The Pursuit of Liberty: Building Sustainable Cities with Circular Economies

Abstract

Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness' is perhaps the defining social vision for Libertarians. This paper will explore how this same vision might enable the development of socially resilient and environmentally sustainable cities.

Full text

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The$Pursuit$of$Liberty:$$
Building$Sustainable$Cities$with$Circular$Economies
!
Steven&Liaros&
www.polisplan.com.au&
steven@polisplan.com.au!
!
!
‘Life,!liberty!and!the!pursuit!of!happiness’!is!perhaps!the!defining!social!vision!
for!Libertarians.!This!paper!will!explore!how!this!same!vision!might!enable!the!
development!of!socially!resilient!and!environmentally!sustainable!cities.!
A!vision!alone,!though,!is!not!sufficient.!Nor!are!the!countless!critiques!of!the!
current! economic! system.! A! new! economic! paradigm! that! addresses! the!
various!critiques!is!required,!as!is!a!strategy!for!achieving!that!vision.!
This! paper! will! argue! that! the! Circular! Economy—which!presently!relates!to!
the! production!of! goods,! striving! by! design! to! produce! no! waste—could!be!
broadened!to!describe!a!new!economic!paradigm.!By!addressing!the!critiques!
expressed!in!other!heterodox!economic!theories,!the!Circular!Economy! would!
take! the! first! strategic! step! towards!achieving! a! new! vision,! concurrently!
becoming!an! umbrella! term! that! fully! embraces! the! Gift,! Regenerative,!
Steady! State! and! Sufficiency! Economy!ideas,! as! well! as! the! critiques! of!
Feminist!Economics.!
Introduction**
*
Therein!is!the!tragedy.!Each!man!is!locked!into!a!system!that!compels!
him!to!increase!his!herd!without!limit—in!a!world!that!is!limited.!Ruin!is!
the!destination!toward!which!all!men!rush,!each!pursuing!his!own!best!
interest!in! a! society! that! believes!in! the! freedom!of!the!commons.!
(emphasis!added)!
~Garrett!Hardin,!The!Tragedy!of!the!Commons!(1968:1244)!
Critiques& of& the& present& economic& orthodoxy& abound.& Few& are& as& eloquent& and&
persuasive&as&Hardin’s&Tragedy!of!the!Commons.&Perhaps&fewer&still&have&generated&so&
much& debate& and& counter-critiques& or& had& the& policy& impact& of& Hardin’s& work.& Yet&
nearly& fifty& years& have& passed& and& we& are& still& locked& in& the& same& economic& system.&
Why&is&it&that& we& do& not& more&directly&challenge&Hardin’s&assertion&that&“each&man&is&
locked&into&a&system…”1?&Are&we&not&free&to&create&a&new&economic&system?&Are&we&a&
free& society& or& are& we& trapped& by& the& economy& that& we& have& inherited?& Trapped,&
therefore,&by&the&endless&activity&needed&to&grow&the&only&thing&we&collectively&value—
the& economy.& Inevitably,& this& pressure& for& more& activity& precludes& the& freedom& to&
1&ibid&Hardin&

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pause,&re-evaluate&and&create&a&new&system.&The&constant&activity&is&a&reflection&of&the&
value& we& attribute& to& work.& This& paper& will& argue& for& a& more& nuanced& distinction&
between&labor&and&work&as&proposed&by&Hannah&Arendt&(1958),&where&work&relates&to&
the& creation& of& new& things,& while& labor& relates& to& the& ongoing& maintenance& of& those&
things&as&well&as&the&activity&needed&to&sustain&our&physical&lives.&This&approach&allows&
us&to&ask& whether&the&products&of&our&work& are&labor-saving&devices&or&labor-creating&
devices.& Is& the& sum& of& our& work& plus& labor& precluding& freedom?& Rather& than&
perpetually&increasing&economic&activity—striving&for&more&jobs&and&growth—perhaps&
we&could&redefine&prosperity&as&a&striving&to&increase&our&‘freedom&from&labor’?&&
Escaping& the& trap& of& economic& orthodoxy& is& only& half& the& problem.& Creating& a& new&
economic&paradigm&is&the&other&half.&Stilwell&(2016a:146)&argues&that&“any&program&to&
drive& political& economic& change& requires& critique,& vision,& strategy& and& organisation.”&
This& paper& will& follow& the& path& beyond& critique& set& out& by& Stilwell,& fleshing& out&
potential& ideas& for& vision,& strategy& and& organisation;& although& I& propose& a& slight&
modification&of&his&use&of&the&latter&term.&Whilst&it&is&essential&to&have&“organisational&
vehicles&with& clear& goals& and& adequate&resources”& (Stilwell& 2016a:146),& we& must&also&
imagine&how&our&physical&environment&might&be&organised&in&an&alternative&economic&
paradigm.&Economics&must&be&examined&not&in&abstract&terms&but&by&reference&to&the&
real&world& so& as& to& address& the& disconnect& between& it& and& the& laws& of& physics& (Daly,&
2009:252)&because&economic&ideas&influence&the&development&of&the&human&habitat—
the&city—within&the&natural&environment&in&which&it&is&located.&&&
In& developing& a& strategy& to& achieve& the& vision& I& will& discuss& how& various& heterodox&
economic&systems& such&as&the&Gift&Economy2,&the&Regenerative&Economy3,&the&Steady&
State& Economy4,& the& Sufficiency& Economy5& as& well& as& critiques& from&Feminist6&
Economics&might& contribute& to& the& organisation& of& a& new& paradigm.& It& is& argued& that&
each&of&these&has&merit&and&could&contribute&to&vision,&strategy&or&organisation&but&the&
future&economic&system&must&embrace&and&address&the&issues&raised&by&all&of&them.&&
A&second&aspect&of&the&strategy&would&require&that&diverse&critiques&inform&a&clear&and&
simple&narrative.& The&concept& of& the& Circular& Economy—which& presently& relates& only&
to& the& production& of& goods& and& strives& by& design& to& produce& no& waste—offers&
significant&potential.&Mainstream&economists& and& major& banks7&are&exploring&the&idea&
of& the& Circular& Economy& and& the& European& Union8,9& advocates& for& a& strategic& shift&
2&Refer&Cheal&(1988)&&
3&Refer&Fullerton&(2015)&
4&Refer&Daly&(2008)&
5&Refer&Alexander&(2015)&
6&Critiques&by&Nelson&(1995)&
7&The&European&Investment&Bank&(EIB),&ING,&Rabobank&have&all&prepared&reports&on&the&basis—as&stated&
by&the&EIB—that&“The&circular&economy&is&an&imperative&for&the&Member&States&of&the&European&Union&
in&order&to&tackle&material&scarcity&and&price&volatility&as&well&as&the&degradation&of&the&natural&
environment.”&&
8&Briefing&to&European&Parliament&(2016)&reads:&“Unlike&the&traditional&linear&economic&model&based&on&
a& 'take-make-consume-throw&away&pattern,&a&circular&economy&is&based&on&sharing,&leasing,&reuse,&
repair,&refurbishment&and&recycling,&in&an&(almost)&closed&loop,&where&products&and&the&materials&they&
contain&are&highly&valued.&In&practice,&it&implies&reducing&waste&to&a&minimum.”&

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‘From& a& Linear& to& a& Circular& Economy’.& Heterodox& economists& could& hook& onto& this&
narrative&but& then& expand& the& concept& of& the& Circular& Economy& to& incorporate& other&
systemic& concerns.& That& is& to& say,& the& Circular& Economy& could& become& an& umbrella&
term&that&fully&embraces&many&other&critiques.&&
This&expanded&idea&of&the&Circular&Economy&proposes&to&use&the&term&‘circular’&not&just&
in& the& sense& of& ‘cycles’& but& also& to& infer& ‘holistic’& or& ‘systems& thinking’.& To& integrate&
heterodox&ideas,&the&aim&will&be&to&examine&how&these&contribute&to,&and&fit&within,&a&
more&holistic&imaginary&of&a&human&society&nested&within&the&natural&environment&and&
consisting&of&more&than&just&‘economy’.&
By& thinking& in& terms& of& cities! as! systems! that! provide! for! their! citizens,& the& Circular&
Economy& can& be& conceptualised& as& a& model& for& planning& in& both& space& and& time& not&
just& for& growth& but& also& for& decay.& This& would& embrace& both& the& Steady-State& and&
Regenerative&economic&ideas.&City&planning&would&include&water&cycle&and&the&carbon&
cycle& management,& planning& for& product& life& cycles& as& well& as& designing& for&
generational& change& and& human& life& cycles.& The& cities& focus& also& addresses& feminist&
economics&through&the&relationship&between&the&household&and&the&city.&
The&approach&in&this&paper&is&to&ask&what&is&‘economics’&and&what&should&the&project&of&
economics& be& about?& I& will& define& ‘freedom’& and& ‘economics’& so& as& to& explore& the&
relationship& between& work& within& the& economy& and& freedom& from& the& economy.&
Liberty& being& the& space& and& time& to& pursue& art,& sport,& rest& and& other& ‘uneconomic’&
activities.&&
&
The*Problem*of*Orthodoxy*
*
In&setting& out& to&build& a& new&story—a& vision& for&the& future& and&a& strategy& for&getting&
there—we& must& acknowledge& the& Problem& of& Orthodoxy.& Simply& put,& ‘orthodox’&
literally& means& ‘correct& opinion’,& which& is& an& oxymoron—there& can& be& no& ‘correct’&
opinion& or& belief.& An& orthodoxy& is& a& politically& imposed& order.& Our& current& political&
belief&system&advocates&‘jobs&and&growth’&in&the&economy,&which&is&believed&to&take&us&
to&a& prosperous&future.&Interestingly.&the&word&‘pro-sper’&literally&means&‘according& to&
our& hopes’.& We& therefore& must& describe& what& we& are& hoping& for& and& what& a&
prosperous&future&looks&like?&
Western&societies&rest&on&the&heritage&of&the&philosophical&debates&that&underpinned&
the&French& and&American&Revolutions.&These&left&us& with&clear&visions&of&a&prosperous&
future,&framing&much&of&our&subsequent&political&discourse&around&the&ideals&of&liberty&
and&equality.&In&the&same&period,&the&Scientific&Revolution&triggered&a&great&leap&in&our&
understanding& of& the& physical& world,& enhancing& our& economic& systems& through& the&
advancement&of&technologies.&&
9&European&Commission&Press&Release,&Brussels,&2&December&2015.&Closing!the!loop:!Commission!adopts!
ambitious!new!Circular!Economy!Package!to!boost!competitiveness,!create!jobs!and!generate!
sustainable!growth.& For&more&information:&http://ec.europa.eu/environment/circular-
economy/index_en.htm&
&

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Any& political& economy& must& straddle& these& two& fundamentally& different& ways& of&
thinking.&It& must&connect& our& daily,& real-world& actions& with& an& imagined& ideal& future.&
The&climate&change&debate&epitomises&the&clash&between&the&politically&imposed&order&
and&our&scientific&understanding&of&the&natural&order.&To&resolve&this&the&political&order&
must&align&with&the&natural&order.&In&our&relationship&to&nature&we&must&accept&that&we&
are&subordinate& to& natural& laws,& including& the& laws&of& physics.& That& is,& insofar& as& our&
economic& system& is& concerned& with& managing& the& natural& world& to& provide& water,&
food,& shelter& and& other& ‘goods’,& we& must& obey& physical& laws& and& work& within& the&
physical&constraints&of&our&geography&and&climate.&&
It&is&argued&that&as&we&work&with—and&not&against—natural&systems,&enhancing&them&
with&technology&and&collaborating&as&equals,&we&can&in&fact,&achieve&the&ideal&of&liberty.&
The&greater& the& efficiency& with& which&we& can& satisfy& our& economic&needs& and& wants,&
the&greater&will&be&our&collective&freedom&from&economy.&
&
Liberty*as*the*Gift*of*Society*through*Freedom*from*Economy*
*
Much&discussion&in&political&and&social&philosophy&is&devoted&to&the&ideas&of&liberty&and&
freedom—terms&that&tend&to&be&used&interchangeably.&Carter&(2016)&provides10&a&most&
useful&characterisation&of&freedom:&&
MacCallum! defines! the! basic! concept! of!freedom! …! as! …! a! triadic!
relation! —! that! is,! a! relation! between! three! things…! Any! statement!
about!freedom!or!unfreedom! can! be! translated! into! a! statement! …!
specifying! what!is!free!or!unfree,!from!what!it!is!free!or!unfree,!and!
what!it!is!free!or!unfree!to!do!or!become.!
Using& this& characterisation,& we& can& say& that& the& agent& is& each& individual& in& a& society&
constrained& by& our& natural& animal& condition.& We& therefore& need& to& work& to& provide&
certain& natural& needs—principally,& food,& water,& energy& (fire)& and& shelter.& These&
represent& the& physiological& needs& at& the& bottom& level& of& the& ‘hierarchy& of& needs’&
proposed& by& Maslow& (1943:370).& To& reach& the& highest& level& of& ‘self-actualization’& a&
person&must& be& liberated&from& the& need& to& work&for& the& provision& of& the&lower& level&
needs.&Maslow&(1943:382)&describes&the&need&for&self-actualization&in&this&way:&
Even!if!all!these!needs!are!satisfied,! we! may! still! …!expect!that! a! new!
discontent! and! restlessness! will!soon!develop,!unless! the! individual!is!
doing!what!he!is!fitted!for.!A!musician!must!make!music,!an!artist!must!
paint,!a!poet! must! write,! if!he!is!to! be! ultimately! happy.!What!a! man!
can!be,!he!must!be.!!
Liberty,& therefore,& is& the& gift& a& society& offers& to& each& individual.& It& represents& the&
freedom&from&the&work&needed&to&satisfy&basic&needs.&It&is&the&gift&offered&in&return&for&
the&work&the&individual&has&given&at&other&times.&The&pursuit&of&liberty&is&therefore&the&
pursuit&of&an&organisational&structure&for&the&society&such&that&everyone’s&basic&needs&
10&in&Stanford&Encyclopaedia&of&Philosophy&definitions&of&liberty& (First&published&Thu&Feb&27,&2003;&
substantive&revision&Tue&Aug&2,&2016)&refer&to&4.!One!Concept!of!Liberty:!Freedom!as!a!Triadic!Relation&&

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are&satisfied&and&everyone&also&has&the&freedom&to&be&what&they&must&be&and&to&create&
what&we&call&‘culture’.&&
We& may& therefore& potentially& distinguish& liberty& from& freedom& in& this& way:& the&
‘economy’&and&the&‘liberty& to& pursue&happiness’&are&two& realms! within! the!society.&In&
order&for& the& cultural& realm& to& develop,& individuals& must& be& gifted& freedom&from! the!
economy.&
&
Economics*in*the*City*
&
This&view—that&there&exists&a&realm&outside&of&economics—is&not&a&new&idea.&Aristotle&
opens&his&discourse11&on&economics&as&follows:&
The! sciences! of! politics! and! economics! differ!not!only!as!widely!as! a!
household!and! a! city! (the! subject-matter! with! which! they! severally!
deal),!but!also!in!the!fact!that!the!science!of!politics!involves!a!number!
of!rulers,!whereas!the!sphere!of!economics!is! a!monarchy…!Now!a!city!
is!an! aggregate! made! up!of!households! …! possessing!in! itself! the!
means!to!a!happy!life.!
The& compound& Greek& word& ‘eco-nomia’& literally& means& ‘household-management’,&
allowing& us& to& locate& economics& in& a& physical& place.& It& aligns& also& with& our& current&
dichotomy& of& private& domain& and& public& domain& representing& the& separation& of&
individual&interests& from& collective& interests.& Yet& these& processes—the& economic& and&
the&political—are&clearly& interdependent.& To& ensure&that&the& household& work! domain&
did& not& encroach& on& the& free! cultural& domain,& the& Greeks& deliberately& divided& the&
society&into&two&groups&as&shown& in& Figure* 1—the& free&men&would&be&in& the& political&
domain&to&pursue&culture&(art,&theatre)&and&manage&the&collective&interests&of&the&city&
(politics,&philosophy),&while& the&women&and&slaves&would&be&located&in&the&household&
to&do&the&(mostly&agricultural)&work.&That&the&city&excluded&the&household&domain&can&
be&interpreted&from&the&original&Greek&and&Latin&definitions&of&‘city’,&which&referred&to&
the&‘citizen&collective’,&that&is,&the&collective&of&free&men.&
&&&&&
Figure&1.&&Greek&idea&of&‘city’&
Figure&2.&A&holistic&city&
&
&
11&Aristotle,&‘Economics’,&Book&1&section&1343a,&translation&by&Forster&E.S.&

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We& have& inherited& this& ancient& Greek& perception& of& the& household& as& separate& from&
the&city&or&political&realm12,&insofar&as&we&view&the&private&domain&as&separate&from&the&
public&and&also& the& agricultural& work&as&somehow&outside&the&city.&As&a& consequence,&
city& planning& invariably& excludes& the& planning& of& food& systems& to& ensure& adequate&
supply& for& the& citizens.& Surely& we& ought& to& consider& the& most& basic& of& the& citizens’&
needs&when&we&are&planning&the&organisation&of&an&economic&system&or&city?&
A& better& approach& would& be& to& explicitly& acknowledge& that& private& domains& are& a&
subset& of& the& public& city& as& in& Figure* 2& and& not& separate& from& it& or& even& a& separate&
‘sector’.&The&choices&and&decisions&made&in& households,& when& aggregated,& define&the&
character&of&the&city&as&a&whole.&For&example,&if&most&households&choose&to&build&large&
detached&houses& with&private&vehicles&for&transport&then& this&influences&the&scale&and&
character&of&public& infrastructure& required&to&support&them&and&therefore&determines&
the& structure& of& the& city.& By& contrast,& if& most& choose& high& density& living& then& the&
buildings&in&the&city&will&be&different&as&will&the&transport&infrastructure,&simply&because&
public&transport&becomes&more&feasible&in&a&denser&city.&This&is&not&to&say&one&option&is&
better& than& the& other& but& to& illustrate& that& private& and& public& choices& are&
interdependent.& Public& decisions& influence& private& life& as& private& decisions& influence&
public&life.&&
Economics&should&be&viewed&as&part&of&a&political&economy&that&influences,&and&can&be&
influenced& by,& the& physical& spaces& and& infrastructure& we& create.& The& design& of& the&
economy&therefore& is&crucial&in&the&design&of&a&city-society.&The& design&must&include&a&
way& of& putting& a& fence& around& the& economy& so& that& there& are& spaces& and& times& for&
freedom&from&the&economy&in&which&individuals&can&pursue&whatever&ultimately&makes&
them&happy.&&
&
Defining*the*Household*
*
To& begin& designing& the& economy& we& must& examine& the& concept—suggested& by&
Aristotle—that&the& household& (or& the& family)& is&the&basic& unit& of&a& city.& How,&though,&
should&we&define&household&when&this&has&changed&so&dramatically&in&recent&decades?&
In&the&(ABS&2011)&Census,&over&24&percent&of&Australian&households&were&occupied&by&a&
single&person.&By&contrast,&in&Aristotle’s&time&the&household&was&much&larger&even&than&
our&nuclear&family&and&usually&consisted&of&three& generations& as& well& as& slaves.& It& was&
therefore&a&small&community&in&itself.&This&leads&us&to&ask&what&is&the&most&appropriate&
scale&for&the&basic&unit&of&society?&Is&it&the&individual,&the&nuclear&family&or&some&larger&
grouping?&&
Gerber& (2016:902)& also& refers& to& Aristotle& to& distinguish& between& the& wise&
management& of& the& household& from& the& activity& of& making& money.& Using& this&
distinction,& we& could& broadly& characterise& exchanges& outside& the& household& as&
requiring&money&while& within&they&do&not.& A&deliberate&and&definable&separation&here&
is&useful& and& the&basic& unit& of&society& could& then& be& viewed& as& a& gift&economy,& while&
the&part& of& the&city& outside& these&basic& units& is&the& money& economy.&To& be& clear&this&
12&The&comparison&of&these&perspectives;&that&the&private&domain&is&separate&from&public&city&rather&than&
a&subset&of&the&whole&city&is&discussed&at&length&in&Liaros,&S.&Rethinking!the!City,&chapters&1&and&2.&

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conception& of& the& gift& economy& is& quite& distinct& from& the& anarchist& utopian& ideal&
envisaged&by& Leahy& (2011)& but& aligns&instead& with& Cheal& (1988)& who& argues& that&two&
economies&already&exist&in&our&society—the&large-scale&market&economy&of&short&term&
profits& and& the& small-scale& moral& or& gift& economy& of& long-term& interests.& This& also&
aligns& with& Wright& (2016:14)& who& describes& the& household& as& the& “noncompetitive&
social&space&of&reciprocity&and&caring&in&which&one&can&find& refuge& from& the& heartless&
competitive&world&of&capitalism”.&
This,&of&course,& takes& us& into&the&territory& of& feminist& economics&where,&for& example,&
Power&(2004:4)&argues&that&starting&places&matter&“caring&labor&and&domestic&labor&are&
vital&parts&of&any& economic& system& and&should&be&incorporated&into&the&analysis&from&
the& beginning,& not& shoehorned& in& as& an& afterthought.”& If& we& valued& caring& and&
domestic&labor& in& monetary&terms,& then& we& would& be& attempting&to&shoehorn& it& into&
the&money&economy.&Our&‘starting&place’&therefore,&should&be&to&acknowledge&that&our&
economy&consists&of&two&domains,&the&domain&of&monetary&exchanges&and&the&domain&
of&free&exchanges.&In&order&to&free&ourselves&from&money&we&should&be&expanding&the&
range&of&activities&we&offer&and&accept&as&free&gifts.&As&we&expand&the&non-competitive&
domain& of& reciprocity& and& caring& we& necessarily& diminish& the& competitive& domain,&
releasing&us&from&the&system&that&compels&us&to&increase&our&herd&without&limit.&
The&organisation&of&a&possible&new&paradigm&is&starting&to&take&shape.&Figure*3*shows&a&
city&with& a& notional& eight&basic& units,& with&the& money& economy&operating& only& in&the&
spaces& outside& these& basic& units.& By& increasing& the& scale& of& the& basic& unit& we& can&
reduce& the& extent& to& which& we& must& rely& on& the& competitive,& money& economy.& The&
degree&of& influence&that& the& money& economy& exercises& over& individual& lives& depends&
directly&on&the&scale&of&the&gift&economy&within&which&we&live.&
&
Figure&3.&Money&and&Money-free&economies&
&
&
This&highlights& a& significant& contradiction.& In&Figure* 2,& the&basic& unit& is& the& domain&of&
work&and&the&political&domain&offers&freedom,&while&Figure*3&appears& to& suggest& that&
the&basic& unit& offers& freedom& and&the& money& economy& is& the&space& of& work.& We& will&
return&to&this&apparent&contradiction&later.&&
Nevertheless,&at&this&point&we&can&at&least&argue&that&a&larger&basic&unit&increases&free&
gifts&and&with&it&the&opportunity&for&a&happy&life.&&
&

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Life,*Liberty*and*the*Pursuit*of*Happiness*
*
From& a& strategic& perspective,& it& would& be& very& useful& to& adopt& existing& visions& that&
resonate&within&our& society& and&that& we& believe& we&are& already& collectively& pursuing.&
The&pursuit&of&happiness&in&the&United&States’&Declaration&of&Independence&aligns&with&
both&Aristotle’s& argument& that&this& is& the& purpose& of&politics& and& Maslow’s&argument&
that&this&is&the&highest&need&for&all&individuals.&
We!hold!these!truths!to!be!self-evident,!that!all!men!are!created!equal,!
that!they!are!endowed!by!their!Creator!with!certain!unalienable!Rights,!
that!among!these!are!Life,!Liberty!and!the!pursuit!of!Happiness.13!
This&Declaration&identifies&equality&and&the&right!to!liberty&as&being&‘self-evident’&truths.&
That&our&society&is&presently&characterised&by&increasing&inequality&(Stiglitz,&2012)&does&
not& imply& that& the& vision& or& ideal& is& inappropriate& but& rather& that& our& strategy& for&
achieving&it&is&flawed.&Clearly&our&current&approach&to&equality&is&taking&us&in&the&wrong&
direction&and&our& strategy& may&possibly&require&that&we&do&the&very& opposite& of&what&
we&are&currently&doing!&
Liberty& and& equality& have& been& used& in& countless& different& ways& to& justify& often&
opposing& objectives,& but& rarely& is& their& relationship& explored.& We& currently& have& a&
divided& and& competitive& public& conversation& where& the& libertarian& right& prioritises&
freedom&over&equality&and&the&socialist&left&does&the&opposite.&As&we&are&pursuing&both&
liberty& and& equality,& the& relationship& between& these& concepts& must& be& explored.&
Hannah&Arendt’s&The!Human!Condition&(1958:31)&offers&a&useful&starting&place:&
What!all!Greek!philosophers! …! took! for! granted! is! that! freedom!is!
exclusively! located! in! the! political! realm,! that! necessity! is! primarily! a!
prepolitical! phenomenon,! characteristic! of! private! household!
organization,! and! that! force! and! violence! are! justified! in! this! sphere!
because!they!are!the!only!means!to!master! necessity—for!instance,!by!
ruling!over!slaves—and![so]! to! become! free.! …! This!freedom!is! the!
essential! condition! of!what! the! Greeks! called! felicity! [ie.!The! state! of!
being!happy,!intense!happiness,!bliss]!
In&other&words,&the& Ancient& Greeks& imagined&that&the&political&domain&is&the&realm&of&
freedom,& and& the& household& (or& basic& unit)& is& the& domain& of& necessity,& that& is,& the&
domain&in&which&we&maintain&and&sustain&life&through&the&provision&of&basic&needs.&To&
be& free& is& to& master& your& natural& needs& and& to& master& the& body.& This& framing& of&
freedom&gave&rise&to&such&ideas&as&‘man&conquering&nature’&and& also& justified& slavery&
and&the&oppression&of&women&in&the&household.&
If&freedom&is&achieved&through&force&and&violence,&which&the&Greeks&believed&was&“the&
only& means”14& to& master& necessity& then& a& few& free& men& reached& that& goal& through&
deliberately& creating& and& enforcing& inequality.& We& can& agree& that& sustenance& of& life&
and&liberty&are&inalienable& rights.& Yet& if&liberty&is& achieved& by& intentionally&preventing&
13&https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence&
14&Arendt&op.&cit.&p.31&

- 9 -
others& from& achieving& that& same& liberty,& then& our& economic& system& delivers& neither&
freedom&nor&equality.&The&Greek&polis&offered&freedom&for&some&through&inequality;&by&
shifting& onto& others& the& work& needed& to& sustain& life.& Although& we& have& notionally&
eliminated&slavery&in&the&Western&world&our&economic&system&creates&money&through&
debt.& Consequently,& for& some& citizens& to& be& wealthy—and& hence& free—many& others&
must&carry&significant&debt.&
Our&critique&of&the&current&system&is&that&it&achieves&freedom!through!inequality,&while&
our&vision&and&our&desired&city&organisation&must&achieve&freedom!through!equality.&&
If& all& men—or& rather& all& people—are& created& equal,& then& we& need& a& strategy& for&
achieving& liberty& and& equality& concurrently& for& all.& If& the& household& is& a& domain& of&
violence&and&inequality,& the& head& of&the&household& will& enter&the&public& domain& with&
these&characteristics.&The&basic&unit&of&society&must&be&a&‘non-competitive&social&space&
of&reciprocity&and&caring’,&that&is,&a&space&characterised&by&equality.&This&will&shape&the&
character&of&the&city&when&these&basic&units&are&aggregated.&
We&therefore&need&an&alternative&strategy&for&satisfying&our&basic,&natural&needs.&How&
can& we& master& necessity& without& conquering& either& other& people& or& nature?& Can& we&
imagine&and&design&the&basic&unit&of&the&city&so&as&to&provide&our& basic&needs&through&
non-competitive&means?&&
Perhaps& we& could& think& in& terms& of& stewardship& rather& than& mastery?& To& satisfy& our&
basic&needs&within&the&basic&unit,&requires&that&it&be&larger&than&both&the&individual&and&
the& nuclear& family& as& it& might& take& a& hamlet& or& village-scale& community& to& efficiently&
manage&food,&water&and&energy&systems,&and&also&provide&shelter&for&all&the&residents.&
Given&that& we& wish& to& maximise& the& scale& of& the&gift& economy&so& as& to& minimise& the&
money&economy,&a&larger&scale&basic&unit&would&be&useful&in&satisfying&both&objectives.&&
Anthropologist&Robin&Dunbar&(1993:691)& argues& “that& there&is&a&cognitive& limit& to& the&
number&of& individuals&with&whom&any&one&person& can&maintain&stable&relationships&…&
and&that& this& in& turn& limits& group& size”.&The& number& should& be& thought& of& as&a& range&
from& 150& –& 200& individuals& but& 150& is& now& known& as& the& Dunbar& Number.& A& village&
scale&community&about&this&size&might&be&the&upper&limit&for&the&basic&unit&of&society.&&
The&basic&unit&is&the&domain&of&‘work’&in&accordance&with&the&Greek&construction&but&as&
it&includes&a&significant&number&of&people& this& also& becomes& a& political&realm.&We&are&
planning&for&equality&and&not&for&a&monarchy&as&per&Aristotle&and&so&we&encounter&the&
earlier&contradiction&between&Figures*2*and*3.&Can&the&basic&unit&be&a&domain&of&work&
and&of&freedom?&Where&is&the&opportunity&for&freedom& if& both& the& private& and& public&
realms& are& infiltrated& by& work?& This& raises& a& serious& problem& with& respect& to& our&
understanding& of& ‘work’& and& the& simple& dichotomy& of& private& and& public& domains&
created&by&the&Greeks.&&
&
Labor,*Work*and*Action*
*
City&planning& is& about& people& and& the& human&habitat.& It& is& imperative& therefore,& that&
we&understand&the&human&condition.&Arendt’s&The!Human!Condition&(1958)&provides&a&
useful& basis& for& understanding& economic& and& political& activities& of& people& and& how&
these& influence& economies& and& cities.& Rather& than& our& inherited& public/private&
dichotomy,&Arendt&(1958:7)&starts&with&a&distinction&between&labor,&work&and&action:&

- 10 -
Labor!is!the! activity!which!corresponds!to! the!biological!process!of!the!
human! body,!whose! spontaneous! growth,! metabolism,! and! eventual!
decay!are!bound!to!the!vital!necessities!produced!and!fed!into!the!life!
process!by!labor.!…!
Work!is!the! activity!which!corresponds!to!the!unnaturalness! of!human!
existence,! which! is!not! imbedded! in…! the! species’! ever-recurring! life!
cycle.! Work!provides!an! “artificial! world!of! things,! distinctly! different!
from!all!natural!surroundings.!…!
Action,!the!only!activity!that!goes!on!directly!between!men!without!the!
intermediary!of!things!or! matter,! corresponds! to! the! human!condition!
of!plurality…[and!is]!the!condition…!of!all!political!life.!
The& deliberate& distinction& between& labor& and& work& acknowledges& the& critiques& of&
feminist&economists&that&identify&caring&labor&and&domestic&labor&as&vital&but&unvalued&
parts&of&the&economic&system.&&
According&to& Greek&thinking,&the&political&domain&was&the&domain&of&action,&while& the&
household&domain&was&the&domain&of&labor&and&work.&To&be&fully&human,&in&the&Greek&
sense& was& to& be& ‘amongst& men’.& The& Latin& word& ‘civilised’& and& its& Greek& equivalent&
originate&from&the&idea&of&‘living&amongst&men’&in&a&political&environment.&&
Yet& work& is& both& private& and& public.& Lopes& (2016:25)& argues& “contra& mainstream&
economists& and& also& contra& Hannah& Arendt& and& Jurgen& Habermas,& that& work& goes&
beyond&instrumentality& and&has&a&political&and& public&dimension.”&Arendt,&though,&did&
not&argue&that&work&belongs&in&the&private&domain&but&that&that&is&the&way&the&Greeks&
perceived&it.&She&simply&describes&how&our&words&and&ideas&have&developed&from,&and&
continue&to&be&influenced&by,&Greek&and&Roman&ideas&from&more&than&2,500&years&ago.&
The&activity&of&work&can&be& viewed& as& public& when& it&relates&to&the&development&of& a&
creative&idea&that&is&then&converted&into&a&thing&(a&work),&which&is&utilised&as&a&labor-
saving& device.& Work& undertaken& in& this& way& has& the& capacity& to& liberate& us& from&
necessity.&&
&
How*much*Work*is*enough?*
*
So&how& much&work&is&enough?&What&is& the&point&of&making&tools,&machines,&buildings&
and&cities&if&they&simply&generate&more&labor&in&their&maintenance?&Surely&the&purpose&
of& making& things& is& to& liberate& us& from& labor.& If& the& things& we& create& generate& more&
labor—or& cost& us& more& time& in& money-generating& activities—then& work& is& increasing&
our&labor&and&decreasing&our&liberty.&
The&best&lens&through&which&to&view&this&is&through&the&concept&of&efficiency.&Efficiency&
in&physics&is&the&ratio&of&work&input&to&work&output.&There&are&two&ways&of&maximising&
efficiency.& Either& we& can& maximise& the& outputs& for& any& given& inputs& OR& we& could&
minimise& the& inputs& needed& to& deliver& the& desired& outputs.& The& approach& of&
economists&and& governments& today& is& to& maximise& outputs& for& the& available& input& of&
natural& resources& and& human& labor.& An& alternative& approach& is& to& determine& how&
much& is& sufficient& or& desirable& and& then& minimise& the& energy,& resources& and& human&
labor&needed&to&deliver&this.&&

- 11 -
Alexander&(2015:66)&recognises&the&need&to&identify&a&sufficient&level&of&consumption&in&
what&he&calls&a&Sufficiency&Economy,&which:&
…! is!shaped!by!an! acceptance! that! ‘just!enough!is! plenty’.! ...! Rather!
than! progress!being!seen!as! a! movement! toward! ever-increasing!
material!affluence,! the! sufficiency!economy! aims! for!a! world!in! which!
everyone’s!basic!needs!are! modestly! but! sufficiently! met,! …! human!
beings!would! [then]! realise! that! they! were!free!from! the! demands! of!
continuous! economic! activity! and! could! therefore! dedicate! more! of!
their! energies! to! non-materialistic! pursuits,! such! as!enjoying! social!
relationships,! connecting! with! nature,! exploring! the! mysteries! of! the!
universe,!or!engaging!in!peaceful,!creative!activity!of!various!sorts.!
The&one&issue&not&accounted&for&in&the&sufficiency&economy&(also&known&as&Simplicity)&
Is&who&determines&how&much&is&sufficient?&This&is&a&question&of&politics&relating&to&the&
plurality& of& opinions& and& although& Alexander& advocates& voluntary& simplicity& or&
frugality,&advocacy&alone&does&not&amount&to&a&political&system&that&strives&towards&an&
unclear&goal.&
Viewed&through&the&lens&of&efficiency&rather&than&frugality&and&applicable&solely&to&the&
basic&unit&and& not&the&whole&of&the&city,&a& very&effective&political&system&can&develop.&
The&focus& on& the& basic& unit& allows& us& to& address&only& certain&basic& needs& and& not& all&
needs&and& wants& in&an& economy.& If& we& plan&to& provide,& say,&water,& food,& energy& and&
housing& for& the& people& within& the& basic& unit,& this& will& account& for& a& very& substantial&
proportion&of&current&overall&economic&activity.&Planning&can&then&be&undertaken&for&a&
discrete& number& of& people& and& the& starting& point& can& be& the& Dunbar& number& of& 150&
people.&&
The&demand&for&these&basic&needs&is&generally&inelastic,&that&is,&demand&does&not&vary&
significantly&with&price.&This&suggests&that&providing&them&through&a&market&is&perhaps&
not&the&most& efficient&approach&anyway.&The&demand&for&basics&is& also&less&subject&to&
variability.& Figures& for& water& usage& per& person& per& day& are& widely& available.& Many&
studies& have& been& carried& out& to& determine& what& and& how& much& people& eat.& Energy&
usage&is&a&known&quantity&and&we&all&can&only&occupy&one&home&at&any&one&time.&It&is&
not& necessary& to& stipulate& specific& numbers& as& these& vary& in& different& societies& and&
current& usage& is& only& a& starting& point& in& our& planning& process.& If& we& plan& for& an&
abundance& of& these& basic& needs& for& our& pre-determined& population& then& supply& will&
exceed&demand&and&the&price&tends&toward&zero.&All&of&these&things&could&be&free.&
Planning&for&a&discrete&number&of&people&and&for&a&discrete&range&of&needs&makes&the&
design& much& more& straightforward.& The& climatic& and& geographic& conditions& in& each&
place&will&differ&so&each&basic&unit&will&be&different&and&unique&but&nevertheless&able&to&
be&designed.&At&the&time&of&writing&the&author&is&developing&a&project&which&aims&“to&
design&and&implement&integrated&closed-cycle&systems&that&provide& a& pre-determined&
population&with& efficient& living&and&working& spaces& and&an& abundance& of& water,&food&
and& energy.”& The& intention& is& to& demonstrate& that& by& matching& supply& with& demand&
and& providing& in& abundance& for& a& given& population,& the& economic& problem& is& solved&
without&the&need&for&a&market&for&these&basics.&
The&total&energy—whether&this&is&fossil&fuels,&renewables&or&human&labor—required&to&
produce&these&basic&needs&will&also&be&significantly&lower&because&of&the&proximity&of&

- 12 -
the&producer& to& the& final&consumer.& We& can&know& this& because&it& is& a&law& of& physics.&
The&formula&for&‘work’,&which&is&a&form&of&energy&is:&
Work!(W)!=!Force!(F)!needed!to!displace!an!object!a!distance!(s)!
Therefore,& the& smaller& the& transport& distance& ‘s’,& the& smaller& will& be& the& total& work&
needed.&Also,& as& the& force& (F)& needed& is& proportional15& to&the& mass& (m)&of& the& object&
being&transported,&far&less&energy&is&needed&to&send&information&(with&negligible&mass)&
over& the& internet& for& local& production,& say& with& a& 3D& printer,& than& is& needed& in& the&
current& mass& production& and& distribution& process.& Production& ‘on-demand’& is& also&
more&energy&efficient&than&mass&production.&&
This& approach& therefore& is& not& planning& for& frugality& but& for& an& abundance& of& basic&
needs&delivered&at&the&lowest&cost&and&with&the&least&energy,&focusing&on&distributive&
efficiency&rather&than&solely&on&productive&efficiency.&
Figure* 4& illustrates& how& a& larger& scale& basic& unit& could& be& designed& to& efficiently&
provide& basic& needs& and& then& offer& liberty.& Imagine& the& basic& unit& as& the& domain& of&
labor,& or& more& accurately& the& domain& of& collaboration& (ie.& co-laboring).& By& working&
together& and& providing& basic& needs& locally& we& can& minimise& the& total& labor& needed.&
Freedom&from&labor&would&be&available&both&within&the&private&spaces&and&also&outside&
the&basic&unit.&&
&
Figure&4.&Collaboration&within&the&basic&unit&and&Freedom&from&Collaboration&
!
&
&
&
How*much*Growth*is*enough?*
*
Just&as&Alexander&(2015)&objects&to&limitless&economic&growth,&so&too&do&proponents&of&
De-Growth,&Steady&State&and&Regenerative&Economics.&Kerschner&(2010:549)&describes&
how&de-growth& and&steady-state& are& complementary& arguing& that& economic& ‘growth’&
and& ‘de-growth’& are& phases& within& a& “quasi& steady-state”& or& “dynamic& equilibrium”.&
Adding& regeneration& after& the& de-growth& phase& before& a& new& phase& of& growth,&
precisely& aligns& with& the& growth,& decay,& death& and& regeneration& phases& in& the& life&
cycles&of&all&life&species.&Describing&these&as&phases&in&a&Circular&Economy&is&the&logical&
next& step.& Fullerton& (2015:13)& describes& how& the& development& of& a& regenerative&
15&Force&(F)&=&Mass&(m)&x&Acceleration&(a)&

- 13 -
economy& requires& a& shift& from& a& mechanistic& (linear& logic)& to& a& holistic& worldview,&
which&is&consistent&with&the&proposed&narrative:&‘From&a&Linear&to&Circular&Economy’.&
Daly& (2008:40)& argues& that& there& should& be& no& further& growth& beyond& what& is&
described& as& an& ‘optimal’& level& because& “so& called& ‘economic’& growth& already& has&
become& uneconomic,& increasing& environmental& costs& faster& than& any& production&
benefits,&making& us& poorer&not& richer.”& The&environmental& limits& to& growth& has&been&
well&established,&at&least&since&Boulding&(1966)&and&through&comprehensive&modelling&
by&Meadows&et& al&(1972).&Yet&is&it&possible&to& define& ‘optimal’&any&more&than&defining&
what&is&‘sufficient’?&
Whereas& defining& ‘sufficient’& requires& a& political& process,& defining& ‘optimal’& requires&
that&we& collectively&understand&the&natural&environment&and&its& capacity&to&support&a&
given&population&in& a& particular&place.&It& is& essential&therefore&that& we& determine&the&
‘optimal’& level& locally—at& the& location& of& each& basic& unit—and& not& attempt& to&
determine&this&at&a&national&or&global&scale.&Design&of&a&basic&unit&requires&planning&for&
a&discrete&range&of&basic&physiological&needs&and&for&a&discrete&population.&&
&
Conclusion*
*
It&might&be&useful&to&conclude&by&revising&some&of&the&attempts&to&describe&sustainable&
development,&which&originated&with&the&idea&that&Ecology,&Society&and&Economy&were&
separate&fields& and&that&sustainable&development&occurred&somewhere&and&somehow&
at&their&intersection.&Giddings&(2002)&reviews&the&literature&and&notes&that&the&material&
reality& locates& the& economy& within& society,& which& in& turn& is& nested& within& the&
environment&(Figure*5).&Yet&‘society’& does& not& exist& in& material& reality&but&the&‘city’,&if&
defined&as&the&human&habitat,&does.&Defining&the&city&limits&requires&that&we&define&the&
city& as& the& citizen& population& to& be& located& in& a& particular& place.& Matching& the&
population&to&the&capacity&of&the&land&in&a&particular&location&is&the&best&way&to&define&
sustainability.&This&uses&the&idea&of&one&planet&living&but&applied&to&each&locality.&Figure*
6&shows&that&by&defining&the&city&limits&we&can&then&describe&and&value&the&wilderness&
that&lies&beyond.&
&
Figure&5.&&Material&Reality&&&Figure&6.&City&(not&society)&exists&in&Material&Reality&
&
&
At& a& global& scale,& Figure* 6& would& translate& into& Figure* 7& in& which& we& would& see& the&
world& as& a& global& network& of& cities,& each& constituted& of& a& network& of& basic& units.&

- 14 -
Essentially&all&economic&activity&(both&work&and&labor)&would&be&contained&within&the&
city&limits,&so&as&not&to&affect&the&wilderness.&
Maximising&liberty&and&wilderness&requires&that&we&minimise&economic&activity,&while&
providing&an&abundance& of& basic& needs.&This&is& possible& only&if&efficiency& is& viewed& as&
the&minimisation& of& energy&inputs& needed&to& deliver& the&desired& outputs,& so& creating&
freedom&from&labor&for&the& pursuit&of& happiness& (Figure* 8).& The& most& energy&efficient&
approach—balancing& both& productive& and& distributive& efficiency—for& satisfying& our&
needs& and& wants& requires& that& local& production& be& maximised& and& trade& minimised.&
This&is&a&reversal&of&the&current&economic&strategies&for&maximising&trade&and&ignoring&
or&discouraging&local&production&of&free&goods.&&
Recent& suggestions& that& robots& and& other& technologies& will& likely& take& a& large&
proportion&of& jobs&in&the&near&future&can&then&be&viewed& with&excitement&rather&than&
concern.& If& cities& and& their& basic& units& are& designed& as& suggested& above—for& the&
sustenance& of& life& and& liberty—then& the& jobs& taken& by& technology& offers& liberty;& and&
rather&than&pursuing& a&Universal&Basic&Income,&the&basic&unit& so& designed&will&provide&
our&basic&needs.&
&
Figure&7.&&Global&network&of&basic&units& & Figure&8.&Wild&and&Free&
&
&
*
& &

- 15 -
References*
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Alexander,*S.*(2015)&‘Sufficiency&Economy’&Simplicity&Institute&Publishing,&Melbourne&&
Alexander,*S.*(2016)&‘A&Prosperous&Descent’&Griffith&Review&52,&pp.&4&–&24&&
Arendt,*H.*(1958)&‘The&Human&Condition’,&2nd&&ed.&(1998)&University&of&Chicago&Press&
Aristotle,&‘Economics’,&translation&by&Forster&E.&S.&(1920)&‘Oeconomica’,&Clarendon&Press,&Oxford,&
available&https://archive.org/details/oeconomica01arisuoft&[accessed:&7&September&2016]&
Australian*Bureau*of*Statistics*(2010)*Australian&Social&Trends&-&Australian&Households:&The&Future,&
Catalogue&No.&4102.0&
Australian*Bureau*of*Statistics*(2011)*Census&of&Population&and&Housing,&Basic&Community&Profile&
Catalogue&Number&2001.0,&Table&B30&
Bonclu,*F.*(2014)*‘The&European&Economy:&From&a&Linear&to&a&Circular&Economy’&Romanian&Journal&of&
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Briefing*to*European*Parliament*(Jan.*2016)&‘Closing&the&Loop&–&New&Circular&Economy&Package’,&
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[accessed&30&September&2016]&&
Carter,*I.*(2016)&‘Positive&and&Negative&Liberty’,&The&Stanford&Encyclopedia&of&Philosophy,&Edward&N.&
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[accessed&7&October&2016]&
Cheal,*D.*(1988)&‘The&Gift&Economy’&Routledge,&London&and&New&York&
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Daly,*H.*(2009)&‘Three&Anathemas&on&Limiting&Economic&Growth’&Conservation&Biology,&23(2);&pp.&252&–&
253&&
Daly,*H.*(2010)&‘How&to&move&to&a&Steady-State&Economy&from&a&Failed-Growth&Economy’,&Pacific&
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