rehydrated, and
fresh (control) sea urchin Tripneustes gratilla roe under different steaming times: 1 min, 2 min, and
3 min. Roe samples were evaluated for sensory characteristics, i.e., color, odor, texture, flavor, and
general acceptability, by the panelists using a 3-point hedonic scale. Findings revealed that there were
no significant differences (p<0.05) among general acceptability, texture, and flavor scores between
sea urchin roes’ processed forms (dried, rehydrated, and fresh) and steaming time (1, 2, and 3 min).
However, in terms of color, the dried roe was significantly different (p<0.05) from the fresh roe but
not from the rehydrated roe, while no significant change (p<0.05) in color was noted between
different steaming times. For odor attribute, there was a significant difference (p<0.05) between the
processed forms, where fresh roe was significantly different (p<0.05) from dried and rehydrated roes,
but steaming time did not significantly affect (p>0.05) the roes’ odor. This study suggests that
steaming for 1-3 min as pre-treatment for dried, rehydrated, and fresh sea urchin T. gratilla roe
generally renders good sensory attributes. It also indicates that drying and rehydration of steamed sea
urchin roe could be used as preservation techniques for a fragile and perishable sea urchin T. gratilla
roe. However, further analyses are needed, particularly on the shelf-life and proximate and microbial
analyses.
... Approximately 75000 t of sea urchins are harvested annually, and Chile, USA, Japan, Canada, Russia, Mexico, Philippines, Peru, Korea and New Zealand are the main harvesting countries (Sun and Chiang 2015, Stefánsson et al. 2017, Agatsuma 2020. Sea urchin gonads have long been regarded as a highly-valued gastronomic delicacy, primarily in Japan, which is the main importer and accounts for 90% of world trade (Stefánsson et al. 2017). ...
The sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus (Lamarck, 1816) (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) is an important economic resource in Europe, but intense harvesting has led to the collapse of several natural populations. Echinoculture, associated with restocking and stock enhancement practices, is an alternative to this problem. In these procedures, reliable individual identification through tagging is a valuable source of information. However, very few studies address the effect of tagging methods on P. lividus and the tagging of marine invertebrates still presents several challenges: decreased growth, high mortality rates and low tag retention rates. Under laboratory conditions, the present study evaluated the effectiveness of three tagging methods (passive integrated transponders [PIT-tags], coded wire tags [CWTs] and calcein) on wild P. lividus for 60 days in terms of total wet weight, total weight gain (mg ind.−1 day−1), survival and tag retention. The final total wet weight was significantly higher in the untagged (control) group than in the PIT-tagged group. Survival rate was 100% for the PIT-tag, calcein and control groups, and 97% for the CWT group. Tag retention differed significantly according to the tagging method: 100% in the calcein group, 76.7% in the PIT-tag group and 38.0% in the CWT group.
... The market value of sea urchin roe depends on specific characteristics related to gonad size, color, and flavor. Despite some regional differences in consumption preferences, high quality and high value roe is usually synonymous with large golden orange to yellow gonads with a distinct sweet ocean taste (Sun and Chiang, 2015). Echinoculture is relatively successful in producing sea urchins with a high gonad yield (e.g., Kennedy et al., 2005;Gibbs et al., 2013;Baião et al., 2019), but problems encountered in producing gonads with the desired market color and flavor have made production of high-value roe difficult (reviewed by Lourenco et al., 2019). ...
The market value of sea urchin roe (female and male gonads) depends on several quality criteria, such as size, color, texture, and flavor. Sea urchins given dry pellet feed often produce large gonads, but the preferred bright orange color has been difficult to achieve without the inclusion of supplementary dietary carotenoids. Gonad color depends on carotenoid concentrations (CC), and is influenced by several factors, including diet and sea urchin sex. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of sea urchin sex, gonad size, and maturation level on gonad color and CC. Small Paracentrotus lividus urchins (18 mm test diameter) were fed every 48 h with three diets of similar proximate composition (protein: 31–33% dry matter DM, fat: 9–10% DM; carbohydrates: 45–46% DM). The diets were formulated with fishmeal, algae, and plant-based ingredients and supplemented with β-carotene (100 mg Kg⁻¹). The nutritional trial was conducted in three recirculatory aquatic systems equipped with 40 L glass tanks guaranteeing triplicates by diet with an initial biomass of 5 g L⁻¹. The gonadosomatic index (GSI), gonad maturity and color of 15 urchins per replica were analyzed at mid-trial (103 days, T1) and at the end of the trial (173 days, T2), and compare with initial condition (baseline). At each sampling event, the color of female (F) and male (M) gonads was analyzed using qualitative (four-level visual scale) and quantitative methods (Commission Internationale de l’ Eclairage CIE L*, a* and b* color parameters). Additionally, CC was determined by spectrophotometry in pooled samples freeze-dried gonads per replica and sex and compared with baseline. At T1, 59 females and 71 males were analyzed, and results showed that females presented larger (GSI = 7.50) gonads with higher CC (117.5 μg g⁻¹ DM) than males (GSI = 5.16 and CC = 76 μg g⁻¹). Female gonads also presented a more intense color (a* = 8.8, b* = 17.13) than males (a* = 5.1, b* = 12.49). At T2, 61 females and 62 males were analyzed and, except for a high percentage of female gonads classified as color grade I (57%), the differences on gonad color and CC between sexes identified in T1 became non-significant. In general, the gonad color tended to become lighter (L*, baseline: 34.8 and T2: 47.2) and yellower (b*, baseline: 12.5 and T2: 17.50), and CC decreased (baseline: 201.8 μg g⁻¹ DM and T2: 31.6 μg g⁻¹ DM) with increasing gonad weight (baseline: 0.16 g and T2: 0.77 g) and GSI (baseline: 3.0% and T2: 9.9%). In conclusion, this study shows that the carotenoid concentration and color attributes of sea urchin gonads are influenced by sea urchin sex and gonad size. The different diets and the carotene supplementation had little or no effect on the gonad CC and color attributes, indicating that the sources and concentrations of carotenoids in the diets were not sufficient to allow the accumulation of pigments in the gonads needed to enhance the color of P. lividus urchins.
... Sea urchins gonads, commercially named roe, have long been considered a highly-valued gastronomic delicacy worldwide, mainly in Asia, but also in Chile, North America and some European countries (Stefánsson et al., 2017;Sun and Chiang, 2015). In Europe, the common sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus (Lamarck, 1816) (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) is the most consumed and valuable echinoid species. ...
Salinity plays a major role in several physiological processes in sea urchins, including reproduction and growth, ultimately affecting survival. Optimal salinity ranges vary considerably between species, as a consequence of ecological adaptations. However, related research in the context of aquaculture is quite scarce, particularly for the stenohaline sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus (Lamarck, 1816), a target species for aquaculture diversification in Europe. It is thus important to better understand the response of this species to hyposalinity conditions over an extended rearing period. Four salinity treatments (20, 25, 30 and 35 psu) were evaluated, over 120 days, in terms of survival, feed intake, growth, gametogenic development and gonadal colour in P. lividus. While a 100% survival was obtained in all treatments, salinity significantly affected all other parameters. Sea urchins reared at 20 psu presented significantly lower linear and specific growth rates, feed intake, gonadosomatic index, as well as a higher feed conversion ratio. While sea urchins reared at 30 and 35 psu were mostly mature, hyposalinity led to a slower gametogenic progression in the lower salinities, particularly at 20 psu. Gonad colouration was only affected in males, as individuals reared at 20 psu presented less brighter, but more reddish and yellowish gonads. The results clearly demonstrate that despite the absence of mortality, rearing salinities of 20 and 25 psu promote a negative effect on somatic and gonadal yield of P. lividus.
... Sea urchin gonads are a luxury seafood with high commercial value [3]. The annual average price of sea urchin gonads at the Tokyo Metropolitan Central Wholesale Market, the largest sea urchin market in the world [4], has nearly doubled over the past decade [5]. In addition, the import of live, fresh, or chilled sea urchins to European and Oceanian countries has been occurring since 2012 [6], indicating that the worldwide demand for sea urchins has been increasing. ...
This study is aimed at revealing the dietary protein requirement for gonad production in the sea urchin Mesocentrotus nudus, with consideration of protein leaching from diets during seawater immersion. Feeding trials were performed on M. nudus using two diet types with low capacities for protein leaching: starch diets (STG) containing 0–40% gluten in 10%, 5%, and 4% increments (experiments 1–3) and alginate diets (ALG) containing 5–25% gluten in 5% increments (experiment 4). The protein content in the diets was determined after they were immersed in seawater for 24 h or 72 h. The gonad indices of urchins fed STG with 11.4–19.3% protein were significantly higher than those fed STG with 7.8% protein. The protein requirement was estimated to be 12% based on a broken-line regression analysis of urchins fed STG in experiments 1–3. In experiment 4, the gonads became larger as dietary protein content increased from 4.5% to 12.0%, and the sizes were similar to those of urchins fed ALG with 12.0–21.1% protein. The estimated value of 12% was much lower than that reported previously (>20%), indicating that the protein requirement for sea urchin gonad production is modest when the protein-leaching problem is addressed.
... There are ∼900 species of this organism distributed throughout the coastal oceans in the world (Hamdoun et al. 2018) and their gonads are widely consumed by humans (Archana and Babu 2016). Japan is the main market for sea urchin gonads, where the price of fresh gonads can reach €40-100/kg (Sun and Chiang 2015). Currently, around 115,000 metric tons of sea urchins are harvested and traded annually around the world (FAO 2018). ...
Echinometra vanbrunti is an echinoid found in abundance in the eastern Pacific, including the Gulf of California in Mexico. The aim of this study is to document its annual reproductive cycle from monthly sampling. Growth, condition and gonadosomatic index (GSI) were determined from morphometric data. Additionally, sex ratio and morphology of sea urchin gonads and their gametes were analysed by histology and microscopy. The growth pattern of E. vanbrunti was allometric. The monthly variations of GSI are explained by gonad condition and the gametogenesis cycle. An annual reproductive cycle was observed with higher GSI from July–September and the highest percentage of females and males in the mature stage in the same period. Gonad histology agreed with this single gametogenic cycle per year, and gametogenesis in males and females being highly synchronized in this species. Spawning period started in July and ended in November for both sexes.
... For example, in California where purple urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) densities have increased exponentially (Rogers- Bennett and Catton, 2019) and in Tasmania where the long-spine sea urchin (Centrostephanus rodgersii) has extended its range (Ling, 2008), kelp forests have succumbed to grazing and sea urchins are widely considered undesirable. However, some species of sea urchins are regarded highly, with great commercial and cultural importance as traditional foods and delicacies (Andrew et al., 2002); their roe ("uni") can fetch market prices as high as USD$100/kg (Sun and Chiang, 2015). Indeed, the "culprit" sea urchin can be seen as both a pest species and a cherished food, and the removal of these sea urchins for kelp restoration purposes can be a sensitive issue. ...
Kelp and macroalgal forests provide the ecological foundations of many temperate rocky reef ecosystems, but have regionally declined, often due to sea urchin overgrazing and the formation of urchin barrens. Sea urchin removal has long been used to investigate kelp-sea urchin dynamics and is increasingly being promoted for kelp forest restoration. In this review, we assess the methods and outcomes of sea urchin removal experiments to evaluate their potential use and feasibility as a tool for restoring macroalgal forests. Seventy-nine sea urchin removal projects were reviewed from temperate subtidal rocky reef systems between 1975 and 2020. Removal methods were often not reported (35%), but included manual culling, including crushing (25%) and chemical application (quicklime, 9%), or relocating sea urchins (13%). Only a small percentage of removals were large in scale (16% > 10 ha) and 92% of these utilized culling. Culling is often the most practical method of urchin removal, but all methods can be effective and we encourage development of new approaches that harvest and utilize low-quality urchins. Urchin removal led to an increase in macroalgae in 70% of studies, and a further 21% showed partial increases (e.g., at one or more sites or set of conditions). Restoration effectiveness is increased by removing essentially all sea urchins from discrete areas of urchin barrens. Sea urchin removal provides a simple, relatively cheap, and effective method that promotes kelp recovery within urchin barrens. However, sea urchin removal does not address the underlying cause of elevated sea urchin populations and is unlikely to provide a long-term solution to restore kelp forests and full ecosystem function on its own. We therefore suggest that if sea urchin removal is considered as a tool for kelp forest restoration, it should be incorporated with other management measures that aim to increase kelp forest resilience and biodiversity (e.g., marine protected areas, predator protection or enhancement). This will ensure that kelp restoration efforts have the greatest ecological, socio-economic and cultural outcomes in the long-term.
... Sea urchin gonads are gourmet seafood delicacy in many parts of the world, including in Japan, in the Mediterranean, in the West Indies, in Chile, in California among Native Americans, and in New Zealand among the M aori (Andrew et al. 2002;Sun and Chiang 2015). Eating sea urchin is popularly assumed to induce a slight euphoria as it contains anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamine or AEA) (Bisogno et al. 1997)-an endocannabinoid neurotransmitter responsible for modulating, among others, pleasure and pain signals (Devane et al. 1992). ...
Maritime adaptation is a key component of the Neolithization process in Eastern Arabia. It is expressed by the development of diversified fishing techniques, the exploitation of hard marine animal materials (e.g., sea-shells, shark teeth, stingray's barbs, etc.) for both tools and personal adornments production, advanced seafaring, and colonization of offshore islands. Although a diet based mainly on the consumption of marine fish and mollusks, the importance of other seafood has been greatly underestimated in previous zooarchaeological studies. Large quantities of marine crabs (NISP = 10,619) and sea urchins (NISP = 2454) have been retrieved from newly excavated Neolithic sites in the United Arab Emirates. These data highlight local developments of interest for specific seafood and their intensive exploitation over several centuries of human occupation. This study focuses on methods for identifying the main edible marine crab and sea urchin species retrieved from archaeological sites in Eastern Arabia. Results from the Neolithic sites of Delma Island and the Umm al-Quwain lagoon are discussed.
... The price paid to the diver for live urchins, how the urchin roe (uni) is processed, and where the roe is distributed depends on the quality of the gonad (Kato and Schroeter, 1985). Although the vast majority of the exports are sent to Japan, there is a growing market for urchins in the United States, especially in California (Sun and Chiang, 2015;Sonu, 2017). While some of the product is sold live, much of it is sold fresh following highly specialized, labor-intensive processing, which occurs at or near ports where the catch is landed. ...
Understanding and anticipating the effects of climate change on fisheries social-ecological systems (FSESs) is central to proactive fisheries management in a changing global climate. With fisheries management increasingly striving to consider interactions and feedbacks among people, targeted species, and the broader ecological and human communities, fisheries managers and participants need tools to help them assess these complex systems. We developed a new climate vulnerability assessment framework for analyzing the impacts of a climate-induced trend or event on a FSES. The framework divides the FSES into four interrelated and interacting domains: Ecological Community, Fished Species, Fishery, and Human Community. The framework provides a systematic approach to account for indirect as well as direct effects, links among subsystems, and multiple climate change-induced stressors. We demonstrate the framework’s utility by applying it to three case studies: the effects of a marine heatwave on the Dungeness crab FSES, the effects of a marine heatwave on the red sea urchin FSES, and the effects of long-term climate trends on North Pacific albacore. We found that the effects of a climatic trend or event on a FSES are often indirect and can trigger diverse and important feedbacks. These examples also showed that the climatic trend or event may cause changes in the temporal and spatial distribution of fishing effort and fished species that have a more significant impact on the FSES than changes to species abundance per se. Unlike other climate vulnerability assessment frameworks and applications, ours is designed to enable consideration of the range of feedbacks within and among both the ecological and human communities. As such, it is a valuable tool to guide the holistic examination and assessment of potential impacts to FSESs.
... Several bioactive compounds as pigments, proteins, lipids, amino acids, fatty acids, polysaccharides and minerals are isolated from sea urchin (Fig. 2) and are having various bioactive properties (Fig. 3). Owing to the presence of various bioactive components sea urchin's gonads has proven a new way of application for culinary purpose in many European countries, Chile, North America, Asia, China and particularly Japan; also, its stated that, the demand for sea urchinbased compounds is increasing worldwide which has reached up to 90% today (Sun and Chiang, 2015). It is consumed by blending along with sauces and indebted stuffed with pasta (Gangi, 2011), or generally spread on bread and consumed with wines as, their taste is delicate and musky, sweet, with sea salt flavours, sea urchin is an ingredient which divides opinion and is prized as much for the smooth texture as its taste and aroma (Wise, 2008). ...
Marine ecosystem is a treasure house of drugs as a plenty of marine organisms possess interesting bioactive properties that has to be explored further to find applications in the biomedical and pharmaceutical arena. Sea urchin is a seafloor dwelling invertebrate belonging to the phylum Echinodermata is having high nutritional and medicinal properties. It is rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, fatty acids and polysaccharides and possess anticancer, anticoagulant/antithrombotic, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. The extracts and hydrolysates of sea urchin have various bioactive compounds especially glycosides, acid polysaccharide, sphingoid, glycolipids, sulfate, polysaccharides and phospholipids. Owing to its wide range of biomedical properties, the present review aims to summarize the therapeutic applications of valuable bioactive components in sea urchins. This review could act as a key reference to identify the new potential bioactive molecules in the drug industry and unravels the applications of sea urchin.
... Sea urchins are a group of marine invertebrates that today can be found in almost all major marine habitats, from the poles to the Equator and from the intertidal to the deepest depths (Hooker et al., 2005) The gonads of sea urchin are used as food since the time of the Romans. Some species of sea urchins are commercially exploited as food resources since the seventeenth century, being a highly valued resource, especially in the Asian market, where the highest quality gonads are a "gourmet" product that can reach a value of $ 300 / kg (Sun and Chiang, 2015). The main countries producing sea urchins are Chile, Japan, the United States, Russia, China (mainly due to its volume of culture) and Canada (Gaspar, 2000). ...
Sea urchin species are ecologically important in the Gulf of California and are becoming popular as a local fishery due their commercial value. The most abundant species are Echinometra vanbrunti , Eucidaris thouarsii , and Tripneustes depressus . The aim of this study was to evaluated cadmium, lead, copper, zinc, and iron concentrations as well as stable isotope values in these sea urchin species in mining area of Santa Rosalia (STR). Metal concentrations were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry and stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes were estimated using mass spectrophotometry. Highest values of Fe (108.8 mg Kg ⁻¹ ), was found in E. vanbrunti , while highest values of Pb (15.4 mg Kg ⁻¹ ), Cu (14.5 mg Kg ⁻¹ ), and Zn (347.7 mg Kg ⁻¹ ) were found in E. thouarsii ; and highest values of Cd (10.8 mg Kg ⁻¹ ) was found in T. depressus . The main ecological risk of trace metal pollution in STR may be caused by Cd and Pb. d ¹⁵ N values were higher in E. thouarsii and d ¹³ C in T. depressus , and E. thouarsii have the highest trophic position. There is not relationship between size and metal concentrations, but a positive relation exists between size and isotopic values in T. depressus . The three species showed different bioaccumulation pattern for the metals analyzed. Additionally, collection site and season play an important role in the metal concentration variability. Given that these species are consumed by humans, some risk of trace metals toxicity could be expected due to the accumulation patterns and characteristics of the sites studied.
Approximately 75,000 tons of different sea urchin species are globally harvested for their edible gonads. Applying a circular economy approach, we have recently demonstrated that non-edible parts of the Mediterranean Sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus can be fully valorized into high-value products: antioxidant pigments (polyhydroxynaphthoquinones—PHNQs) and fibrillar collagen can be extracted to produce innovative biomaterials for biomedical applications. Can waste from other edible sea urchin species (e.g., Sphaerechinus granularis) be similarly valorised? A comparative study on PHNQs and collagen extraction was conducted. PHNQ extraction yields were compared, pigments were quantified and identified, and antioxidant activities were assessed (by ABTS assay) and correlated to specific PHNQ presence (i.e., spinochrome E). Similarly, collagen extraction yields were evaluated, and the resulting collagen-based biomaterials were compared in terms of their ultrastructure, degradation kinetics, and resistance to compression. Results showed a partially similar PHNQ profile in both species, with significantly higher yield in P. lividus, while S. granularis exhibited better antioxidant activity. P. lividus samples showed higher collagen extraction yield, but S. granularis scaffolds showed higher stability. In conclusion, waste from different species can be successfully valorised through PHNQ and collagen extraction, offering diverse applications in the biomedical field, according to specific technical requirements.
Abstract
Remarkably, day after day, new echinoderm species were added to Phylum Echinodermata that include starfish, sea cucumbers, feather stars, and sea urchins. In this work, the sea urchins especially “Tripneustes gratilla” and “Echinometra mathaei” are the animals of choice due to their popularity, medical and economic importance. The coelomic epithelium and the free coelomocytes of both sea urchins were ultrastructurally studied in addition to the chemical analyses of their coelomic fluids, followed by protein docking. The coelomic epithelium (CE) of “Tripneustes gratilla” exhibits 4 main cells which are 1) basal cells, 2) short cells, 3) elongated-wide cells, 4) elongated-narrow cells, all of which are polygonal coelomocytes. Additionally, the CE of the sea urchin “Echinometra mathaei” is composed of 1) small cells, 2) red spherules 3) leucocytes, and 4) colourless spherules, which are irregular shape coelomocytes. The free coelomocytes of both sea urchins “Tripneustes gratilla” and “Echinometra mathaei” appeared in the amoeboid state (resembling the human phagocytic cells) with three distinctive forms: the leucocytes, the red spherules (type “1” and type “2”), and the colorless spherules. The nuclear egress was noticeable from the nuclei of the coelomic epithelial cells of both the adult sea urchins, “Tripneustes gratilla” and “Echinometra mathaei”. The CE of Tripneustes gratilla showed circular mitochondria with semi-circular cristae, while the CE of Echinometra mathaei showed elongated mitochondria. Chemically, the coelomic fluid extracted from both the adult sea urchins “Tripneustes gratilla” and “Echinometra mathaei” exhibited glycogen synthase kinase3-β protein. Ultrastructurally, the coelomic epithelium from both adult sea urchins “Tripneustes gratilla” and “Echinometra mathaei” showed 4 different units of coelomocytes, in which the coelomocytes of “Tripneustes gratilla” are elongated and polygonal; while the coelomocytes of Echinometra mathaei are morphologically irregular. In addition, the free coelomocytes from both adult sea urchins “Tripneustes gratilla” and “Echinometra mathaei” are irregular in shape resembling the human phagocytes, i.e. theshape meets the function. Chemically, the coelomic fluids extracted from both adult sea urchins “Tripneustes gratilla” and “Echinometra mathaei” exhibit glycogen synthase kinase3-β protein that could be used as an effective or potent agent for wound healing or skin regeneration.
Keywords
Tripneustes gratilla; Echinometra mathaei; Coelomic epithelium; Coelomocytes; Ultrastructure; Coelomic fluid
Aquaculture is an established technique for producing marine species. However, it creates large amounts of nutrient‐rich waste. Therefore, it is worth examining the methods available to use these nutrients and close the nutrient cycle. This review covers research activities of different saline water methods for food production. These are Integrated Multi‐Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA), Biofloc Technology (BFT) and marine aquaponics. IMTA combines on‐ and offshore aquaculture with macroalgae and filter feeder production. Commercial implementations have been achieved but are not widely used. Especially shrimp are suitable for cultivation in saline BFT systems. Few commercial deployments exist. There is a well‐established market for the products of IMTA and BFT systems. Marine aquaponics is increasingly being tested as part of an expansion of Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS) and BFT systems, but commercial implementations are not known. Moreover, there is no established market for the resulting salt‐tolerant plants (halophytes). Market prices and popularity were evaluated to assess the economic potential of the different plant and aquaculture species farmed with IMTA, BFT and marine aquaponics. There are established markets for well‐known products, but therefore the competition is greater. Niche products are offered occasionally, but often achieve top prices. Closing nutrient cycles and increasing saline water usage for food production as well as high product diversity are necessary to mitigate the increasing pressure on freshwater resources and to be able to feed the growing world population. Therefore, IMTA, BFT and marine aquaponics are promising techniques for reducing pressure on freshwater resources and improving food supply.
Sea urchins comprise a large number of species that occupy coastal open ocean water worldwide. Sea urchins have been harvested for their edible gonads, commonly referred to as roe, for a long time, mainly in the Mediterranean and parts of Asia, with the Japanese being the main consumers. With increased interest in sushi fine cuisine worldwide, wild stocks of sea urchins have declined, prompting investment in aquaculture. Sea urchin reproduction involves male and female gonads from which sperm and eggs are released into the seawater. During early development, sea urchin larvae are freely motile in the ocean, then as juveniles attach to suitable rock surfaces in coastal water adjacent to their kelp food source. Harvesting and processing of mature sea urchins to obtain the edible roe are labor intensive. Only the best quality roe attracts the highest prices, particularly in Japan. Roe quality is highly dependent on sensory attributes such as color, appearance, size, texture, and taste, that are influenced by seasonal harvesting, as well as a roe from different sea urchin species exhibiting different attributes. A number of studies have reported on the molecular composition of roe, and as with other marine animals, the sea urchin roe contains substantial amounts of health-promoting polyunsaturated lipid. In more recent times, genomic, transcriptomic and proteomic studies have provided opportunities to obtain a better understanding of sea urchin genetics, and along with aquaculture trials aimed at manipulating sensory attributes, such as the color of the roe, have future potential to supplement the declining wild stocks of sea urchin, and provide roe product for the market that is more consistent in sensory attributes, that is quality assured in heath and microbiological safety.
Reliable methods of tracing the geographical origin of sea urchin are urgently needed for food safety and consumer health. To the best of our knowledge, the present study was the first attempt to trace the geographic origins of sea urchin by using stable isotope techniques. The δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N and δ¹⁸O values from the gonad and spine of sea urchins collected from five locations were analyzed. From the gonad samples, the δ¹³C values ranged from −22.07‰ to −18.37‰, the δ¹⁵N values ranged from 6.59‰ to 9.99‰, and the δ¹⁸O values ranged from 17.64‰ to 27.19‰. From the spine samples, the δ¹³C values ranged from −5.43‰ to −3.57‰, the δ¹⁵N values ranged from 7.95‰ to 13.66‰, and the δ¹⁸O values ranged from 33.99‰ to 40.15‰. The δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values from the gonads differed significantly among samples from different geographic origins, but the δ¹⁸O values did not differ. The δ¹⁵N and δ¹⁸O values from the spines differed significantly among samples from different geographic origins, but the δ¹³C values did not differ. Both quadratic discriminant analysis (QDA) and the k-nearest neighbor (KNN) methods yielded low recognition of the δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, and δ¹⁸O values from the gonad samples. However, higher accuracy was obtained using the stable isotope values from the spine samples combined with QDA or KNN methods. Moreover, the KNN methods gave more satisfactory accuracy, the initial, cross-validated, and predictive classification rate were 97.1%, 97.1%, and 93.3%, respectively. The C, N, and O stable isotope analysis of spine samples may be used to verify the geographic origin of sea urchins.
Sea urchin gonads are considered a prized seafood product. Their market price depends on quality and appearance, mainly evaluated through colour. The desirable yellow-orange colour is determined by carotenoids deposition in the gonads, mainly the accumulation of echinenone, which depends on availability, uptake and bioconversion of β-carotene from dietary sources. Two β-carotene sources, a synthetic (SYN) and a natural (paprika, PAP) source, were tested at low (L) and high (H) incorporation target levels (100 and 250 mg β-carotene kg⁻¹ feed) in diets for Paracentrotus lividus. A non-supplemented diet was used as a control (CTRL) diet. After eight weeks of feeding, all diets effectively increased gonad weight and somatic index in both sexes, without significant differences between treatments. Total carotenoid content and profile, lightness (L*) and texture of gonads did not vary significantly among dietary treatments. However, gonad redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) values were significantly higher in urchins fed the L_SYN diet than in those fed either with the CTRL or L_PAP diets; female displayed higher values than male. L_SYN also showed higher consumers´ acceptance when compared to the other diets and female displayed higher acceptance rates than male, probably due to the fact that females were more orange, appealing and pleasant compared with the yellow, grainy and not appealing males. Male fed L_SYN diet exhibited similar colour and carotenoid content compared to wild animals in the same stage of gonad maturation (stage III), but female differed significantly; however, neither of the sex demonstrated acceptance differences in relation to their wild counterparts. Diets with the lower β-carotene inclusion induced changes in gonad colour but not in carotenoid pigments. This suggests that gonad colour is not exclusively modulated by dietary carotenoid supplementation and that it may be affected by other sex-dependent nutritional or metabolic factors.
Bu çalışmada, Gökçeada kıyılarında Paracentrotus lividus ve Arbacia lixula gonadlarında 2014-2015 yıllarında mevsimsel olarak Pb, Cu, Zn, Cd ve Fe düzeyleri araştırılmıştır. P. lividus’un en yüksek iz element konsantrasyonları arasındaki sıralama Zn> Fe> Cu> Pb> Cd şeklindedir. A. lixula gonadlarındaki iz element konsantrasyonu sıralaması ise Fe> Zn>Cu>Pb> Cd olarak belirlenmiştir. Yapılan tek yönlü varyans analizlerine göre iz element konsantrasyonlarındaki farklılıklar, türlere, istasyonlara göre değişim göstermektedir. Aynı durum mevsimler arasındaki iz element konsantrasyonlarındaki farklılıklar için de geçerlidir. Deniz kestanelerinde kirlilik izlenme çalışmaları için sadece aynı dokular arasında iz element konsantrasyonlarını karşılaştırmaya özen gösterilmelidir. Vücut dokuları arasında, üreme dönemleri dışında gonadlar, biyomonitor dokular olarak değerlendirilmek üzere önerilmektedir.
Echinoderms are defined as literally spiny skinned animals. These are exclusively marine animals. They are the best-known group of marine invertebrates due to their frequent occurrence in coastal regions, their interesting shapes and volumes, and their macroscopic size. Echinoderm species are abundant both in coral reef communities as in the intertidal and shallow subtidal areas around the world. Echinoderms play an important role in the ecology of the marine ecosystem; they are primary consumers in the food chain cycle in these ecosystems. They are also a source of food and medicine for humans. Echinoderms are considered delicacies in some countries especially south-eastern Asian countries. There are three organisms commonly used in echinoderm groups. These are sea urchins, sea cucumbers and sea stars. Sea urchin and sea cucumber are used as food for consumption, as for sea stars, they are used for decoration and sold as souvenir. In addition, echinoderms are also used in medicine because of the bioactive compounds they contain.
The red sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, is a conspicuous member of subtidal communities in the north Pacific. Within the last decade, this ecologically important species has been exposed to intense harvesting for the first time ever. Analysis of population census data suggest that harvestable size urchins have rapidly declined in shallow regions while catch-per-effort and landings data suggest that divers have maintained high landings by exploiting more distant and difficult fishing areas, including deeper areas. We present a size-structured model for the red sea urchin both to estimate what previous levels of harvesting mortality were and to explore what effect future harvesting strategies might have on population trajectories. Using population census data, we explore three models: one that would result in an equilibrial population size in the absence of fishing, one that includes positive density dependence (an "Allee effect"), and one that incorporates realistic variability in recruitment. Our principal findings are that annual fishing mortality levels that best fit the observed census data in the past (1984-1993) were 0.38-0.49 and represent a 70-90% decrease in the survivorship of harvestable urchins in the years of fishing. Under a variety of fishing strategies, 100-yr projections indicated that the inclusion of an Allee effect or variability in recruitment could drive the harvestable population to <50% of present estimated population size at relatively low annual fishing mortality values. Our simulations also indicated that, although a yearly fishery would have higher yields, a rotational fishery would maintain populations at a level less likely to cause irreversible decline. The wealth of empirical evidence that sea urchins are an important component of nearshore communities should encourage management strategies that emphasize long-term population viability.
Scale mismatches result in incomplete or ambiguous feedback that impairs the ability to learn and adapt and, ultimately, to sustain natural resources. Our aim is to examine the sea urchin fishery in Maine, USA to better understand the multiscale, social, and biophysical conditions that are important for the design of institutions that might be able to sustain the resource. During the late 1980s and 1990s, the Maine sea urchin fishery was a classic gold rush fishery. In the beginning, the fishery was characterized by an abundant resource with little to no harvesting activity, followed by a period of rapid increase in landings and effort that led to a subsequent and persistent decline in the sea urchin population and a significant reduction in effort. We conducted semistructured interviews with scientists and experienced fishermen to understand the multiscale, social, and biophysical conditions that influence fishermen's harvesting strategies, and the implications of this for the design of institutions for successful resource management. The current co-management system includes an advisory body made up of industry members and scientists it also includes limited entry, and additional input control mechanisms. Many of these measures are implemented at a very broad scale; however, we find that the ecological conditions relevant to the sustainable processes occur at the scale of individual fishing sites or ledges, which is a much finer scale than current management. Therefore, the co-management system maintains an open access system and leaves few incentives for the development of sustainable harvesting strategies among fishermen. The clear suggestion is that the appropriate management system would be one that directly addresses the fine scale ecological and social dynamics within this fishery and gives fishermen property rights over individual ledges (for example, leases). After having briefly reviewed experiences in Canada and Chile, we found that knowledge of the coupled natural and human system at the fine scale is necessary if we are to assess the feasibility of area management in this fishery, because what works in one fishery does not necessarily work in another.
The fitness or population growth rate of populations with Allee effects increases with increasing population size or density up to a certain threshold. Allee effects are possible in marine populations, as they are less open than has been assumed and may have a metapopulation structure. We modelled the population consequences of Allee effects and show that increases in mortality interact with critical Allee thresholds, such that an Allee effect with no population consequences at low mortality can drive a population to extinction when mortality is increased. In heavily fished species, populations with strong Allee effects go extinct at lower levels of fishing mortality, or conversely as fishing mortality increases, weaker Allee effects can drive population to extinction. We found little empirical evidence in the literature for widespread Allee effects in marine populations, although we found some suggestive observations, particularly for broadcast spawners and in exploited populations This might be due to methodological problems or long time lags. Many marine species have components of their life history or ecology which could in theory generate Allee effects; however the population level consequences of these potential mechanisms remains virtually unexplored. We suggest that including Allee effects in models of vulnerable populations may be critical for the precautionary management of exploited and threatened marine species.
The coast line of the Canary Islands (Spain) has suffered from a plague of Diadema antillarum (sea urchin) over the last decades. This has attracted the attention of local authorities since it is becoming a serious environmental problem. We set out to analyse the potential market for sea urchin meat in this region, where this species is not subject to commercial exploitation and it is relatively unknown. The paper uses data from a sample of volunteers who were interviewed before and after tasting different dishes cooked with sea urchin. We applied discrete choice models considering that answers before and after experiencing this food belonged to different types of data; this is a mixed data approach in the state of practice. Our main conclusion is that there is indeed a market niche for having specialised restaurants serving sea urchin as a delicacy food.
Benthic marine invertebrates with planktonic larvae may exhibit Allee effects in reproduction or recruitment. Hydrodynamic considerations and experimental evidence suggest that species broadcasting gametes suffer greatly reduced fertilization efficiencies as densities decline. There is also evidence for some species, including the red sea urchin, that post-dispersal recruitment success declines at low densities of adults, if adults provide shelter from predators or other sources of mortality. Species displaying strong Allee effects may be susceptible to catastrophic population collapses with slight increases in mortality due to harvesting or natural causes. A simple two patch logistic model suggests that the establishment of a harvest refuge is necessary to prevent collapses and maintain sustainable catches at high levels of harvesting effort. A more detailed, age structured model based on the biology of the red sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus produces similar results. Effects of harvesting strategies are sensitive to Allee effects caused by both fertilization efficiency and the disruption of adult spine canopies. Theoretical requirements for the size and spacing of marine reserves depends upon the dispersal abilities of the target species. Multiple reserves, spaced more closely than the average larval dispersal distance, appear to be an effective and conservative strategy for maintaining healthy populations and sustainable levels of harvest.
Marijuana has been in use for over 4000 years as a therapeutic and as a recreational drug. Within the past decade, two cannabinoid receptor types have been identified, their signal transduction characterized, and an endogenous lipid agonist isolated from mammalian tissues. The CB1 cannabinoid receptor is widely distributed in mammalian tissues, with the highest concentrations found in brain neurons. CB1 receptors are coupled to modulation of adenylate cyclase and ion channels. The CB2 receptor is found in cells of the immune system and is coupled to inhibition of adenylate cyclase. Both receptor types selectively bind delta 9-THC, the active principle in marijuana, and anandamide (arachidonylethanolamide), an endogenous cannabimimetic eicosanoid. Progress is being made in the development of novel agonists and antagonists with receptor subtype selectivity, mice with genetic deletion of the cannabinoid receptors, and receptor-specific antibodies, which should help in providing a better understanding of the physiological role of the cannabinoid receptors.
This chapter discusses sea-urchin roe cuisine. Sea-urchin roe is eaten most simply raw on bread with lemon. Today, many think of eating sea-urchin roe in the Japanese manner as sushi. However, the Japanese have a variety of ways of preparing sea urchins, such as Uni no Kanten. Yukio Agatsuma has provided recipes of traditional Japanese methods for preparing sea urchins for eating. Echizen Uni is from Fukui Prefecture and uses Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus. The roe are removed from the testes, washed in seawater, drained, sprinkled with salt, and placed in wooden casks. Shimonoseki Uni from Yamaguchi Prefecture also uses H. pulcherrimus. Strongylocentrotus nudus is used in Kaiyaki Uni from Iwate Prefecture. The traditional preparations of Paracentrotus lividus are found in Provence. An oursinado is eaten with bread or potatoes, as a soup base, or as a crème d’oursin served with fish. It is prepared by mashing roe in a mortar and pestle and adding olive oil little by little to make a mayonnaise.
A 6-week experiment (August 10 to September 21, 1999) was conducted to determine the effect of urchin size and diet on gonad enhancement of the green sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis. Sea urchins were collected from the wild and divided into four size classes—30.0–39.9, 40.0–49.9, 50.0–59.9, and 60.0–73.0 mm test diameter—each size group being split into two dietary treatments [prepared feed or kelp (Laminaria longicruris and/or Laminaria digitata)]. The experiment was a 4×2 completely crossed design. A number of gonad attributes were quantified at the beginning and end of the experiment including: wet weight, percent yield, percent water, colour, texture, firmness, and taste. The percent change of these variables over the 6-week period was calculated. Colour was assessed subjectively by eye using colour ratings and objectively with a reflected-light, fibre-optic spectrophotometer to generate CIE L* (lightness), a* (hue), and b* (chroma) values. Gonad taste was subjectively evaluated at the end of the experiment. Results from experimental sea urchins were compared and contrasted with those of wild specimens collected from the source population at the end of the experiment. Percent gonad yield at the end of the experiment and percent increase in percent gonad yield over the 6-week period was significantly greater in urchins fed the prepared diet than in those fed kelp. Percent gonad yield was highest in the 40.0–49.9 mm group, followed closely by the 50.0–59.9 and 30.0–39.9 mm size groups, whereas percent increase in percent gonad yield decreased with increasing urchin size. Gonad colour at the end of the experiment was significantly better in urchins fed the prepared diet than in those fed kelp (as judged by colour ratings, a*, and b*) and was better in smaller than larger individuals (as judged by colour ratings, L*, and a*). Percent change in gonad colour ratings decreased and percent change in L* and a* increased with increasing urchin size. Urchin size and feed type had no significant effect on gonad texture, but both factors significantly influenced gonad firmness and taste. Gonads of urchins fed the prepared diet were significantly softer and had significantly more water than those fed kelp. Gonad firmness and percent change in firmness increased with increasing urchin size. Kelp-fed individuals produced significantly better tasting gonads than those fed the prepared diet. The largest urchins produced the best tasting gonads of those fed kelp, but the smallest individuals had the best gonad taste of those fed the prepared diet. Overall, considering both gonad quantity and quality factors, sea urchins of 40.0–49.9 mm test size were deemed to be the most promising for gonad enhancement operations.
Cannabinoid receptors have been described in sea urchin sperm and shown to mediate inhibition of sperm acrosome reaction. Anandamide (arachidonoyl-ethanolamide), the mammalian physiological ligand at the cannabinoid CB1 receptor, has been subsequently found to effect this inhibition. Here we present data showing that ovaries from the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus contain anandamide and two related acyl-ethanolamides, as well as enzymatic activities potentially responsible for their biosynthesis and degradation. Pilot experiments carried out with either ovaries or spermatozoa, extracted from both P. lividus and Arbacea lixula and radiolabelled with [14C]ethanolamine, showed that in sexually mature ovaries of both species significant levels of radioactivity were incorporated into a lipid component with the same chromatographic behaviour as anandamide. Lipid extracts from P. lividus ovaries were purified and analysed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry which showed the presence of low but measurable amounts of anandamide, palmitoyl- and stearoyl-ethanolamides. The extracts were also found to contain lipid components with the same chromatographic behaviour as the N-acyl-phosphatidyl-ethanolamines, the phospholipid precursors of acyl-ethanolamides in mammalian tissues, and capable of releasing anandamide, palmitoyl- and stearoyl-ethanolamides upon digestion with S. chromofuscus phospholipase D. Accordingly, whole homogenates from P. lividus contained an enzymatic activity capable of converting synthetic [3H]N-arachidonoyl-phosphatidyl-ethanolamine into [3H]anandamide. Finally, mature ovaries of P. lividus were shown also to contain an amidohydrolase activity which catalyses the hydrolysis of anandamide and palmitoyl-ethanolamide to ethanolamine. This enzyme displayed subcellular distribution, pH/temperature dependency profiles and sensitivity to inhibitors similar but not identical to those of the previously described `anandamide amidohydrolase' from mammalian tissues. These data support the hypothesis, formulated in previous studies, that anandamide or related metabolites may be oocyte-derived cannabimimetic regulators of sea urchin fertility. © 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Case Studies in Fisheries Self-Governance
- M. Featherstone
- J. Rogers
In Japan, searching for prized sea urchins
- Belson K.
Uni and selected shellfish products in Japan and Hong Kong: An update
- Q S C Fong
- Crapo
- Marsh
Chefs'Uni-versal obsession with sea urchin
- M Takeuchi
The sea urchin fishery: Harvesting, processing, and the market
- Reynolds
The kiss of the sea urchin
- Wise N.
Reducing overgrazing by sea urchins by market development
- Miyata T.
Effect of urchin size and diet on gonad yield and quality in the green sea urchin
- Pearce
Escape From the Sushi Bar
- Moskin J.