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Limited evidence of individual differences in holistic processing in different versions of the part-whole paradigm

Authors:
Mackenzie Sunday at Vanderbilt University
Mackenzie Sunday
Jennifer J Richler
Jennifer J Richler
Jennifer J Richler
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Isabel Gauthier at Vanderbilt University
Isabel Gauthier
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Abstract and Figures

The part-whole paradigm was one of the first measures of holistic processing and it has been used to address several topics in face recognition, including its development, other-race effects, and more recently, whether holistic processing is correlated with face recognition ability. However the task was not designed to measure individual differences and it has produced measurements with low reliability. We created a new holistic processing test designed to measure individual differences based on the part-whole paradigm, the Vanderbilt Part Whole Test (VPWT). Measurements in the part and whole conditions were reliable, but, surprisingly, there was no evidence for reliable individual differences in the part-whole index (how well a person can take advantage of a face part presented within a whole face context compared to the part presented without a whole face) because part and whole conditions were strongly correlated. The same result was obtained in a version of the original part-whole task that was modified to increase its reliability. Controlling for object recognition ability, we found that variance in the whole condition does not predict any additional variance in face recognition over what is already predicted by performance in the part condition.
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All content in this area was uploaded by Isabel Gauthier on Oct 24, 2017
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Running head: part-whole paradigm
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Keywords:*part-whole*paradigm;*holistic*processing,*face*recognition*
Running head: part-whole paradigm
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Running head: part-whole paradigm
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Running head: part-whole paradigm
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Running head: part-whole paradigm
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Running head: part-whole paradigm
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Running head: part-whole paradigm
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O=4=!;:?!4A5!F%R*!"WU!E5?5!9:>>59456!=@!B=?4!:;!=!>=?C5?!6=4=@54!4A=4!=>@:!
289><656!4A5!F=865?G2>4!]=95!L=49A28C!*5@4,!=86!F0%*D]W!+8>I!4A5!6=4=!;?:3!4A5!
F%R*!"WU!=?5!?5B:?456!A5?5W!+85!A<86?56!=86!@2[4ID;:<?!B=?4292B=84@!E5?5!
?59?<2456!;?:3!)3=N:8!L59A=829=>!*<?M!4:!9:3B>545!4A5!F=865?G2>4!]=95!L=49A28C!
*5@4W!R5!9:84=9456!4A5@5!B=?4292B=84@!:85!6=I!=;45?!4A5I!9:3B>5456!4A5!F=865?G2>4!
]=95!L=49A28C!*5@4!YF]L*Z!4:!:;;5?!4A53!4A5!:BB:?4<824I!4:!9:3B>545!4A5!F%R*!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
"!*:!B?553B4!9:895?8@!=G:<4!4A5@5!9A=8C5@,!24!2@!<@5;<>!4:!8:45!4A=4!28!(4<6I!S!E5!
?5B>29=45!:<?!3=28!?5@<>4@!E24A!=!75?@2:8!:;!4A5!:?2C28=>!4=@MW!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
b!
=86!F0%*D]W!%=?4292B=84@!E5?5!9:3B58@=456!H(iUWb`!;:?!9:3B>5428C!4A5!F]L*,!=86!
C2758!=8!=66242:8=>!G:8<@!:;!H(iPW`U!2;!4A5I!9:3B>5456!G:4A!4A5!F%R*!=86!F0%*D]W!
+;!4A5!"UV!B=?4292B=84@!EA:!9:3B>5456!4A5!F%R*!YS^!3=>5_!35=8!=C5!h!VUW"P!I5=?@,!
=C5!?=8C5!h!"^eTQ!I5=?@Z,!b"WTj!E5?5!-=<9=@2=8,!bWTj!E5?5!)@2=8,!`Wbj!E5?5!
02@B=829k1=428:,!PW^j!E5?5!);?29=8D)35?29=8,!=86!"WUj!E5?5!$=4275!)35?29=8W*
Stimuli*
*A5!F%R*!<@56!`UU!23=C5@!4=M58!;?:3!4A5!2845?854!:;!;:?E=?6D;=928C,!
<8;=32>2=?,!-=<9=@2=8!;=95@!;?:3!VUU!265842425@!YPUU!3=>5,!PUU!;53=>5Z!4A=4!62;;5?56!
28!>2CA428CW!(2895!4A5!4=?C54!2658424I!?5c<2?56!4E:!23=C5@!:;!4A5!@=35!2658424I,!5=9A!
4?2=>!855656!;275!23=C5@!4:4=>!:;!;:<?!265842425@!Y;:<?!<82c<5!265842425@!B><@!:85!
4=?C54!2658424I!E24A!4E:!23=C5@ZW!H@28C!)6:G5!%A:4:@A:B,!4A5!;=95@!E5?5!9:875?456!
4:!C?=I@9=>5!=86!9?:BB56!4:!5[9><65!4A5!=?5=!;?:3!4A5!5=?@!:<4E=?6W!+8!4?2=>@!28!
EA29A!4A5!4=?C54!B=?4!289><656!4A5!4:B!B:?42:8!:;!4A5!;=95,!4A5!5842?5!G=9MC?:<86,!
289><628C!5[45?8=>!;=92=>!;5=4<?5@,!E=@!?53:756!4:!B?57584!<@5!:;!8:8D2845?8=>!;=95!
28;:?3=42:8W!+8!B=?4!4?2=>@,!8:8D4=?C54!;=95!B:?42:8@!E5?5!BA=@5D@9?=3G>56W!'=9A!
;=95!E=@!=@@2C856!4:!=!B=?4D@2N5!9:86242:8K!4:B!4E:D4A2?6@,!G:44:3!4E:D4A2?6@,!4:B!
:85D4A2?6,!G:44:3!:85D4A2?6,!4:B!A=>;,!G:44:3!A=>;,!5I5@,!8:@5,!=86!3:<4A!Y]2C<?5!"ZW!!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
^!
*A5!B=?4!E=@!4A58!9:3G2856!E24A!=!9:3B>5358428C!;=95!B:?42:8!Y524A5?!?5=>!:?!=!
BA=@5D@9?=3G>56Z!4:!9?5=45!=!9:3B>545!;=95W!*A5!4=?C54!B=?4!E=@!:<4>2856!28!?56!Y"W`!
B4!4A29MZ!4:!28629=45!4A5!4=?C54!B=?4W!*A5?5!E=@!=BB?:[23=45>I!=8!5c<=>!8<3G5?!:;!
4?2=>@!;:?!5=9A!;=95!@2N5,!B=?4!@2N5,!=86!EA:>5!75?@<@!B=?4!9:86242:8@W!!*A5!@=35!
9:3B>5358428C!;=95!B:?42:8!E=@!<@56!28!4A5!@4<6I!;=95!=86!=>>!S!45@4!;=95@!YG:4A!
4=?C54!=86!62@4?=94:?@Z,!@<9A!4A=4!24!E=@!8:4!62=C8:@429W!*A2@!354A:6!:;!9:3G2828C!
;=95!B=?4@!2@!<@56!28!4A5!F=865?G2>4!0:>2@429!%?:95@@28C!*5@4,!=!75?@2:8!:;!4A5!
9:3B:@245!4=@M!65@2C856!4:!35=@<?5!2862726<=>!62;;5?5895@!4A=4!C585?=>>I!?575=>@!
Figure*1.*Example*target*parts*used*in*the*VPWT.**When*the*target*part*included*hair,*it*was*
cropped*in*the*study*face.*The*top*row*shows*top*two-thirds,*half*and*third*from*left*to*right;*middle*
row*shows*bottom*two-thirds,*half*and*third*from*left*to*right;*bottom*row*shows*eyes,*nose*and*
mouth*from*left*to*right.**
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
"U!
>=?C5!5;;594!@2N5@!;:?!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!Y&29A>5?,!]>:I6!.!a=<4A25?,!PU"V=ZW!#8!
=66242:8,!>=?C5!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!5;;594@!A=75!G558!:G4=2856!E24A!@232>=?!9:3B:@245!
;=95@!3=65!:;!4E:!62;;5?584!;=95!A=>75@!Y&29A>5?!.!a=<4A25?,!PU"VGZW!O2;;5?584!
23=C5@!:;!4A5!4=?C54!B5?@:8!E5?5!B?5@58456!=4!@4<6I!=86!45@4!4:!B?57584!23=C5!
3=49A28CW!*
Procedure*
*A5!45@4!G5C=8!E24A!28@4?<942:8@!=86!B?=94295!4?2=>@!YB2>:4!"K!P!9=?4::8,!"!
;=3:<@!;=95_!B2>:4!PK!P!9=?4::8,!`!;=3:<@!;=95@Z,!;:>>:E56!GI!b"!YB2>:4!"Z!:?!"UU!
YB2>:4!PZ!5[B5?23584=>!4?2=>@W!%=?4292B=84@!E5?5!28@4?<9456!4:!l\<@4!4?I!4:!353:?2N5!
4A5!?56!A2CA>2CA456!B=?4m!:;!5=9A!;=95W!*A2@!2@!62;;5?584!;?:3!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!
4=@M,!28!EA29A!B=?4292B=84@!=?5!28@4?<9456!4:!lB=I!=445842:8!4:!4A5!5842?5!4=?C54!;=95Wm!!
*A5?5;:?5!4A5!85E!4=@M!?5c<2?5@!@5>594275!=445842:8!=4!589:628C,!=!9A:295!E5!3=65!
;:?!4E:!?5=@:8@W!]2?@4,!E5!E=8456!4:!58@<?5!4A=4!E5!35=@<?56!=!65;=<>4!A:>2@429!
=67=84=C5!28!589:628C!B=?4@!28!4A5!9:845[4!:;!=!EA:>5!;=95!Y2W5W,!4A=4!B5:B>5!9=88:4!
A5>B!G<4!589:65!;=95@!A:>2@429=>>I,!?=4A5?!4A=8!6:28C!@:!:8>I!EA58!4A5!4=@M!
589:<?=C5@!4A53!4:!6:!@:ZW!(59:86,!4A5!9:3B:@245!4=@M!?5c<2?5@!@5>594275!=445842:8!
=4!589:628C!=86!B?:6<95@!>=?C5!A:>2@429!5;;594@!:8!=75?=C5!Y&29A>5?!.!a=<4A25?,!
PU"VGZ!=86!?5>2=G>5!2862726<=>!62;;5?5895@!Y&29A>5?,!]>:I6!.!a=<4A25?,!PU"V=Z,!@:!E5!
5[B59456!4A=4!4A5!@5>594275!=445842:8!28@4?<942:8@!E:<>6!I25>6!@232>=?!A:>2@429!5;;594@!
28!4A5!B?5@584!4=@M!Y=4!>5=@4!2;!4A5!4E:!B=?=62C3@!4=B!284:!4A5!@=35!<865?>I28C!
359A=82@3ZW!#8!=66242:8,!B2>:4!45@428C!28!=!75?@2:8!28!EA29A!4A5!?56!G:[!E=@!8:4!
B?5@584!@<CC5@456!4A=4!28@4?<9428C!B=?4292B=84@!4:!353:?2N5!4A5!5842?5!;=95,!?=4A5?!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
""!
4A58!=@M28C!4A53!4:!@5>594275>I!589:65!=!B=?4,!626!8:4!=;;594!4A5!?5@<>4@PW!+8!4A5!
B?5@584!75?@2:8,!:8!5=9A!4?2=>,!=!@4<6I!;=95!E=@!@A:E8!;:?!P!@59:86@!Y]2C<?5!PZW!$5[4,!
B=?4292B=84@!3=65!=8!<8D@B55656!SD=>45?8=4275!;:?956!9A:295!=G:<4!EA29A!:B42:8!
9:84=2856!4A5!4=?C54!;=95!B=?4!4A=4!3=49A56!4A5!2658424I!:;!4A5!@4<6I!B=?4W!&5@B:8@5!
@5>5942:8!E=@!8:4!@B55656!4:!>2324!?5@B:8@5!G2=@!Y&29A>5?!54!=>W,!PUU^ZW!%=?4292B=84@!
E5?5!C2758!;556G=9M!6<?28C!=>>!B?=94295!4?2=>@!=86!4A5!;2?@4!S!5[B5?23584=>!4?2=>@W!
*?2=>@!E5?5!G>:9M56!GI!4=?C54!B=?4,!=86!B?5@58456!28!:?65?!:;!659?5=@28C!4=?C54!B=?4!
@2N5!Y4:B!4E:D4A2?6@,!G:44:3!4E:D4A2?6@,!4:B!A=>;,!G:44:3!A=>;,!4:B!4A2?6,!G:44:3!4A2?6,!
5I5@,!8:@5,!3:<4AZW!%=?4,!EA:>5,!3=>5,!=86!;53=>5!;=95!4?2=>@!E5?5!?=86:32N56W!'=9A!
B2>:4!45@4!=86!4A5!;28=>!75?@2:8!4::M!=BB?:[23=45>I!"`!328<45@!4:!9:3B>545W!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
P!+8!4A2@!B2>:4!45@4,!B=?4292B=84@!E5?5!28@4?<9456!4:!l\<@4!4?I!4:!353:?2N5!4A5!5842?5!;=95m!=86!
=!G>=9M!A:?2N:84=>!>285!@5B=?=456!4A5!;=95!B=?4@!Y=@!:BB:@56!4:!=!?56!G:[!=?:<86!4A5!4=?C54!
;=95!B=?4ZW!+4A5?!4A=8!4A5@5!9A=8C5@,!4A2@!B2>:4!F%R*!75?@2:8!626!8:4!62;;5?!;?:3!:4A5?!
75?@2:8@!28!=8I!E=IW!*A5?5!E=@!8:!EA:>5D=67=84=C5!:8!4A5!45@4!tYVQZ!h!DUW^b_!p!h!WSS",!d!h!D
WP^ZW!)!4A?55DE=I!=8=>I@2@!:;!7=?2=895!:;!28@4?<942:8!@54,!B=?4!:?!EA:>5!9:86242:8,!=86!@2N5!:;!
4=?C54!;=95!B=?4!?575=>56!=!8:8D@2C82;29=84!SDE=I!2845?=942:8!YFYb,`TZ!h!UW`"V,!p!h!WbVT,!ηp2!
h!WUUVZW!L:?5:75?,!=@!;:<86!28!=>>!:4A5?!F%R*!75?@2:8@,!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!4?2=>@!E5?5!A2CA>I!
9:??5>=456!Yr`Uh!W`S,!p!n!WUU",!r9:??!h!"WUUZW!!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
"P!
!
!
*A5!F%R*!"WU,!A=6!"UU!4?2=>@!=86!E=@!9?5=456!G=@56!:8!245?=4275!2453!
=8=>I@2@!:;!B2>:4!?5@<>4@!E24A!=!>=?C5?!@54@!:;!4?2=>@W!)@!B=?4!:;!4A2@!B?:95@@,!E5!
@5>59456!4?2=>@!E24A!=!?=8C5!:;!62;;29<>4I!=86!:8!4A5!G=@2@!:;!4A52?!9:??5>=42:8!E24A!
4A52?!:E8!9:86242:8!=75?=C5,!=86!3=49A56!4A5!62;;29<>4I!:;!4=?C54!;=95!B=?4@!<@56!28!
4A5!EA:>5!=86!B=?4!9:86242:8@W!!
Modifications*from*Original*Task*
*:!23B?:75!4A5!45@4g@!?5>2=G2>24I,!E5!<@56!=!SD)]-!;:?3=4!4A=4!?56<95@!4A5!
C<5@@28C!?=45W!#8!=66242:8,!<8>2M5!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!4=@M!4A=4!:8>I!<@56!4A5!5I5@,!
8:@5,!=86!3:<4A!=@!4=?C54!B=?4@,!28!4A5!F%R*,!E5!7=?256!4A5!@2N5!:;!4A5!4=?C54!B=?4@!
Y]2C<?5!"Z!4:!9?5=45!4?2=>@!4A=4!7=?I!28!4A5!5[4584!4:!EA29A!4A5I!9:<>6!G585;24!;?:3!
4A5!B?5@5895!:;!4A5!8:8D62=C8:@429!?5@4!:;!4A5!;=95W!]=95!@2N5!=>@:!7=?256!YW`^,!"WU"!:?!
*
Figure*2.*Example*VPWT*trials.*Participants*saw*a*study*display*(top)*for*2*seconds,*followed*by*a*
test*display*(bottom).*Whole*trials*(left)*showed*complete*faces*whereas*part*trials*(right)*used*
phase-scrambled*face*parts*for*non-target*areas.*Correct*responses*are*indicated*by*asterisks.*Faces*
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
"S!
"W`^!289A5@!28!;=95!E264AZW!(2N5!3:6<>=45@!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!Y&:@@!.!a=<4A25?,!
PU"`=_!L9o:85,!PUU^Z,!@:!28!B?2892B>5!7=?I28C!@2N5!@A:<>6!289?5=@5!4A5!=G2>24I!4:!
62@9?2328=45!G54E558!B=?4292B=84@!=>:8C!=!G?:=65?!?=8C5!:;!=G2>2425@!Y&29A>5?!54!=>W,!
PU"V=ZW!#3B:?4=84>I,!4A5@5!=@B594@!:;!4A5!4=@M!=?5!8:4!;=94:?@!:;!2845?5@4,!G<4!E5?5!
7=?256!4:!A5>B!B?:7265!62@9?2328=428C!28;:?3=42:8!=>:8C!4A5!EA:>5!9:8428<<3!:;!
A:>2@429!B?:95@@28CW!*A2@!2@!=8=>:C:<@!4:!<@28C!c<5@42:8@!E24A!=!G?:=6!?=8C5!:;!
62;;29<>4I!28!=8!2845>>2C5895!45@4W!#;!=>>!c<5@42:8@!E5?5!:;!5c<=>!62;;29<>4I,!4A5!45@4!
E:<>6!:8>I!62;;5?5842=45!G54E558!4A:@5!EA:!9=8!9:??594>I!=8@E5?!c<5@42:8@!=4!4A=4!
62;;29<>4I!>575>!=86!4A:@5!EA:!9=88:4W!dI!<@28C!c<5@42:8@!;?:3!=!?=8C5!:;!62;;29<>4I!
>575>@,!4A5!45@4!2@!G5445?!=G>5!4:!62@9?2328=45!G54E558!2862726<=>@!=4!=>>!>575>@!:;!
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2845?B?5456!28!:<?!45@4!Y@55!&29A>5?!54!=>W,!PU"V=,!;:?!=!@232>=?!@4?=45CI!28!4A5!
3:62;29=42:8!:;!4A5!9:3B:@245!4=@MZW!
*:!23B?:75!4A5!F%R*g@!7=>2624I,!E5!=6656!BA=@5D@9?=3G>56!28;:?3=42:8!4:!
4A5!B=?4!9:86242:8!@<9A!4A=4!B=?4!4?2=>@!E5?5!B?5@58456!E24A!=!BA=@5D@9?=3G>56!;=95!
28!4A5!9:3B>5358428C!B:?42:8!Y@55!]2C<?5!PZW!R5!=6656!4A2@!BA=@5D@9?=3G>56!
28;:?3=42:8!4:!M55B!4A5!@B=42=>!;?5c<589I!B?:B5?425@!:;!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!4?2=>@!@232>=?!
Y28!(4<6I!P!E5!75?2;I!4A=4!24!A=6!8:!:4A5?!9:8;:<8628C!5;;594@ZW!#8!=66242:8,!4A5!4=?C54!
@4<6I!=86!?5@B:8@5!23=C5@!E5?5!62;;5?584!23=C5@!:;!4A5!@=35!2658424I,!@:!4A=4!23=C5!
3=49A28C!E=@!8:4!B:@@2G>5W!!
#8!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!4=@M,!B=?4292B=84@!@4<6I!=!EA:>5!;=95!=86!4A58!=?5!
45@456!:8!?59:C8242:8!:;!524A5?!=!;=95!B=?4!B?5@58456!28!2@:>=42:8!:?!E24A28!=!8:8D
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
"V!
62=C8:@429!;=95W!0:E575?,!=!B?572:<@!@4<6I!?5B:?456!>=?C5!@4<6ID45@4!9:8C?<589I!
5;;594@!E24A!4A5!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3,!@<9A!4A=4!4A=4!EA58!B=?4292B=84@!@4<6256!=!
B=?4,!4A5I!B5?;:?356!G5445?!28!4A5!B=?4!75?@<@!EA:>5!9:86242:8!Y1565?!.!-=?G:8,!
PUU`ZW!05?5,!E5!3=49A56!@4<6I!=86!45@4!;:?3=4!4:!5[9><65!4A5!B:@@2G2>24I!:;!=!
9:845[4D65B586584!=67=84=C5,!EA29A!2@!8:4!4A5!9:8@4?<94!:;!2845?5@4W!#8!4A2@!E=I,!E5!
=2356!4:!58@<?5!4A=4!:<?!45@4!35=@<?5@!A:E!E5>>!=8!2862726<=>g@!353:?I!:;!=!;=95!
B=?4!2@!23B?:756!EA58!4A=4!B=?4!2@!B?5@58456!E24A28!4A5!9:845[4!:;!=!9:3B>545!;=95,!
?=4A5?!4A=8!A:E!@58@24275!=8!2862726<=>!2@!4:!@4<6ID45@4!9:8C?<589IW!!
d59=<@5!E5!3=49A56!@4<6I!=86!45@4!;:?3=4,!B=?4292B=84@!M8:E!=@!@::8!=@!
4A5I!@55!4A5!@4<6I!;=95!EA29A!B=?4!2@!?5>57=84!;:?!4A5!5842?5!4?2=>!Y2W5W,!4A5?5!2@!8:!
@4<6ID45@4!289:3B=42G2>24IZW!L:?5:75?,!4A5!4=?C54!;=95!B=?4!2@!:<4>2856!28!?56,!
58@<?28C!4A=4!B=?4292B=84@!M8:E!EA29A!B=?4!E2>>!G5!45@456!=@!@::8!=@!4A5I!@55!4A5!
@4<6I!;=95W!#;!589:628C!EA:>5!;=95@!B?:7265@!=8!=67=84=C5!=86!A:>2@429!589:628C!2@!
<865?!4:BD6:E8!9:84?:>,!4A2@!E:<>6!589:<?=C5!B=?4292B=84@!4:!B?:95@@!@4<6I!;=95@!
A:>2@429=>>I!EA58!B:@@2G>5W!#;!A:>2@429!589:628C!2@!8:4!<865?!4:BD6:E8!9:84?:>,!24!E2>>!
:99<?!=<4:3=429=>>I!EA58!EA:>5!;=95@,!G<4!8:4!B=?4@,!=?5!@4<6256W!!
d59=<@5!E5!3=49A56!4A5!@4<6I!=86!45@4!;:?3=4!:8!:<?!45@4,!E5!626!8:4!5[B594!
4A5!C?:<B!>575>!EA:>5!=67=84=C5!4:!G5!>=?C5!Y=@!@A:E8!28!@575?=>!5[B5?23584@!GI!
1565?!.!-=?G:8,!PUU`,!EA58!4A5?5!2@!8:!9:84?2G<42:8!:;!@4<6ID45@4!;:?3=4!
289:3B=42G2>24IZW!d59=<@5!E5!E5?5!2845?5@456!28!A:E!2862726<=>@!B5?;:?3!?5>=4275!4:!
:4A5?@,!4A5!45@4g@!7=>2624I!E:<>6!8:4!G5!4A?5=45856!2;!E5!626!8:4!;286!4A=4!B=?4292B=84@!
E5?5!:8!=75?=C5!3:?5!=99<?=45!:8!EA:>5!75?@<@!B=?4!4?2=>@,!=@!E5!=?5!9:895?856!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
"`!
A5?5!E24A!4A5!7=?2=G2>24I!G54E558!2862726<=>@!28!4A52?!=G2>24I!4:!<@5!=!EA:>5!;=95!
EA58!B:@@2G>5W!
!
Results!
#8!4A5!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3,!7=?2=42:8!:8!B=?4!4?2=>@!2@!=@@<356!4:!?5;>594!
C585?=>!72@<=>!B5?95B42:8!=86!;=95!B=?4!B?:95@@28C!=G2>2425@,!EA5?5=@!7=?2=42:8!:8!
EA:>5!4?2=>@!?5;>594@!4A:@5!B?:95@@5@!=@!E5>>!=@!=8!=66242:8=>!A:>2@429!B?:95@@!
YO5a<42@!54!=>W,!PU"SGZW!)99:?628C>I,!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!28!4A5!F%R*!2@!
:B5?=42:8=>2N56!GI!4A5!7=?2=G2>24I!:8!EA:>5!4?2=>@!E24A!7=?2=G2>24I!:8!B=?4!4?2=>@!
?5C?5@@56!:<4!Y@55!O5a<42@!54!=>W,!PU"SGZW!R5!<@56!a<443=8g@!λ2!28@45=6!:;!
-?:8G=9Ag@!p!4:!9=>9<>=45!2845?8=>!9:8@2@4589I!:;!4A2@!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!2865[!!
G59=<@5!4A5!F%R*!A=@!3<>42B>5!9:86242:8@!=86!9=>9<>=42:8!:;!a<443=8g@!λ2!
289:?B:?=45@!4A5!9:7=?2=895!G54E558!2453@!Ya<443=8,!"^V`ZW!a<443=8g@!λ2!YG=@56!
:8!4A5!;:?3<>=!28!L=>C=6I!.!-:>:8DL=>C=6I,!"^^"Z!E=@!WVT!=86!WVS!28!%2>:4!"!=86!
%2>:4!P,!?5@B594275>IW!!
)99<?=9I!E=@!8:4!@2C82;29=84>I!C?5=45?!:8!EA:>5!4A=8!B=?4!4?2=>@!YB=?4K!M!h!
`QWQj,!SD!h!"UWTj_!EA:>5K!M!h!`TWQj,!SD!h!^W^j_!tYPUQZ!h!"WUS_!p!h!WSUT,!d!h!W"UZ,!
28629=428C!8:!EA:>5D=67=84=C5!=4!4A5!C?:<B!>575>W!)>4A:<CA!EA:>5!=86!B=?4!4?2=>@!
A=6!3:65?=45!2845?8=>!9:8@2@4589I!YEA:>5!p!h!!W`^,!B=?4!p!h!!WQVZ,!?5>2=G2>24I!:;!4A5!
A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!2865[!Y7=?2=895!28!EA:>5!4?2=>@!=;45?!?5C?5@@28C!:<4!7=?2=895!28!
B=?4!4?2=>@Z!E=@!:8>I!W"Q!Yλ2ZW!*A5!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!2865[!A=6!3<9A!>:E5?!2845?8=>!
9:8@2@4589I!4A=8!524A5?!:;!4A5!4E:!9:86242:8@!G59=<@5!4A5!9:??5>=42:8!G54E558!4A5!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
"Q!
B=?4!=86!EA:>5!9:86242:8@!E=@!5@@5842=>>I!=@!A2CA!=@!4A52?!?5@B594275!?5>2=G2>2425@!
Yr"UV!h!WQU,!p!n!WUU",!r9:??!h!W^b,!RP!h!WSQZW!!
!+85!9:895?8!2@!4A=4!4?2=>@!E24A!>=?C5!4=?C54!;=95!B=?4@!YA=>75@!=86!4E:D4A2?6@Z!
3=I!G5!?5@B:8@2G>5!;:?!4A5!@4?:8C!9:??5>=42:8!G54E558!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!9:86242:8@,!
G59=<@5!>=?C5?!;=95!B=?4@!3:?5!9>:@5>I!?5@53G>5!4A5!EA:>5!9:86242:8W!*:!@55!2;!4A2@!
E=@!4A5!9=@5,!4?2=>@!E5?5!C?:<B56!GI!4=?C54!B=?4!@2N5!Y@3=>>!B=?4@K!5I5@,!8:@5,!=86!
3:<4A_!3562<3!B=?4@K!A=>75@!=86!4A2?6@_!>=?C5!B=?4@K!4E:D4A2?6@ZW!*A5!9:??5>=42:8@!
G54E558!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!9:86242:8@!E5?5!r"UV!h!WVV!Y^`j!-#!qWPT,!W`br,!p!n!WUU",!r9:??!h!
"W""Z,!r"UV!h!WVU!Y^`j!-#!qWPP,!W``r,!p!n!WUU",!r9:??!h!UW^^Z,!=86!r"UV!h!WS`!Y^`j!-#!
qW"T,!W`"r,!p!n!WUU",!r9:??!h!"W"`Z!;:?!>=?C5,!3562<3,!=86!@3=>>!B=?4@,!?5@B594275>IW!*A<@,!
?5C=?6>5@@!:;!B=?4!@2N5,!B5?;:?3=895!28!4A5!B=?4!9:86242:8!=>3:@4!;<>>I!=99:<84@!;:?!
B5?;:?3=895!28!4A5!EA:>5!9:86242:8!EA58!35=@<?53584!5??:?!2@!9:8@265?56W!RA2>5!
4A5!@A=?56!7=?2=895!2@!8<35?29=>>I!@3=>>5?!;:?!4A5!@3=>>5?!B=?4@,!4A2@!9:86242:8!E=@!
4A5!>5=@4!?5>2=G>5!Y-?:8G=9Ag@α<@56!A5?5!;:?!2862726<=>!9:86242:8@,!@3=>>!B=?4!α!
h!!WSb,!EA:>5!α!h!!WPV_!3562<3!B=?4!α!h!!WV",!EA:>5!α!h!!WVU_!>=?C5!B=?4!α!h!!WSQ,!
EA:>5!α!h!!WVVZW!!
Discussion!
! R5!=4453B456!4:!9?5=45!=!?5>2=G>5!75?@2:8!:;!=!3:62;256!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3W!
)>4A:<CA!4A5!45@4!626!8:4!=9A2575!@<;;292584!?5>2=G2>24I,!4A5!?5=@:8!;:?!4A2@!;=2><?5!2@!
2845?5@428CW!*A5!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!9:86242:8@!=?5!5=9A!;=2?>I!?5>2=G>5!2865B586584>I,!
G<4!=?5!=@!9:??5>=456!=@!B:@@2G>5!C2758!4A52?!?5@B594275!?5>2=G2>2425@,!I25>628C!=!
62@=4458<=456!9:??5>=42:8!:;!r9:??!h!W^b!YR549A5?D0586?29M@,!PUUQZW!*A<@,!=B=?4!;?:3!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
"T!
35=@<?53584!5??:?,!4A5?5!2@!=!85=?!B5?;594!9:??5>=42:8!G54E558!4A5!4E:!9:86242:8@W!
+85!>2324=42:8!:;!4A5!F%R*!"WU!2@!4A=4!EA2>5!4A5!62;;29<>4I!:;!@B592;29!B=?4@!E=@!
3=49A56!=9?:@@!4A5!4E:!9:86242:8@,!4A5!B=?4@!<@56!E5?5!62;;5?584!4:!>2324!B=?4!
?5B54242:8W!0:E575?,!75?@2:8@!:;!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!4=@M!28!EA29A!4A5!@=35!
B=?4@!E5?5!<@56!28!G:4A!9:86242:8@!A=75!B?:6<956!75?I!@232>=?!?5@<>4@,!E24A!B=?4!
=86!EA:>5!9:86242:8@!4A=4!E5?5!3:65?=45>I!?5>2=G>5!G<4!>:E5?!?5>2=G2>24I!;:?!4A5!
A:>2@429!?5C?5@@2:8!2865[!YO5a<42@!54!=>W,!PU"SGZW!$:854A5>5@@,!4A5!<@5!:;!62;;5?584!
B=?4@!28!4A5!4E:!9:86242:8@!=>@:!9:8;:<86@!=8I!2845?B?54=42:8!:;!4A5!Y=G@584Z!C?:<BD
>575>!EA:>5!=67=84=C5W!!
+<?!?5@<>4@!@<CC5@4!4A=4!B5?;:?3=895!:8!EA:>5!4?2=>@!9=8!5@@5842=>>I!G5!
B5?;594>I!B?5629456!GI!B5?;:?3=895!E24A!B=?4@W!*A2@!2@!75?I!62;;5?584!;?:3!?5@<>4@!28!
4A5!9:3B:@245!B=?=62C3,!EA5?5!4A5!@A=?56!7=?2=895!G54E558!9?2429=>!9:86242:8@!2@!
:8>I!=G:<4!Qj!Y&29A>5?!.!a=<4A25?,!PU"VGZW!+;!9:<?@5!24!2@!B:@@2G>5!4A=4!:85!:;!4A5!
E=I@!28!EA29A!E5!3:62;256!4A5!B=?=62C3!9A=>>58C56!24@!7=>2624IW!*:!2875@42C=45!4A2@,!
E5!?5B>29=456!(4<6I!"!E24A:<4!4A5!BA=@5D@9?=3G>56!8:2@5!:8!B=?4!4?2=>@!Y(4<6I!PZ,!
EA58!4A5!@=35!B=?4@!E5?5!<@56!28!EA:>5!=86!B=?4!9:86242:8@!4:!5c<=45!62;;29<>4I!
Y(4<625@!S!=86!VZ,!=86!<@28C!=!75?@2:8!:;!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3!Y(4<6I!SZW!
!
!
Study!2!
+85!E=I!28!EA29A!4A5!F%R*!62;;5?@!;?:3!4A5!4IB29=>!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3!2@!
4A5!<@5!:;!BA=@5D@9?=3G>56!8:2@5!28!4A5!B=?4@!9:86242:8W!)>4A:<CA!4A5!EA:>5!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
"b!
=67=84=C5!2@!4A:<CA4!4:!=?2@5!;?:3!;=92>24=42:8!:;!B=?4!353:?I!EA58!4A5!4=?C54!B=?4!
2@!B?5@58456!E24A28!=!EA:>5!;=95!9:845[4,!24!2@!B:@@2G>5!4A=4!B=?4292B=84@!E5?5!=>@:!
=G>5!4:!B?:95@@!4A5!B=?4!28!4A5!BA=@5D@9?=3G>56!8:2@5!9:845[4!A:>2@429=>>IW!]:?!
5[=3B>5,!B=?4292B=84@!9:<>6!A=75!2845?B?5456!4A5!8:2@5!B=?4@!=@!=!62@C<2@5,!:?!
B5?952756!;=95!B=?4@!28!4A5!8:2@5!24@5>;W!R5!45@456!4A2@!<@28C!=!75?@2:8!:;!4A5!F%R*!28!
EA29A!B=?4@!E5?5!B?5@58456!28!2@:>=42:8!:8!=!EA245!G=9MC?:<86!Y2W5W,!E24A:<4!BA=@5D
@9?=3G>56!8:2@5Z,!@232>=?!4:!4A5!:?2C28=>!4=@MW!!
Methods!
Participants*
+85!A<86?56!=86!458!B=?4292B=84@!E5?5!?59?<2456!;?:3!)3=N:8!L59A=829=>!
*<?M!=86!E5?5!9:3B58@=456!H(iUW`UW!(2[!B=?4292B=84@!E5?5!5[9><656!;?:3!4A5!
=8=>I@5@!;:?!;=2><?5!4:!;:>>:E!28@4?<942:8@,!>5=728C!"UV!B=?4292B=84@!YSV!3=>5_!35=8!
=C5!h!VUWTU!I5=?@,!=C5!?=8C5!h!PUeTQ!I5=?@Z,!:;!EA:3!bUWbj!E5?5!-=<9=@2=8,!TWTj!
E5?5!);?29=8!)35?29=8,!TWTj!E5?5!02@B=829k1=428:,!PW^j!E5?5!)@2=8!=86!"WUj!
265842;256!=@!:4A5?W!
Vanderbilt*Part*Whole*Test*2.0*
*A5!F%R*!PWU!E=@!2658429=>!4:!4A5!F%R*!"WU,!5[95B4!4A=4!BA=@5D@9?=3G>56!
2??5>57=84!;=95!B=?4@!E5?5!?53:756!;?:3!B=?4!4?2=>@W!*A5!45@4!4::M!=BB?:[23=45>I!"`!
328<45@!4:!9:3B>545W!!!!
Results!
+895!=C=28!=99<?=9I!E=@!8:4!@2C82;29=84>I!62;;5?584!G54E558!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!
4?2=>@!YB=?4K!M!h!`QWPj,!SD!h!bWQj_!EA:>5K!M!h!`QWUj,!SD!h!bWTj_!tYPUQZ!h!DUWSU_!p!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
"^!
h!WTQP,!d!h!DUWUPZ,!28629=428C!8:!EA:>5D=67=84=C5!=4!4A5!C?:<BD>575>W!RA:>5!=86!B=?4!
9:86242:8@!A=6!A2CA!2845?8=>!9:8@2@4589I!YEA:>5!p!h!!WTP,!B=?4!p!h!!WT"Z,!G<4!4A5!
?5>2=G2>24I!:;!4A5!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!2865[!YEA:>5!4?2=>!7=?2=895!E24A!B=?4!4?2=>!
7=?2=895!?5C?5@@56!:<4Z!E=@!75?I!>:E!YWUTZ,!E24A!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!4?2=>@!=@!@4?:8C>I!
9:??5>=456!=@!B:@@2G>5!C2758!4A5!35=@<?53584!5??:?!Yr"UVh!WTS,!p!n!WUU",!r9:??!h!"WUP,!
RP!h!W`SZW!*A5!9:??5>=42:8@!G54E558!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!9:86242:8@!E5?5!@232>=?!=9?:@@!
4=?C54!B=?4!@2N5!Y>=?C5K!r"UV!h!W`b,!^`j!-#!qWVV,!WQ^r,!p!n!WUU",!r9:??!h!"W"b_!3562<3K!r"UV!
h!W`S,!^`j!-#!qWST,!WQ`r,!p!n!WUU",!r9:??!h!"WU"_!@3=>>K!r"UV!h!WSP,!^`j!-#!qW"V,!WVbr,!p!
n!WUU",!r9:??!h!"WS"ZW!*A5@5!?5@<>4@!=?5!@232>=?!4:!(4<6I!",!=86!=C=28!4A5!@3=>>5?!B=?4@!
9:86242:8!E=@!4A5!>5=@4!?5>2=G>5!Y@3=>>!B=?4!α!h!!W"V,!EA:>5!α!h!!WVP_!3562<3!B=?4!α!
h!!W`U,!EA:>5!α!h!!W``_!>=?C5!B=?4!α!h!!W``,!EA:>5!α!h!!WVVZW!#3B:?4=84>I,!5758!E24A!
4A5!@3=>>!B=?4@,!4A5!9:??5>=42:8!G54E558!4A5!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!9:86242:8@!2@!=@!>=?C5!=@!
9=8!G5!5[B59456!G=@56!:8!4A52?!?5@B594275!?5>2=G2>2425@W!
Discussion!
*A5!?5@<>4@!;:?!4A5!F%R*!PWU!28!(4<6I!P!E5?5!A2CA>I!@232>=?!4:!4A:@5!;?:3!4A5!
F%R*!"WU!28!(4<6I!",!EA5?5!B=?4@!E5?5!B?5@58456!28!=!BA=@5D@9?=3G>56!9:845[4W!
*A<@,!B?5@58428C!;=95!B=?4@!E24A28!=!BA=@5D@9?=3G>56!9:845[4!2@!8:4!?5@B:8@2G>5!;:?!
4A5!75?I!A2CA!9:??5>=42:8!G54E558!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!9:86242:8@W!!
!
Study!3!
#8!4E:!@4<625@!<@28C!4A5!F%R*,!E5!;:<86!57265895!4A=4!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!4?2=>@!
E5?5!@4?:8C>I!9:??5>=456,!4584=4275>I!@<CC5@428C!4A5!<@5!:;!=!@232>=?!B?:95@@28C!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
PU!
@4?=45CI!28!G:4A!9:86242:8@W!*A2@!9:8;>294@!E24A!4A5!=@@<3B42:8!4A=4!B=?4292B=84@!
58C=C5!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!;:?!EA:>5!;=95!4?2=>@,!G<4!?5>I!:8!;5=4<?5!B?:95@@28C!;:?!
B=?4!4?2=>@!Y*=8=M=!.!]=?=A,!"^^SZW!0:E575?,!24!2@!B:@@2G>5!4A=4!@:35!:;!4A5!:4A5?!
3:62;29=42:8@!E5!3=65!4:!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!4=@M!3=65!:<?!B=?=62C3!
;<86=3584=>>I!62;;5?584!;?:3!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?=62C3!Y*=8=M=!.!]=?=A,!"^^SZW!#8!
=66242:8,!:8>I!@3=>>!B=?4@!=?5!<@56!28!4A5!:?2C28=>!65@2C8,!@:!E24A!3:?5!4?2=>@!24!
@A:<>6!G5!B:@@2G>5!4:!C54!35=@<?53584@!4A=4!=?5!3:?5!?5>2=G>5!28!@3=>>!B=?4!=86!
EA:>5!9:86242:8@!=86!75?2;I!4A=4!:<?!?5@<>4@!A:>6!;:?!@3=>>!B=?4@!:8>IW!#8!(4<6I!S!E5!
62?594>I!9:3B=?5!4A5!F%R*!=86!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!4=@MW!!
!
!
Methods!
Participants*
+85!A<86?56!=86!@2[!B=?4292B=84@!?59?<2456!;?:3!)3=N:8!L59A=829=>!*<?M!
9:3B>5456!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3,!;:>>:E56!GI!4A5!F%R*!SWUW!%=?4292B=84@!
E5?5!9:3B58@=456!H(iPWUU!;:?!@<995@@;<>>I!9:3B>5428C!G:4A!4=@M@W!'2CA4!
B=?4292B=84@!E5?5!5[9><656!;:?!;=2><?5!4:!;:>>:E!28@4?<942:8@,!>5=728C!^b!B=?4292B=84@!
YS`!3=>5_!35=8!=C5!h!SbWU"!I5=?@,!=C5!?=8C5!h!PUeQQ!I5=?@Z,!:;!EA:3!TbWQj!E5?5!
-=<9=@2=8,!TW"j!E5?5!);?29=8!)35?29=8,!QW"j!E5?5!02@B=829k1=428:,!QW"j!E5?5!
)@2=8!=86!>5@@!4A=8!"WUj!265842;256!=@!:4A5?W!
!
!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
P"!
VPWT*3.0*
#8!4A5!B?572:<@!@4<625@,!E5!;:<86!4A=4!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!4?2=>@!E5?5!@4?:8C>I!
9:??5>=456!=86!E=8456!4:!75?2;I!4A=4!4A2@!E:<>6!@42>>!A:>6!EA58!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!4?2=>@!
E5?5!3:?5!B?592@5>I!5c<=456!;:?!62;;29<>4I!GI!<@28C!4A5!@=35!4=?C54!B=?4@!28!G:4A!
9:86242:8@!Y4?2=>@!E5?5!9A:@58!;?:3!75?@2:8!"WU!4:!3=[232N5!?5>2=G2>24I!=86!?=8C5!:;!
62;;29<>4IZW!d59=<@5!B5?;:?3=895!:8!4A5!4=?C54!3:<4A!9:86242:8!Y3:<4A!E24A:<4!4A5!
9A28Z!E=@!=4!9A=895!;:?!3:@4!B?572:<@!245?=42:8@!:;!4A5!4=@M,!4A2@!9:86242:8!E=@!8:4!
289><656!28!4A5!F%R*!SWUW!*A5!;28=>!45@4!9:8@2@456!:;!P"P!4?2=>@!=86!4::M!
=BB?:[23=45>I!PU!328<45@!4:!9:3B>545W!$:85!:;!4A5!;=95!@423<>2!28!4A5!F%R*!SWU!=86!
:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!45@4!=?5!23=C5@!:;!4A5!@=35!2862726<=>@W!!
!
Original*Part-Whole*Test*
Stimuli*
R5!:G4=2856!@423<>2!;?:3!4A5!9:33:8>I!<@56!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3!Y*=8=M=!
54!=>W,!PUUV_!O5a<42@!54!=>W,!PU"SG,!<@56!E24A!B5?32@@2:8!;?:3!s=35@!*=8=M=,!
H8275?@24I!:;!F294:?2=ZW!*A5!4=?C54!@423<>2!=?5!;=95@!3=65!:;!62;;5?584!5I5,!8:@5,!=86!
3:<4A!23=C5@!:75?>=26!:8!=!;=95!453B>=45W!*A5!@=35!3=>5!=86!;53=>5!5[45?8=>!
9:84:<?!;=95!453B>=45@!Y@558!28!]2C<?5!SZ!E5?5!<@56!:8!=>>!4?2=>@W!)>>!;=95@!E5?5!
-=<9=@2=8!3=>5!=86!;53=>5!;=95@W!!'=9A!4=?C54!;=95!E=@!3=65!:;!=!9:3B>545>I!<82c<5!
@54!:;!4A5!4A?55!;=95!;5=4<?5@W!]:2>!;=95@!E5?5!9?5=456!GI!9A=8C28C!4A5!5I5@,!8:@5,!:?!
3:<4A!:;!=!4=?C54!;=95W!#8!4A2@!E=I,!:8>I!:85!;5=4<?5!28!4A5!;:2>!;=95@!62;;5?56!;?:3!4A5!
4=?C54!;=95W!d59=<@5!B?572:<@!E:?M!?5B:?456!>:E!?5>2=G2>24I!;:?!4A2@!4=@M!YO5a<42@!54!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
PP!
=>W,!PU"SG,!EA:>5!?5@26<=>!p!h!W"^Z,!E5!=4453B456!4:!289?5=@5!?5>2=G2>24I!GI!6:<G>28C!
4A5!8<3G5?!:;!4?2=>@W!*A5!85E!@423<>2!E5?5!9?5=456!<@28C!4A5!@=35!;=95!453B>=45!=@!
4A5!:?2C28=>!4=@M,!G<4!E24A!5842?5>I!85E!;=95!B=?4@,!:G4=2856!;?:3!4A5!2845?854W!*A5!
B=?4!4?2=>@!E5?5!9?5=456!GI!9?:BB28C!4A5!EA:>5!4=?C54!:?!;:2>!;=95!@:!4A=4!:8>I!4A5!
4=?C54!;=95!B=?4!E=@!72@2G>5!Y]2C<?5!S,!?2CA4!23=C5ZW!'=9A!;=95!B=?4!E=@!?5B5=456!V!
4235@!4:4=>!4A?:<CA:<4!4A5!45@4!Y:895!28!=!B=?4!4?2=>,!:895!=@!=!4=?C54!B=?4!28!=!EA:>5!
4?2=>,!=86!4E295!=@!4A5!8:8D4=?C54!B=?4!28!=!EA:>5!4?2=>ZW!]:2>!B=?4@!E5?5!?5B5=456!
4E295!Y:895!28!=!B=?4!4?2=>!=86!:895!28!=!EA:>5!4?2=>ZW!#8!4:4=>,!4A5?5!E5?5!"VV!4?2=>@,!
E24A!=8!5c<=>!8<3G5?!:;!3=>5!=86!;53=>5,!EA:>5!=86!B=?4,!=86!4=?C54!;=95!B=?4!Y5I5,!
8:@5!:?!3:<4AZ!4?2=>@W!*A5!28@4?<942:8@!E5?5!2658429=>!4:!4A:@5!<@56!28!O5a<42@!54!=>W,!
PU"SGW!
Procedure*
%=?4292B=84@!;2?@4!9:3B>5456!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!4=@M!;:>>:E56!GI!4A5!
F%R*!SWU!YP"P!4?2=>@ZW!#8!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!4=@M,!5=9A!4?2=>!@4=?456!E24A!=!
9584?=>!;2[=42:8!;:?!`UU!3@!;:>>:E56!GI!=!EA:>5!4=?C54!;=95!;:?!"!@59:86W!*A58,!=;45?!
=!`UU!3@!3=@M,!4A5!4=?C54!=86!;:2>!;=95!E5?5!B?5@58456!@265!GI!@265!=@!524A5?!EA:>5@!
:?!B=?4@!Y@55!]2C<?5!SZW!%=?4292B=84@!3=65!=!PD=>45?8=4275!;:?956!9A:295!GI!3:<@5!
9>29MW!*A5?5!E=@!=!P`U!3@!2845?D@423<><@!2845?7=>W!%=?4!=86!EA:>5!4?2=>@!=86!85E!=86!
:>6!@423<>2!E5?5!?=86:32N56W!*A5!5842?5!5[B5?23584!4::M!=BB?:[23=45>I!V`!328<45@!
YPU!328<45@!;:?!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!4=@M,!P`!328<45@!;:?!4A5!F%R*!SWUZW!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
PS!
!
!
!
Results!
*A5!9:??5>=42:8@!=9?:@@!9:86242:8@!28!4A5!4E:!45@4@!=?5!?5B:?456!28!*=G>5!"W!
&5@<>4@!;?:3!4A5!F%R*!SWU!E5?5!@232>=?!4:!B?572:<@!@4<625@W!)99<?=9I!626!8:4!
@2C82;29=84>I!62;;5?!G54E558!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!4?2=>@!YB=?4K!M!h!`"WTj,!SD!h!^WPj_!
EA:>5K!M!h!`UWbj,!(O!h!^WVj_!tY"^VZ!h!"WVU_!p!h!W"QV,!d!h!DUWU^Z,!28629=428C!8:!
EA:>5D=67=84=C5!=4!4A5!C?:<B!>575>W!*A5!@4?:8C!9:??5>=42:8!G54E558!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!
9:86242:8@!?5B>29=456!Yr^bh!WT^,!p!n!WUU",!r9:??!h!"WUP,!RP!h!WQPZ,!E24A!=995B4=G>5!
2845?8=>!9:8@2@4589I!;:?!G:4A!EA:>5!=86!B=?4!9:86242:8@!YEA:>5!p!h!!WTT,!B=?4!p!
Figure*3.*Example*original*part-whole*trials.*Participants*saw*a*study*display*(top)*for*1*second,*
followed*by*a*mask*for*500*ms*and*then*the*test*display*(bottom).*Whole*trials*(left)*presented*a*
complete*face*whereas*part*trials*(right)*presented*the*target*face*parts*in*isolation.*Correct*
responses*are*indicated*by*asterisks.***
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
PV!
h!!WTQZW!)C=28,!4A5!?5>2=G2>24I!:;!4A5!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!2865[!YEA:>5!4?2=>!7=?2=G2>24I!
8:4!=99:<8456!;:?!GI!B=?4!4?2=>!7=?2=G2>24IZ!E=@!8<>>!Yλ2!h!DWUSZW!
Table*1.*Bottom*left*corner*of*the*table*(bold)*shows*the*Pearson*Product-Moment*
Correlations*(N*=*98).*Upper*right*corner*shows*the*same*correlations,*disattenuated*
for*measurement*error*based*on*reliability*of*the*measurements.*
*
!
"W!
PW!
SW!
VW!
`W!
QW!
"W!+?2C28=>!B=?4!
DD!
W^b!
WUU!
WbS!
WbU!
t!
PW!+?2C28=>!EA:>5!
.70JJJ!
DD!
"WQS!
W^"!
Wb"!
t!
SW!+?2C28=>!?5@26!
.00!
.71***!
DD!
W^`!
WTV!
t!
VW!F%R*!B=?4!
.58JJJ!
.70JJJ!
.41***!
--!
"WUV!
t!
`W!F%R*!EA:>5!
.57JJJ!
.63JJJ!
.32**!
.79***!
--!
t!
QW!F%R*!?5@26!
.18!
.12!
-.01!
.00!
.61***!
DD!
tO2@=4458<=456!9:??5>=42:8@!E24A!F%R*!?5@26<=>@!=?5!8:4!289><656!G59=<@5!
?5>2=G2>24I!E=@!4::!>:E!
Jp!n!WU`,!JJp!n!WU",!JJJp!n!WUU"!
!
*A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3!@A:E56!=!@2C82;29=84!EA:>5!9:86242:8!
=67=84=C5!=4!4A5!C?:<B!>575>!YB=?4K!M!h!QbWbj,!SD!h!bW^j_!EA:>5K!M!h!TTW`j,!SD!h!
^W^j_!tY"^VZ!h!DQWV^_!p!n!WUU",!d!h!UW^SZW!*A5!EA:>5!=86!B=?4!9:86242:8@!A=6!
=995B4=G>5!2845?8=>!9:8@2@4589I!YEA:>5!α!h!!WTb,!B=?4!p!h!!WQQZ,!G<4!9:8@2@4584!E24A!
5=?>25?!5[B5?23584@,!?5>2=G2>24I!E=@!>:E!;:?!4A5!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!2865[!?5>2=G2>24I!
YWPVZ,!=86!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!4?2=>@!E5?5!@4?:8C>I!9:??5>=456!Yr^bh!WTU,!p!n!WUU",!r9:??!h!W^b,!
RP!h!WV^ZW!
!
Discussion!
! R5!9:3B=?56!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3!=86!4A5!3:62;256!F%R*!
B=?=62C3!YF%R*!SWUZW!dI!6:<G>28C!4A5!8<3G5?!:;!4?2=>@!28!4A5!:?2C28=>!4=@M,!E5!
=9A25756!A2CA5?!?5>2=G2>24I!:;!EA:>5!=86!B=?4!4?2=>@,!YEA:>5!p!h!!WTT,!B=?4!p!h!!WTQ,!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
P`!
9:3B=?56!E24A!WQ`!=86!WVS,!?5@B594275>I,!28!O5a<42@!54!=>W,!PU"SGZW!*A5!@4?:8C!
9:??5>=42:8!G54E558!9:??5@B:8628C!9:86242:8@!=9?:@@!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!
B=?=62C3!=86!4A5!F%R*!@<CC5@4@!4A=4!4A5I!35=@<?5!@232>=?!9:8@4?<94@,!65@B245!
62;;5?5895@!28!B?:956<?5!=86!@423<>2W!!L:?5!23B:?4=84>I,!=;45?!=99:<8428C!;:?!
35=@<?53584!5??:?,!E5!;286!4A=4!EA:>5!9:86242:8!B5?;:?3=895!9=8!5@@5842=>>I!G5!
B5?;594>I!B?5629456!;?:3!B=?4!9:86242:8!B5?;:?3=895W!*A2@!2@!4A5!9=@5!28!G:4A!4A5!
F%R*!=86!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?=62C3W!!
#8!(4<6I!S!?5>2=G2>24I!:;!4A5!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!2865[!E=@!75?I!>:EW!#86556,!
4A5!:8>I!?5B:?4!E5!9=8!;286!28!4A5!>245?=4<?5!:;!5758!3:65?=45>I!?5>2=G>5!A:>2@429!
B?:95@@28C!28!4A5!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3!2@!;:?!)@2=8!;=95@!28!-=<9=@2=8!:G@5?75?@!Yλ2!
h!WVb,!28!4A5!@=35!B=B5?,!24!E=@!WSS!;:?!-=<9=@2=8!;=95@,!O5a<42@!54!=>W,!PU"S=ZW!#4!2@!
B:@@2G>5!4A=4!EA58!:G@5?75?@!=?5!8:4!=@!;=32>2=?!E24A!4A5!9=45C:?I!:;!;=95@!Y5WCW,!
;?:3!=!>5@@!;=32>2=?!?=95Z,!EA:>5!=86!B=?4@!=?5!8:4!B?:95@@56!=@!@232>=?>I!=@!;=32>2=?!
9=45C:?25@,!G<4!4A2@!@A:<>6!G5!9:8;2?356!28!;<4<?5!@4<625@W!L:?5:75?,!4A5!5[B594=42:8!
2@!4A=4!:4A5?D?=95!;=95@!=?5!B?:95@@56!less!A:>2@429=>>I!4A=8!@=35D?=95!;=95@!Y*=8=M=!
54!=>W,!PUUVZ,!=86!:4A5?!4=@M@!A=75!?575=>56!9:3B=?=G>5!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!;:?!@=35D!
=86!:4A5?D?=95!;=95@!Y0=??2@:8!54!=>W,!PU"V_!0=IE=?6!54!=>W,!PUUbZW
*A5!C:=>!:;!9?5=428C!4A5!F%R*!E=@!4:!6575>:B!=!?5>2=G>5!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!
35=@<?5!4A=4!E5!9:<>6!4A58!<@5!4:!2875@42C=45!A:E!;=95!?59:C8242:8!=G2>24I!=86!
A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!?5>=45W!+<?!?5@<>4@!@<CC5@4!4A=4!28!G:4A!4A5!:?2C28=>!28@4=842=42:8!
:;!4A5!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3!=86!:<?!?572@56!75?@2:8,!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!4?2=>@!7=?2=42:8!
=>3:@4!9:3B>545>I!:75?>=BW!0:E575?,!4A5!?5>2=G2>2425@!:;!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!9:86242:8@!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
PQ!
=?5!8:4!B5?;594,!@:!4A2@!9:89><@2:8!9:35@!;?:3!9:??5>=42:8@!4A=4!A=75!G558!=6\<@456!
G=@56!:8!=!@<G@4=842=>!=3:<84!:;!=4458<=42:8!Y28!:4A5?!E:?6@,!4A5@5!9:??5>=42:8@!=?5!
4A5:?5429=>ZW!*A5?5;:?5,!4:!B?:7265!9:875?C28C!57265895!:8!4A5!@232>=?24I!:;!
B?:95@@28C!28!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!9:86242:8@,!28!(4<6I!V!E5!45@456!4A5!5[4584!4:!EA29A!
B5?;:?3=895!:8!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!9:86242:8@!B?56294@!B5?;:?3=895!:8!=!A2CA>I!
?5>2=G>5!45@4!:;!;=95!?59:C8242:8,!4A5!-=3G?26C5!]=95!L53:?I!*5@4!Y-]L*,!O<9A=285!
.!$=M=I=3=,!PUUQZW!#8!B?572:<@!E:?M!YO5a<42@!54!=>W,!PU"S=Z!E24A!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4D
EA:>5!B=?=62C3,!4A5!9:??5>=42:8!G54E558!4A5!-]L*!=86!B=?4!9:86242:8!E=@!
3:65?=45!Yr!h!WV`,!r9:??!h!WQTZ,!=86!4A=4!G54E558!4A5!-]L*!=86!EA:>5!9:86242:8!E=@!
@>2CA4>I!A2CA5?!Yr!h!W`V,!r9:??!h!WT^ZW!#8!=8:4A5?!@4<6I,!O5a<42@!54!=>W!YPU"SGZ!;:<86!
@232>=?!9:??5>=42:8@!G54E558!5=9A!9:86242:8!=86!4A5!-]L*!YB=?4!9:86242:8K!r!h!WVV,!
r9:??!h!WQ`_!EA:>5!9:86242:8K!r!h!WQS,!r9:??!h!WbUZW!#8!4A5@5!4E:!@4<625@,!4A5?5!E=@!=>@:!=!
@2C82;29=84!9:??5>=42:8!G54E558!4A5!-]L*!=86!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!28!4A5!EA:>5!B=?4!
4=@M!<@28C!=!?5C?5@@2:8!2865[!YO5a<42@!54!=>W,!PU"S=_!r*h!WVT,!^`j!-W#W!qWS,WQQr_!O5a<42@!
54!=>W,!PU"SG_!r*h!WVQ,!^`j!-W#W!qW"b,WQTrZW!!
#8!(4<6I!V,!E5!E=8456!4:!?572@24!4A5!9:??5>=42:8@!G54E558!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!
9:86242:8!B5?;:?3=895!=86!4A5!-]L*!;:?!=!8<3G5?!:;!?5=@:8@W!]2?@4,!4A5!9:??5>=42:8@!
28!4A5!4E:!@4<625@!GI!O5a<42@!54!=>W!A=75!>=?C5!9:8;265895!2845?7=>@!G59=<@5!4A5!
@=3B>5@!E5?5!?5>=4275>I!@3=>>!YVS!=86!`S!B=?4292B=84@ZW!(59:86,!4A5@5!@4<625@!626!
8:4!5@423=45!4A5!;=95D@B592;29!8=4<?5!:;!4A2@!?5>=42:8!G59=<@5!:8>I!9:??5>=42:8@!E24A!=!
;=95!?59:C8242:8!35=@<?5!E5?5!45@456W!*A2?6,!28!4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3!
Y<@56!28!(4<6I!SZ,!B=?4292B=84@!=>E=I@!@4<6I!=!EA:>5!;=95W!d59=<@5!1565?!.!-=?G:8!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
PT!
A=75!@A:E8!4A=4!4A2@!B?:956<?5!B?:6<95@!=!@2N5=G>5!@4<6Ie45@4!9:3B=42G2>24I!5;;594!
Y1565?!.!-=?G:8,!PUU`Z,!7=?2=G2>24I!28!4A2@!5;;594!3=I!6?275!4A5!9:??5>=42:8!G54E558!
4A5!:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!4=@M!=86!4A5!-]L*W!#8!9:84?=@4,!@4<6I!=86!45@4!9:86242:8@!=?5!
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Running head: part-whole paradigm
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Table*2.*Summary*statistics*for*the*tests*used*in*Study*4*(N*=*104).**
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Table*3.*Bottom*left*corner*of*the*table*(bold)*shows*the*Pearson*Product-Moment*
Correlations*(N*=*104).*Upper*right*corner*shows*the*same*correlations,*disattenuated*
for*measurement*error*based*on*reliability*of*the*measurements*(no*significance*
values*are*assigned*as*significance*tests*are*inappropriate*for*corrected*correlations).**
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!
Discussion!
H@28C!4A5!F%R*,!E5!5[B>:?56!A:E!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!4?2=>@!?5>=45!4:!;=95!=86!
:G\594!?59:C8242:8!35=@<?5@W!)@!28!(4<625@!"DS,!E5!;:<86!4A=4!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!4?2=>@!
E5?5!=@!9:??5>=456!E24A!5=9A!:4A5?!=@!E=@!B:@@2G>5!C2758!35=@<?53584!5??:?W!*A5!
F%R*!SWU!2865[!:;!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!E=@!E5=M>I!G<4!@2C82;29=84>I!9:??5>=456!E24A!
4A5!-]L*,!?5B>29=428C!B?2:?!E:?MW!0:E575?,!4A5!?5>=42:8!6:5@!8:4!=99:<84!;:?!;=95D
@B592;29!7=?2=895!28!4A5!-]L*,!=@!4A5!5;;594!626!8:4!@<?7275!EA58!:G\594!?59:C8242:8!
=G2>24I!E=@!?5C?5@@56!:<4W!!!%5?;:?3=895!E24A!4A5!EA:>5!E=@!=!>244>5!G5445?!=4!
B?5629428C!;=95!?59:C8242:8!=G2>24I!4A=8!B5?;:?3=895!E24A!B=?4@!G<4!4A2@!E=@!8:4!=!
;=95D@B592;29!5;;594W!*A2@!5;;594!9:<>6!G5!6<5!4:!@4?=45C25@!4A=4!B=?4292B=84@!=BB>I!4:!
EA:>5!:G\594@!3:?5!C585?=>>I,!=86!3=I!?5;>594!3:?5!C585?=>!C>:G=>!B?:95@@28C!
=G2>2425@!YL2>85!.!(N9N5?G28@M2,!PUU^ZW
!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
S`!
!
General!Discussion!
R5!3:62;256!4A5!9>=@@29!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3!4:!9?5=45!=!35=@<?5!:;!4A5!
EA:>5!=67=84=C5!4A=4!E:<>6!G5!3:?5!?5>2=G>5!4A=8!4A5!35=@<?5!<@56!28!B?2:?!E:?MW!
(<?B?2@28C>I,!:895!4A5!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!9:86242:8@!E5?5!3=49A56!;:?!62;;29<>4I!=86!
=9A25756!A2CA!?5>2=G2>24I,!E5!;:<86!>244>5!57265895!;:?!7=?2=G2>24I!28!4A5!EA:>5!4?2=>@!
<8=99:<8456!;:?!GI!7=?2=G2>24I!28!4A5!B=?4!4?2=>@!65@B245!4A5!;=94!4A=4!:8!=75?=C5!
B=?4292B=84@!:;458!B5?;:?356!G5445?!E24A!EA:>5!;=95@!4A=8!B=?4@W!!
)6324456>I,!4A5!9:89><@2:8@!;?:3!(4<625@!"DS,!4A=4!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!B?:95@@28C!
@A=?56!=>>!4A5!7=?2=895!E5!9:<>6!?5>2=G2>24I!35=@<?5,!@553@!9A=>>58C56!GI!(4<6I!V,!28!
EA29A!EA:>5!=99<?=9I!=99:<8456!;:?!=!>244>5!3:?5!7=?2=895!28!;=95!?59:C8242:8!=G2>24I!
4A=8!B=?4!=99<?=9IW!a2758!4A5!@3=>>!9:??5>=42:8!G54E558!;=95!?59:C8242:8!=86!
A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!28!(4<6I!V!=86!4A5!>=?C5!9:8;265895!2845?7=>@!E5!E:<>6!A=75!4:!
B>=95!=?:<86!62@=4458<=456!9:??5>=42:8@!G54E558!B=?4!=86!EA:>5!9:86242:8@!28!
5=?>25?!@4<625@,!4A5@5!62@9?5B=84!?5@<>4@!3=I!G5!=!?5;>5942:8!:;!4A5!>2324=42:8@!:;!
35=@<?53584@!28!4A2@!;25>6W!)99:?628C>I,!=8!23B:?4=84!C:=>!;:?!;<4<?5!?5@5=?9A!28!
4A2@!6:3=28!2@!4:!9:8428<5!5;;:?4@!4:!23B?:75!4A5!B@I9A:354?29!B?:B5?425@!:;!:<?!
4=@M@W!!
)>4A:<CA!3=8I!@4<625@!A=75!<@56!4A5!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3,!;5E5?!A=75!
=BB?:=9A56!4A5!B=?=62C3!;?:3!=8!2862726<=>!62;;5?5895@!B5?@B594275W!L:@4!:;!:<?!
62@9<@@2:8!A=@!;:9<@56!:8!9:3B=?2@:8@!4:!4A5!2862726<=>!62;;5?5895@!E:?M!GI!
O5a<42@!54!=>W!YPU"S=,GZ!EA:!<@56!4A5!:?2C28=>!75?@2:8!:;!4A5!B=?4DEA:>5!4=@MW!#8!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
SQ!
(4<6I!S,!E5!;:<86!57265895!:;!9:875?C584!7=>2624I!;:?!4A5!F%R*,!@2895!4A5!EA:>5!
=86!B=?4!4?2=>@!;?:3!4A5!F%R*!9:??5>=456!E24A!4A5!EA:>5!=86!B=?4!4?2=>@!;?:3!4A5!
:?2C28=>!B=?4DEA:>5!4=@M!?5@B594275>IW!*A2@!2@!28;:?3=4275,!@<CC5@428C!4A=4!4A5!=G2>24I!
35=@<?56!28!4A=4!4=@M!2@!?:G<@4!=9?:@@!=!?=8C5!:;!@423<>2!=86!28@4?<942:8@W!(4<6I!V!
=>@:!c<=>24=4275>I!?5B>29=456!O5a<42@!54!=>W,!E24A!4A5!EA:>5D=67=84=C5!9:??5>=428C!
E24A!-]L*!B5?;:?3=895W!0:E575?,!:<?!5;;594!E=@!>5@@!4A=8!Vj,!9:8@265?=G>I!>5@@!
4A=8!4A5!fPPj!:G4=2856!GI!O5a<42@!54!=>W!YPU"S=!=86!GZW!#4!2@!B:@@2G>5!4A=4!4A52?!
5;;594!@2N5!E=@!28;>=456!6<5!4:!@3=>>5?!@=3B>5!@2N5@!Y0=>@5I!54!=>W,!PU"`Z,!4A5!
?5B54242:8!:;!;=95@!28!G:4A!4=@M@!Y&29A>5?!54!=>W,!PU"`Z,!=86k:?!4A5!9:84?2G<42:8!:;!
@4<6ID45@4!9:3B=42G2>24I!5;;594@!Y1565?!.!-=?G:8,!PUU`ZW!!
R5!=>@:!5[458656!4A2@!?5@<>4!=86!45@456!4A5!7=>2624I!:;!4A5!9:8@4?<94!
35=@<?56!28!4A5!EA:>5DB=?4!B=?=62C3!GI!=>@:!35=@<?28C!:G\594!?59:C8242:8!=G2>24IW!
+G\594!?59:C8242:8!=G2>24I!2@!4IB29=>>I!8:4!35=@<?56!28!@4<625@!9:895?856!E24A!
A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!:;!;=95@,!>2M5>I!6<5!4:!4A5!=@@<3B42:8!4A=4!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!2@!
@23B>I!8:4!?5>57=84!4:!8:8D;=95!:G\594!?59:C8242:8W!0:E575?,!4A5?5!2@!=G:<4!PUj!
@A=?56!7=?2=895!G54E558!-]L*!=86!F'*!B5?;:?3=895,!=86!:<?!?5@<>4@!2>><@4?=45!4A=4!
9:84?:>>28C!;:?!:G\594!?59:C8242:8!=G2>24I!2@!=8!23B:?4=84!B=?4!:;!45@428C!4A5:?25@!
=G:<4!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28CW!!!
0:E!6:!E5!?59:892>5!4A5@5!?5@<>4@!E24A!4A5!>=?C5?!>245?=4<?5!4A=4!<@5@!4A5!
EA:>5D=67=84=C5!28!4A5!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3!=@!57265895!:;!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!28!
C?:<B!@4<625@y!]2?@4,!4A5!B=445?8@!:;!9:??5>=42:8@!E5!:G@5?756!E5?5!4A5!@=35!
?5C=?6>5@@!:;!EA54A5?!:?!8:4!4A5?5!E=@!=!EA:>5D=67=84=C5!=4!4A5!C?:<B!>575>W!*A5!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
ST!
=75?=C5!5;;594!E=@!@3=>>5?!28!4A5!F%R*!4A=8!24!C585?=>>I!2@!28!4A5!@4=86=?6!4=@M,!
EA29A!E5!5[B59456!G=@56!:8!3=8I!653:8@4?=42:8@!4A=4!4A5!G<>M!:;!4A5!EA:>5!
=67=84=C5!2@!6<5!4:!@4<6ID45@4!9:3B=42G2>24I!5;;594!Y2W5W,!=!B=?4!=67=84=C5!EA58!B=?4@!
=?5!@4<6256_!1565?!.!-=?G:8,!PUU`ZW!+<?!?5@<>4@!@A:<>6!8:4!G5!4=M58!4:!@A:E!4A=4!
4A5?5!2@!8:!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!:;!EA:>5!;=95@W!L5=@<?5@!<@28C!7=?2=42:8@!:8!4A5!
9:3B:@245!4=@M!Y>2M5!4A5!F0%*D]Z!4A=4!:B5?=42:8=>2N5!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!=@!=!;=2><?5!
:;!@5>594275!=445842:8!@A:E!@4?:8C!57265895!;:?!?5>2=G>5!=86!@4=G>5!2862726<=>!
62;;5?5895@!28!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!Y&29A>5?!54!=>W,!PU"V=ZW!!d59=<@5!4A5!589:628C!:;!
;=95!B=?4@!28!4A5!EA:>5!9:86242:8!:;!4A5!F%R*!2@!5@@5842=>>I!4A5!@=35!Y@=35!
28@4?<942:8@!=86!@423<>2Z!=@!28!4A5!F0%*D],!E5!9=8!28;5?!4A=4!28!@:35!E=I!4A=4!9=8!G5!
65459456!GI!4A5!9:8C?<589I!5;;594,!4A5@5!;=95@!9:<>6!G5!B?:95@@56!A:>2@429=>>I!=86!4:!
=!7=?2=G>5!65C?55!GI!62;;5?584!@<G\594@W!*A5?5;:?5,!:<?!@B592;29!9:89><@2:8@!;:9<@!:8!
4A5!:B5?=42:8=>2N=42:8!:;!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!28!4A5!7=?2:<@!75?@2:8@!:;!4A5!B=?4D
EA:>5!B=?=62C3!4A=4!E5!45@456!A5?5,!@<CC5@428C!4A=4!24!6:5@!8:4!9=B4<?5!=!
@<G@4=842=>!=3:<84!:;!7=?2=G2>24I!28!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C,!28!EA29A!9=@5!24!3=I!G5!:;!
>244>5!<@5!28!@4<625@!:;!2862726<=>!62;;5?5895@W!]<4<?5!E:?M!3=I!5[B>:?5!2;!@<9A!
7=?2=G2>24I!9=8!G5!:G4=2856!28!:4A5?!75?@2:8@!:;!4A5!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3,!:?!=@@5@@!
EA54A5?!4A5!9<??584!?5@<>4@!E24A!4A5!:?2C28=>!9:86242:8@!<@56!28!(4<6I!S!=?5!@4=G>5!28!
5[=94!?5B>29=42:8@W!#3B:?4=84>I,!4A5!B?5@584!E:?M!:;;5?@!=!9>5=?!45@4!:;!EA54A5?!=8I!
75?@2:8!:;!4A5!B=?4DEA:>5!B=?=62C3!9=8!G5!655356!<@5;<>!4:!@4<6I!2862726<=>!
62;;5?5895@!28!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28CK!4A=4!4A5?5!@A:<>6!G5!9:8@265?=G>5!7=?2=895!28!4A5!
EA:>5!9:86242:8!4A=4!2@!8:4!=99:<8456!;:?!GI!=!B=?4!9:86242:8!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
Sb!
)9M8:E>56C53584@K!*A2@!E:?M!E=@!;<8656!GI!4A5!*53B:?=>!OI8=329@!:;!15=?828C!
-5845?!Y$=42:8=>!(925895!]:<86=42:8!a?=84!(d'DU`VPU"SZW!*A2@!3=45?2=>!2@!G=@56!
<B:8!E:?M!@<BB:?456!GI!4A5!$=42:8=>!(925895!]:<86=42:8!a?=6<=45!&5@5=?9A!
]5>>:E@A2B!<865?!a?=84!$:W!Y"VV`"^TZW!R5!4A=8M!=8:8I3:<@!?5725E5?@!;:?!
9:33584@!:8!=!B?572:<@!75?@2:8W!!
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Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
S^!
&5;5?5895@K!
)@AE:?4A!###,!)W!&W,!F<:8C,!zW!-W,!&:@@2:8,!dW,!.!*=??,!LW!sW!YPUUbZW!&59:C82N28C!?:4=456!
!;=95@!=86!a?55G>5@K!RA=4!B?:B5?425@!6?275!4A5!;=95!2875?@2:8!5;;594yW!Visual*
* Cognition,!16YQZ,!T`VDTbVW!
)726=8,!aW,!*=8N5?,!LW,!.!d5A?3=88,!LW!YPU""ZW!#3B=2?56!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!28!
!9:8C5824=>!B?:@:B=C8:@2=W!Neuropsychologia,!49Y^Z,!P`V"DP``PW!
d:CC=8,!)W!1W,!d=?4>544,!sW!-W,!.!o?=E9NIM,!OW!-W!YPU"PZW!-A5@@!3=@45?@!@A:E!=!A=>>3=?M!
!:;!;=95!B?:95@@28C!E24A!9A5@@W!Journal*of*Experimental*Psychology:*
* General!"V",!STeVPW!
d:>>58,!oW!)W!YPUUPZW!1=4584!7=?2=G>5@!28!B@I9A:>:CI!=86!4A5!@:92=>!@925895@W!Annual*
* Review*of*Psychology,!53Y"Z,!QU`DQSVW!
d<M=9A,!-W!LW,!%A2>2B@,!RW!(W,!.!a=<4A25?,!#W!YPU"UZW!12324@!:;!C585?=>2N=42:8!G54E558!
! 9=45C:?25@!=86!23B>29=42:8@!;:?!4A5:?25@!:;!9=45C:?I!@B592;2924IW!Attention,*
* Perception*&*Psychophysics,!TP,!"bQ`e"bTVW!
d<A?35@45?,!LW,!oE=8C,!*W,!.!a:@>28C,!(W!OW!YPU""ZW!)3=N:8{@!L59A=829=>!*<?M!=!85E!
!@:<?95!:;!285[B58@275,!I54!A2CADc<=>24I,!6=4=yW!Perspectives*on*Psychological*
* Science,!6Y"Z,!SD`W!
d<@5I,!*W!)W,!.!%=?=6=,!]W!sW!YPU"UZW!*A5!8=4<?5!:;!5[B5?42@5!28!;28C5?B?284!
! 5[=3285?@W!Psychonomic*Bulletin*&*Review,!17YPZ,!"``D"QUW!
-=?G:8,!-W!-W,!a?|45?,!*W,!R5G5?,!sW!'W,!.!1<5@9A:E,!)W!YPUUTZW!]=95@!=@!:G\594@!:;!8:8D
!5[B5?42@5K!%?:95@@28C!:;!4A=49A5?2@56!;=95@!28!9:8C5824=>!
!B?:@:B=C8:@2=W!Perception,!36Y""Z,!"QS`D"QV`W!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
VU!
-A:,!(W!sW,!R2>35?,!sW,!05?N3=88,!aW,!L9a<C28,!&W!RW,!]2@54,!OW,!F=8!a<>29M,!)W!'W,!WWW!.!
! a=<4A25?,!#W!YPU"`ZW!#453!?5@B:8@5!4A5:?I!=8=>I@5@!:;!4A5!-=3G?26C5!]=95!
! L53:?I!*5@4!Y-]L*ZW!Psychological*Assessment,!27YPZ,!``PW!
-A<=,!oW!RW,!&29A>5?,!sW!sW,!.!a=<4A25?,!#W!YPU"`ZW!0:>2@429!%?:95@@28C!]?:3!15=?856!
! )445842:8!4:!%=?4@W!
O5a<42@,!sW,!L5?9=6:,!&W!sW,!R2>35?,!sW,!.!&:@58G>=44,!)W!YPU"S=ZW!#862726<=>!62;;5?5895@!
!28!A:>2@429!B?:95@@28C!B?56294!4A5!:E8D?=95!=67=84=C5!28!?59:C8242:8!
! 353:?IW!PLOS*ONE,!8YVZ,!5`bP`SW!
O5a<42@,!sW,!R2>35?,!sW,!L5?9=6:,!&W!sW,!.!-:A=8,!(W!YPU"SGZW!H@28C!?5C?5@@2:8!4:!
! 35=@<?5!A:>2@429!;=95!B?:95@@28C!?575=>@!=!@4?:8C!>28M!E24A!;=95!?59:C8242:8!
!=G2>24IW!Cognition,!126Y"Z,!bTe"UUW!6:2K"UW"U"Qk\W9:C8242:8WPU"PWU^WUUV!
O588544,!0W!RW,!L9o:85,!'W,!*=7=@A32,!&W,!0=>>,!)W,!%269:9M,!LW,!'6E=?6@,!LW,!.!
! O<9A=285,!dW!YPU"PZW!*A5!-=3G?26C5!-=?!L53:?I!*5@4K!)!4=@M!3=49A56!28!
! ;:?3=4!4:!4A5!-=3G?26C5!]=95!L53:?I!*5@4,!E24A!8:?3@,!?5>2=G2>24I,!@5[!
! 62;;5?5895@,!62@@:92=42:8@!;?:3!;=95!353:?I,!=86!5[B5?42@5!5;;594@W!Behavior*
* Research*Methods,!44YPZ,!`bTDQU`W!
O:885>>I,!$W,!-:?85@,!oW,!.!L58855?,!*W!YPU"PZW!)8!5[=328=42:8!:;!4A5!B?:95@@28C!
!9=B=924I!:;!;5=4<?5@!28!4A5!*A=49A5?!2>><@2:8W!Attention,*Perception,*&*
* Psychophysics,!74YTZ,!"VT`D"VbTW!
O<9A=285,!dW!.!$=M=I=3=!oW!YPUUQZW!*A5!-=3G?26C5!]=95!L53:?I!*5@4K!&5@<>4@!;:?!
!85<?:>:C29=>>I!284=94!2862726<=>@!=86!=8!2875@42C=42:8!:;!24@!7=>2624I!<@28C!
Running head: part-whole paradigm
!
V"!
! 2875?456!;=95!@423<>2!=86!B?:@:B=C8:@29!B=?4292B=84@W!Neuropsychologia,*44,!
!`TQD`b`W!!
O<9A=285,!dW!-W,!.!R52658;5>6,!)W!YPUUSZW!)8!57=><=42:8!:;!4E:!9:33:8>I!<@56!45@4@!
! :;!<8;=32>2=?!;=95!?59:C8242:8W!Neuropsychologia,!41YQZ,!T"SDTPUW!
]24:<@2,!OW!YPU"`ZW!-:3B:@245!;=95@!=?5!8:4!B?:95@@56!A:>2@429=>>IK!57265895!;?:3!4A5!
!a=?85?!=86!?56<86=84!4=?C54!B=?=62C3@W!Attention,*Perception,*&*
* Psychophysics,!77YQZ,!PUSTDPUQUW!
a=<4A25?,!#W,!R2>>2=3@,!%W,!*=??,!LW!sW,!.!*=8=M=,!sW!RW!Y"^^bZW!*?=2828C!la?55G>5m!
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Running head: part-whole paradigm
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VP!
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Running head: part-whole paradigm
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Running head: part-whole paradigm
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Running head: part-whole paradigm
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Running head: part-whole paradigm
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... Another challenge to the use of holistic representations as an explanation for differences in face processing is that a person's ability to perform face perception tasks from whole images is highly correlated with their ability to recognize isolated face features 131 . Some individuals with developmental prosopagnosia have equivalent impairment of face recognition from isolated features and from whole faces 104 , and a hallmark of super-recognizers is their ability to identify faces from relatively limited local face information 132,133 . ...
... Progress in this area also relies on a greater understanding of the tasks themselves. Problems of measurement have dominated research on holistic processing for more than a decade 59,121,138,139 and the challenge of developing valid and reliable measures appears intractable 131 . Even the best-established measures of holistic processing suffer from very low reliability and do not correlate with differences in face recognition performance despite best practice in psychometric approach 131,140,141 . ...
... Problems of measurement have dominated research on holistic processing for more than a decade 59,121,138,139 and the challenge of developing valid and reliable measures appears intractable 131 . Even the best-established measures of holistic processing suffer from very low reliability and do not correlate with differences in face recognition performance despite best practice in psychometric approach 131,140,141 . These observations might signal a problem with the construct of holistic processing itself. ...
Individual differences and the multidimensional nature of face perception
Article
  • Mar 2022
Face perception is crucial to social interactions, yet people vary in how easily they can recognize their friends, verify an identification document or notice someone’s smile. There are widespread differences in people’s ability to recognize faces, and research has particularly focused on exceptionally good or poor recognition performance. In this Review, we synthesize the literature on individual differences in face processing across various tasks including identification and estimates of emotional state and social attributes. The individual differences approach has considerable untapped potential for theoretical progress in understanding the perceptual and cognitive organization of face processing. This approach also has practical consequences — for example, in determining who is best suited to check passports. We also discuss the underlying structural and anatomical predictors of face perception ability. Furthermore, we highlight problems of measurement that pose challenges for the effective study of individual differences. Finally, we note that research in individual differences rarely addresses perception of familiar faces. Despite people’s everyday experience of being ‘good’ or ‘bad’ with faces, a theory of how people recognize their friends remains elusive. The ability to recognize identity, emotion and other attributes from faces varies across individuals. In this Review, White and Burton synthesize research on individual differences in face processing and the implications of variability in face processing ability for theory and applied settings.
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... However, this is not immediately clear when we consider the full FPA spectrum. Indeed, some have found significant correlations between FPA and different holistic processing tasks (CFE (DeGutis et al., 2013;Richler et al., 2011), PWE (DeGutis et al., 2013;Rezlescu et al., 2017) and FIE (Rezlescu et al., 2017;Yüvrük et al., 2024), but there have also been several studies finding no correlation using the same tasks (CFE (Konar et al., 2010;Rezlescu et al., 2017;Verhallen et al., 2017), PWE (Sunday et al., 2017; when controlling for object processing abilities). Furthermore, where links have been reported, they were generally modest, explaining between 6 % and 23 % of variance. ...
... Taken together, these data suggest that the use of partially revealed stimuli and aligned features do not disrupt mechanisms associated with individual differences in face recognition. In addition, the PWE (Tanaka & Farah, 1993), which shares the same holistic definition as the perceptual integration paradigm (i.e., the whole is greater than the sum of its part - Farah et al., 1998), has produced mixed results in individual differences studies (significant correlations: DeGutis et al., 2013;Rezlescu et al., 2017; non-significant correlation when controlling for object processing abilities: Sunday et al., 2017). It also has the disadvantage to assess non independently the perceptual advantage of identity recognition in whole face conditions compared to isolated features conditions via a regression method (i.e., DeGutis et al., 2013). ...
Part-based processing, but not holistic processing, predicts individual differences in face recognition abilities
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2025
This study aimed to assess the roles of part-based and holistic processing for face processing ability (FPA). A psychophysical paradigm in which the efficiency at recognizing isolated or combined facial parts was used (N = 64), and holistic processing was defined as the perceptual integration from multiple parts. FPA and object processing ability were measured using a battery of tasks. A multiple linear regression including three predictors, namely perceptual integration, part-based efficiency, and object processing, explained 40 % of the variance in FPA. Most importantly, our results reveal a strong predictive relationship between part-based efficiency and FPA, a small predictive relationship between object processing ability and FPA, and no predictive relationship be-tween perceptual integration and FPA. This result was obtained despite considerable variance in perceptual integration skills–with some participants exhibiting a highly efficient integration. These results indicate that part-based processing plays a pivotal role in FPA, whereas holistic processing does not.
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... However, although each independent test shows high internal reliability, the OEE, which is derived in our models as a covariateadjusted difference between the two measures, may not be (Ross et al, 2015;Sunday et al., 2017). No study has yet investigated the internal reliability of the OEE itself and it remains an open question as to whether this measurement may in fact be far noisier than has previously been assumed and throwing doubt on findings focused on individual performance (e.g., the lack of interactions found between OEEs and other variables may be due to the noise in the measurement). ...
... As a means of mitigating the potential contribution of poor measurement, we selected three face recognition measures with well-established reliability (see Horry et al., 2015;McKone et al., 2012); and this was also confirmed in our own analyses. However, just because an individual measure is reliable, does not therefore entail that the product of two such measures (that is the difference between the two, which is how the OEE is defined) is necessarily also reliable (see Ross et al., 2015;Sunday et al. 2017). As a consequence we undertook reliability analyses on our OEE effect, and report that indeed reliability levels are lower than is seen for the individual tests themselves, but still sufficiently high for us to have some confidence in our interpretation of the lack of interactions seen in our analyses. ...
Do Individual Differences in Face Recognition Ability Moderate the Other Ethnicity Effect?
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2021
Individuals are better at recognizing faces from their own ethnic group compared with other ethnicity faces—the other-ethnicity effect (OEE). This finding is said to reflect differences in experience and familiarity to faces from other ethnicities relative to faces corresponding with the viewers’ ethnicity. However, own-ethnicity face recognition performance ranges considerably within a population, from very poor to extremely good. In addition, within-population recognition performance on other-ethnicity faces can also vary considerably with some individuals being classed as “other ethnicity face blind” (Wan et al., 2017). Despite evidence for considerable variation in performance within population for faces of both types, it is currently unclear whether the magnitude of the OEE changes as a function of this variability. By recruiting large-scale multinational samples, we investigated the size of the OEE across the full range of own and other ethnicity face performance while considering measures of social contact. We find that the magnitude of the OEE is remarkably consistent across all levels of within-population own- and other-ethnicity face recognition ability, and this pattern was unaffected by social contact measures. These findings suggest that the OEE is a persistent feature of face recognition performance, with consequences for models built around very poor, and very good face recognizers.
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... Proficient face recognizers are known to process faces differently than their less-proficient counterparts (Bobak et al., 2016;Duchaine & Nakayama, 2006;Russell et al., 2009). Proficient recognizers rely more on holistic processing than other face-processing strategies (DeGutis et al., 2013;Sunday et al., 2017;Wang et al., 2012). However, as masks inhibit holistic processing (Freud et al., 2020;Guerra et al., 2022), proficient performers may increasingly rely on piecemeal (i.e., feature-by-feature) sampling techniques. ...
Congruency effects and individual differences in masked face recognition under limited feature visibility
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2025
  • MEM COGNITION
Recognizing masked faces is a challenge. Researchers have explored congruency-based approaches to improve face matching, with promising results. Here, we investigated whether congruency between the encoding and the retrieval conditions can improve masked face recognition when only the eyes are visible under conditions of high and low memory load. Additionally, we explored whether the advantage of congruency varied as a function of general face recognition ability. In three experiments (total N = 316), participants completed a face recognition task that manipulated the congruency between encoding and retrieval conditions. In congruent sets, the images featured either a full face or a partial face at encoding, paired with a full or partial face, respectively, at retrieval. In incongruent sets, the images paired a full face at encoding with a partial face at retrieval or a partial face at encoding with a full face at retrieval. The Cambridge Face Memory Test served as a measure of general face recognition ability. The results supported the hypothesis that contextual congruency improves face recognition ( η p 2 ≥ .46), and the effect remained consistent across high- and low-ability face recognition performers. Additionally, memory load shaped the confidence-accuracy relationship, such that confidence was a reliable predictor of accuracy under conditions of low (but not high) memory load. These results show that focusing on originally encoded facial features significantly improves masked target recognition, aiding law enforcement in identifying masked perpetrators and enhancing public safety.
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... Note also that while this study compared these tasks in their most widely used formats, these tasks were originally designed to measure group-level results. Although the reliability of our measures was improved following previous recommendations (Ross et al., 2015), future studies may consider adopting versions of these tasks optimized to study individual differences (Richler, Floyd, & Gauthier, 2015; but see Sunday, Richler, & Gauthier, 2017). ...
Two faces of holistic face processing: Facilitation and interference underlying part-whole and composite effects
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2024
  • J VISION
Holistic processing, a strong tendency to process multiple features together, is regarded as a hallmark of face perception. Holistic effects can be revealed by several tasks, including the part-whole task, standard composite task, and complete composite task. Although holistic effects are readily observed using these tasks, the lack of correlations among these effects and the mixed findings across these tasks when examining the effects among various populations or manipulations pose questions about how these effects should be understood. We distinguished facilitation and interference effects within the holistic effects in the complete composite task and found that the holistic effect in the part-whole task appeared to be correlated with facilitation but not interference in the complete composite task, whereas the holistic effect in the standard composite task was correlated with interference but not facilitation in the complete composite task. These findings suggest that clarifying the roles of facilitation and interference is critical for understanding holistic face processing.
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Normative face recognition ability test scores vary across online participant pools
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Oct 2024
Online participant recruitment is a cornerstone of modern psychology research. While this offers clear benefits for studying individual differences in cognitive abilities, test performance can vary across lab-based and web-based settings. Here we assess the stability of normative test scores across popular online recruitment platforms and in-person testing, for three standard measures of face identity processing ability: the GFMT2, CFMT+, and MFMT. Participants recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) scored approximately 10 percentage points lower in all tests compared to those recruited through Prolific and university students tested in the lab. Applying stricter exclusion criteria based on attention checks resulted in notably higher exclusion rates for the MTurk group (~62%) compared to the Prolific group (~22%), yet even after exclusion, some test scores remained lower for MTurk participants. Given that the GFMT2 subtests were developed using MTurk participants, we provide updated normative scores for all subtests (GFMT2-Short, GFMT2-Low, GFMT2-High) and further recommendations for their use. We also confirm the robust psychometric properties of the GFMT2-Short and GFMT2-High, demonstrating strong test-retest reliability, convergent validity with other established tests, and high diagnostic value in identifying super-recognisers. The GFMT2 subtests are freely available for use in both online and in-person research via www.gfmt2.org.
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Information sampling differences supporting superior face identity processing ability
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2024
Face recognition in humans is often cited as a model example of perceptual expertise that is characterized by an increased tendency to process faces as holistic percepts. However emerging evidence across different domains of expertise points to a critical role of feature-based processing strategies during the initial encoding of information. Here, we examined the eye-movement patterns of super-recognisers—individuals with extremely high face identification ability compared with the average person—using gaze-contingent “spotlight” apertures that restrict visual face information in real time around their point of fixation. As an additional contrast, we also compared their performance with that of facial examiners—highly trained individuals whose superiority has been shown to rely heavily on featural processing. Super-recognisers and facial examiners showed equivalent face matching accuracy in both spotlight aperture and natural viewing conditions, suggesting that they were equally adept at using featural information for face identity processing. Further, both groups sampled more information across the face than controls. Together, these results show that the active exploration of facial features is an important determinant of face recognition ability that generalizes across different types of experts.
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Face-Information Sampling in Super-Recognizers
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2022
Perceptual processes underlying individual differences in face-recognition ability remain poorly understood. We compared visual sampling of 37 adult super-recognizers—individuals with superior face-recognition ability—with that of 68 typical adult viewers by measuring gaze position as they learned and recognized unfamiliar faces. In both phases, participants viewed faces through “spotlight” apertures that varied in size, with face information restricted in real time around their point of fixation. We found higher accuracy in super-recognizers at all aperture sizes—showing that their superiority does not rely on global sampling of face information but is also evident when they are forced to adopt piecemeal sampling. Additionally, super-recognizers made more fixations, focused less on eye region, and distributed their gaze more than typical viewers. These differences were most apparent when learning faces and were consistent with trends we observed across the broader ability spectrum, suggesting that they are reflective of factors that vary dimensionally in the broader population.
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Different measures of holistic face processing tap into distinct but partially overlapping mechanisms
Article
  • Jun 2021
Holistic processing, which includes the integration of facial features and analysis of their relations to one another, is a hallmark of what makes faces ‘special’. Various experimental paradigms purport to measure holistic processing but these have often produced inconsistent results. This has led researchers to question the nature and structure of the mechanism(s) underlying holistic processing. Using an individual differences approach, researchers have examined relations between various measures of holistic processing in an attempt to resolve these questions. In keeping with this, we examined relationships between four commonly used measures of holistic face processing in a large group of participants (N = 223): (1) The Face Inversion Effect, (2) the Part Whole Effect (PWE), (3) the Composite Face Effect, and (4) the Configural Featural Detection Task (CFDT). Several novel methodological and analytical elements were introduced, including the use of factor analysis and the inclusion of control conditions to confirm the face specificity of all of the effects measured. The four indexes of holistic processing derived from each measure loaded onto two factors, one encompassing the PWE and the CFDT, and one encompassing the CE. The 16 conditions tested across the four tasks loaded onto four factors, each factor corresponding to a different measure. These results, together with those of other studies, suggest that holistic processing is a multifaceted construct and that different measures tap into distinct but partially overlapping elements of it.
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Genetic specificity of face recognition
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2015
Significance Diverse cognitive abilities have typically been found to intercorrelate highly and to be strongly influenced by genetics. Recent twin studies have suggested that the ability to recognize human faces is an exception: it is similarly highly heritable, but largely uncorrelated with other abilities. However, assessing genetic relationships—the degree to which traits are influenced by the same genes—requires very large samples, which have not previously been available. This study, using data from more than 2,000 twins, shows for the first time, to our knowledge, that the genetic influences on face recognition are almost entirely unique. This finding provides strong support for the view that face recognition is “special” and may ultimately illuminate the nature of cognitive abilities in general.
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Measuring nonvisual knowledge about object categories: The Semantic Vanderbilt Expertise Test
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2015
  • BEHAV RES METHODS
How much do people differ in their abilities to recognize objects, and what is the source of these differences? To address the first question, psychologists have created visual learning tests including the Cambridge Face Memory Test (Duchaine & Nakayama, 2006) and the Vanderbilt Expertise Test (VET; McGugin et al., 2012). The second question requires consideration of the influences of both innate potential and experience, but experience is difficult to measure. One solution is to measure the products of experience beyond perceptual knowledge-specifically, nonvisual semantic knowledge. For instance, the relation between semantic and perceptual knowledge can help clarify the nature of object recognition deficits in brain-damaged patients (Barton, Hanif, & Ashraf, Brain, 132, 3456-3466, 2009). We present a reliable measure of nonperceptual knowledge in a format applicable across categories. The Semantic Vanderbilt Expertise Test (SVET) measures knowledge of relevant category-specific nomenclature. We present SVETs for eight categories: cars, planes, Transformers, dinosaurs, shoes, birds, leaves, and mushrooms. The SVET demonstrated good reliability and domain-specific validity. We found partial support for the idea that the only source of domain-specific shared variance between the VET and SVET is experience with a category. We also demonstrated the utility of the SVET-Bird in experts. The SVET can facilitate the study of individual differences in visual recognition.
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About-face on face recognition ability and holistic processing
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2015
  • J VISION
Previous work found a small but significant relationship between holistic processing measured with the composite task and face recognition ability measured by the Cambridge Face Memory Test (CFMT; Duchaine & Nakayama, 2006). Surprisingly, recent work using a different measure of holistic processing (Vanderbilt Holistic Face Processing Test [VHPT-F]; Richler, Floyd, & Gauthier, 2014) and a larger sample found no evidence for such a relationship. In Experiment 1 we replicate this unexpected result, finding no relationship between holistic processing (VHPT-F) and face recognition ability (CFMT). A key difference between the VHPT-F and other holistic processing measures is that unique face parts are used on each trial in the VHPT-F, unlike in other tasks where a small set of face parts repeat across the experiment. In Experiment 2, we test the hypothesis that correlations between the CFMT and holistic processing tasks are driven by stimulus repetition that allows for learning during the composite task. Consistent with our predictions, CFMT performance was correlated with holistic processing in the composite task when a small set of face parts repeated over trials, but not when face parts did not repeat. A meta-analysis confirms that relationships between the CFMT and holistic processing depend on stimulus repetition. These results raise important questions about what is being measured by the CFMT, and challenge current assumptions about why faces are processed holistically.
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When Less Is More: Impact of Face Processing Ability on Recognition of Visually Degraded Faces
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2015
It is generally thought that faces are perceived as indissociable wholes. As a result, many assume that hiding large portions of the face by the addition of noise or by masking limits or qualitatively alters natural "expert" face processing by forcing observers to use atypical processing mechanisms. We addressed this question by measuring face processing abilities with whole faces and with Bubbles (Gosselin & Schyns, 2001), an extreme masking method thought by some to bias the observers toward the use of atypical processing mechanisms by limiting the use of whole-face strategies. We obtained a strong and negative correlation between individual face processing ability and the number of bubbles (r = -.79), and this correlation remained strong even after controlling for general visual/cognitive processing ability (rpartial = -.72). In other words, the better someone is at processing faces, the fewer facial parts they need to accurately carry out this task. Thus, contrary to what many researchers assume, face processing mechanisms appear to be quite insensitive to the visual impoverishment of the face stimulus. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
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Holistic Processing in the Composite Task Depends on Face Size
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2014
  • J VISION
Holistic processing is a hallmark of face processing. There is evidence that holistic processing is strongest for faces at identification distance 2–10 metres from the observer. However, this evidence is based on tasks that have been little used in the literature and that are indirect measures of holistic processing. We use the composite task—a well validated and frequently used paradigm—to measure the effect of viewing distance on holistic processing. In line with previous work, we find a congruency x alignment effect that is strongest for faces that are close (2 m equivalent distance) than for faces that are further away (24 m equivalent distance). In contrast, the alignment effect for same trials, used by several authors to measure holistic processing, produced results that are difficult to interpret. We conclude that our results converge with previous findings providing more direct evidence for an effect of size on holistic processing.
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Holistic Processing From Learned Attention to Parts
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2015
Attention helps us focus on what is most relevant to our goals, and prior work has shown that aspects of attention can be learned. Learned inattention to parts can abolish holistic processing of faces, but it is unknown whether learned attention to parts is sufficient to cause a change from part-based to holistic processing with objects. We trained subjects to individuate nonface objects (Greebles) from 2 categories: Ploks and Glips. Diagnostic information was in complementary halves for the 2 categories. Holistic processing was then tested with Plok-Glip composites that combined the kind of part that was diagnostic or nondiagnostic during training. Exposure to Greeble parts resulted in general failures of selective attention for nondiagnostic composites, but face-like holistic processing was only observed for diagnostic composites. These results demonstrated a novel link between learned attentional control and the acquisition of holistic processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
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The fickle P value generates irreproducible results
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2015
  • Br J Pharmacol
The reliability and reproducibility of science are under scrutiny. However, a major cause of this lack of repeatability is not being considered: the wide sample-to-sample variability in the P value. We explain why P is fickle to discourage the ill-informed practice of interpreting analyses based predominantly on this statistic.
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Composite faces are not processed holistically: evidence from the Garner and redundant target paradigms
Article
  • Apr 2015
  • ATTEN PERCEPT PSYCHO
Composite faces fuse the top half of one face with the bottom half of another. These stimuli inflict a strong illusion of a novel face on their viewers, and are often considered to be processed holistically. The current study challenges this holistic view. Here I present provocative evidence from various classic attention paradigms such as the Garner (1974) and the redundant target (Miller, Cognitive Psychology, 14, 247-279, 1982; Townsend & Nozawa, Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 39, 321-359, 1995) tasks showing that face parts are perceived and processed in an analytic rather than holistic fashion. In Experiment 1, composite faces failed to exhibit Garner interference, indicating perfect selective attention to the constituent parts. In Experiments 2 and 3, composite faces failed to exhibit super-capacity with same-identity composites, demonstrating limited or unlimited capacity. This pattern is consistent with analytic perception. Taken together, the results cast serious doubts on the validity of the holistic processing approach. In many respects, the study proposes disillusionment from the composite face illusion. In addition, the study highlights the importance of converging operations, model testability, and individual differences in the study of faces.
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Attentive Turkers: MTurk participants perform better on online attention checks than subject pool participants
Article
  • Mar 2016
  • BEHAV RES METHODS
Participant attentiveness is a concern for many researchers using Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (MTurk). While studies comparing the attentiveness of participants on MTurk vs traditional subject pool samples provided mixed support for this concern, attention check questions and other methods of ensuring participant attention have become prolific in MTurk studies. Because MTurk is a population that learns, we hypothesized that MTurkers would be more attentive to instructions than traditional subject pool samples. In three online studies, participants from MTurk and collegiate populations participated in a task that included a measure of attentiveness to instructions (an instructional manipulation check – IMC). In all studies, MTurkers were more attentive to instructions than college students, even on novel IMCs (studies 2 and 3), and MTurkers showed larger effects in response to a minute text manipulation. These results have implications for sustainable use of MTurk samples for social science research and the conclusions drawn from research with MTurk and college subject pool samples. Keywords: instructional manipulation checks, participant attentiveness, MTurk, college students
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