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Journal of Sustainable Forestry
ISSN: 1054-9811 (Print) 1540-756X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wjsf20
GlobalTreeSearch: The first complete global
database of tree species and country distributions
E. Beech, M. Rivers, S. Oldfield & P. P. Smith
To cite this article: E. Beech, M. Rivers, S. Oldfield & P. P. Smith (2017) GlobalTreeSearch: The
first complete global database of tree species and country distributions, Journal of Sustainable
Forestry, 36:5, 454-489, DOI: 10.1080/10549811.2017.1310049
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10549811.2017.1310049
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GlobalTreeSearch: The first complete global database of tree
species and country distributions
E. Beech
a
, M. Rivers
a,b
, S. Oldfield
b
, and P. P. Smith
a
a
Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Richmond, United Kingdom;
b
IUCN/SSC Global Tree Specialist
Group
ABSTRACT
This article presents, for the first time, an overview of all known tree
species by scientific name and country level distribution, and
describes an online database—GlobalTreeSearch—that provides
access to this information. Based on our comprehensive analysis of
published data sources and expert input, the number of tree species
currently known to science is 60,065, representing 20% of all angios-
perm and gymnosperm plant species. Nearly half of all tree species
(45%) are found in just 10 families, with the 3 most tree-rich families
being Leguminosae, Rubiaceae, and Myrtaceae. Geographically,
Brazil, Colombia, and Indonesia are the countries with the most tree
species. The countries with the most country-endemic tree species
reflect broader plant diversity trends (Brazil, Australia, China) or
islands where isolation has resulted in speciation (Madagascar,
Papua New Guinea, Indonesia). Nearly 58% of all tree species are
single-country endemics. Our intention is for GlobalTreeSearch to be
used as a tool for monitoring and managing tree species diversity,
forests, and carbon stocks on a global, regional, and/or national level.
It will also be used as the basis of the Global Tree Assessment, which
aims to assess the conservation status of all of the world’s tree
species by 2020.
KEYWORDS
Global tree assessment;
GlobalTreeSearch; tree
database; tree distribution;
tree diversity; tree
endemism
Introduction
Trees first evolved over 300 million years ago, and “woodiness”has evolved since that time
in plant families across the taxonomic array (Fitzjohn et al., 2014; Kenrick & Crane, 1997).
Trees provide us with food, timber, and medicine, and are major components of the most
biologically diverse ecosystems on earth, including woodlands and forests (FAO, 2014).
Individual tree species play crucial roles in their ecosystems, supporting a multitude of
other species due to their position at the base of trophic pyramid (e.g., Kennedy &
Southwood, 1984). In the climate change negotiations in Paris in 2015, the conservation
of trees, the cessation of deforestation, and the sustainable management of forests were all
recognized as activities that address climate change (Poorter et al., 2015). However,
effective forest conservation requires species-specific action, as individual tree species
face threats that are unique to that species.
Despite the importance of trees and their ecosystem services, there has until now not
been an authoritative global list of trees. In fact, our knowledge of the number of tree
CONTACT E. Beech Emily.Beech@bgci.org Botanic Gardens Conservation International
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/wjsf.
JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY
2017, VOL. 36, NO. 5, 454–489
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10549811.2017.1310049
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
Downloaded by [Emily Beech] at 04:58 06 September 2017
species has remained surprisingly sparse at the national and international levels. In 1753,
in Species Plantarum, Linnaeus described 9,000 species of plants and marked up the
woody species with the symbol of Saturn (Simpson, 2010). Since the time of Linnaeus,
botanical exploration and discovery has hugely expanded, but the precise number of plant
species still remains uncertain, with current estimates suggesting there are 370,495 seed
plants (Lughadha et al., 2016). Estimates of the number of tree species have ranged from
45,000 to 100,000 (Fine & Ree, 2006; Oldfield, Lusty, & MacKinven, 1998; Savolainen,
2000; Tudge, 2006), with reports suggesting there are 21,000 species in temperate regions
(Hunt, 1996) and 40,000–53,000 in the tropics (Slik et al., 2015). Most of these figures are
based on broad estimates or modeled numbers of trees; none of them have been derived
from an authoritative global list of trees.
Here, for the first time, we present an overview of the complete list of all known tree
species by scientific name and country level distribution, and we describe an online
database, called GlobalTreeSearch (http://www.bgci.org/globaltree_search.php), that pro-
vides access to this information. GlobalTreeSearch has been designed as a tool for
assessing, monitoring, and managing tree species diversity, forests, and carbon stocks on
a global, regional, and/or national level.
Methodology
Definition of tree
As tree type growth habits have evolved many times across different plant families, there
are many definitions of a tree. For the purposes of this project, we use the tree definition
agreed by IUCN’s Global Tree Specialist Group (GTSG): a woody plant with usually a
single stem growing to a height of at least two metres, or if multi-stemmed, then at least one
vertical stem five centimetres in diameter at breast height. We excluded cycads, tree ferns,
tree-like Poaceae, Bromeliaceae, and Musaceae from our list. The World Checklist of
Selected Plant Families (WCSP) and several other taxonomic databases use the Raunkiær
system for categorizing life forms, with trees most often being categorized as phanero-
phytes. However, this system excludes smaller trees and also includes some larger shrubs.
Efforts have been made to include the smaller trees by incorporating country level and
regional tree lists in addition to WCSP species. Shrubs were removed manually on a
species-by-species basis. Some plant species have variable life-forms, but all species that
are recorded as growing naturally as a tree somewhere have been included.
Data compilation and management
Tree species data were accessed from a range of sources including: the World Checklist of
Selected Plant Families (WCSP, 2016), Flora of China (Wu Zhengyi, Raven, & Hong
Deyuan 1994–2013), African Plant Database (Conservatoire et Jardin Botaniques Ville de
Genève, 2017), FloraBase (Western Australian Herbarium, 1998), Plants of Southern
Africa (SANBI, 2014), The PLANTS database (USDA, 2016), Brazilian Flora 2020 (Rio
de Janeiro Botanical Garden, 2016), and Tropicos (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2016).
In addition to these major published sources, we extended the call for information to the
botanical community and contacted over 80 experts in the GTSG and member institutions of
JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY 455
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Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI), receiving a wide range of regional,
taxonomic, and country-specific tree checklists. Over 500 published sources were consulted,
all of which are referenced in the Database Reference Sources listed in the Appendix.
Collation and compilation of the data has taken over two years of full-time work.
Database description
The GlobalTreeSearch database was compiled in Microsoft Access and consists of four
interlinked tables. The first table of taxon names contains all of the names received during
the compilation of GlobalTreeSearch. This table currently contains 180,000 entries. Each
unique tree taxon name links by ID number to the source of that name. This long list of
tree names has been refined only to contain the names of accepted tree species names (i.e.,
the 60,065 final tree species). For this refined list of accepted tree species, we recorded
associated geographic information. Each country occurrence for each species has its own
unique source. This table currently contains over 195,500 entries.
Taxonomy
All taxon names received were recorded, but only taxonomically accepted names (or
unresolved names) are included in the published GlobalTreeSearch. The current version of
GlobalTreeSearch focuses on species names and does not contain infraspecific taxa. The
taxonomic opinion follows the WCSP for its published families. Families that are not
included in WCSP follow The Plant List (TPL, 2013). Other regional sources (Euro+Med,
Reflora) and taxonomic sources (ILDIS) have been consulted when required. As The Plant
List (TPL, 2013) was last updated in May 2012, any species published since then have been
provisionally accepted on our list unless found to be synonymous with species from other
more recent published sources, such as in a published monograph. In such cases, the source
of the taxonomic status is recorded, allowing for updates as taxonomic opinion evolves.
Distribution information
The country-level distribution information was recorded following the ISO 3166 country
names standard. Distribution data were sourced from various published references includ-
ing the nomenclatural sources mentioned above, as well as additional monographs, check-
lists, and floras, some electronically and others through manual review. Distribution
information has been recorded to country level for all taxa, with distribution in certain
countries (Brazil, the United States, South Africa, Australia, and China) recorded to state
or province. These countries were chosen as they are geographically expansive, and the
distributions at sub-country level were generally easily obtained.
The country distributions were also matched to eight biomes (Oceania, Neotropical,
Nearctic, Afrotropical, Antarctic, Palearctic, Australasia, Indo-Malay), following Olson
et al. (2001). For the purpose of our analysis, Indonesia is considered entirely within the
Indo-Malay biome and China within the Palearctic biome.
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Expert review
GlobalTreeSearch has been reviewed by more than 30 experts chosen for their taxonomic
or regional expertise. These experts reviewed the list of omitted taxa and amended
distribution data where necessary. However, GlobalTreeSearch is not a static entity,
which is to say that additions, taxonomic revisions, and deletions will continue to be
carried out to ensure the list remains the most comprehensive and up-to-date list of the
world’s tree species. The database will be maintained and managed by BGCI through its
website http://www.bgci.org/globaltree_search.php. An e-mail address will be set up to
allow people to suggest revisions which will be verified through expert review before
modification. In addition, if a suggested revision cannot easily be verified or resolved, then
a comments field will record the nature of the query received.
Results
There are 60,065 tree species recorded worldwide. Based on current taxonomic knowledge
and levels of botanical exploration, we believe that this compilation represents the best
available record of the total number of tree species and a sound basis for conservation
planning.
Over 45% (27,203) of tree species are found in just 10 families (Figure 1). The family
with the most tree species is the Leguminosae with 5,405 tree species, followed by
Rubiaceae (4,827), and then Myrtaceae (4,330).
The most diverse tree genera are Syzygium (1,069 species), Eugenia (884 species), and
Eucalyptus (747 species), all in the family Myrtaceae (Figure 2). Ficus (Moraceae),
Diospyros (Ebenaceae), and Psychotria (Rubiaceae) are the fourth, fifth, and sixth largest
genera, respectively.
The country with the most diverse tree flora is Brazil, with 8,715 tree species, followed
by Colombia (5,776 spp.) and Indonesia (5,142 spp.) (Figure 3). Nearly 58% of all tree
species (34,575) are single country endemics. The countries with the most endemic trees
5405
4827
4330
2930
2008 1834 1677 1630
1282 1280
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
Figure 1. Top ten families with the most tree species.
JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY 457
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are Brazil (4,333 spp.), Madagascar (2,991 spp.), Australia (2,584 spp.), and China (2,149
spp.) (Figure 4).
Matching country distributions to biomes (Figure 5), the biome with the largest
number of trees is the Neotropic biome with over 23,000 tree species, followed by the
other tropical biomes, the Indo-Malay biome and the Afrotropic biome. There are no trees
occurring in the Antarctic biome, and the next lowest diversity is in North America in the
Nearctic biome, with fewer than 1,400 species. The most diverse tree genera reflect
different centers of diversity. More than half of the species in the genus Syzygium (615)
are found in the Indo-Malay biome, over 731 Eugenia species are found in the Neotropics,
and almost all of the Eucalyptus genus is found in Australasia.
1069
884
747 727 726
624 616 598 589
468
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Figure 2. Top ten genera with the most tree species.
8715
5776
5142 4993
4656 4635 4439
3591 3364 3234
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
Figure 3. Top ten countries with most tree species.
458 E. BEECH ET AL.
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Discussion
The compilation of GlobalTreeSearch has been a multidisciplinary effort, with data
contributed from botanic gardens, museums, academia, NGOs, forestry organizations,
and agricultural institutions. GlobalTreeSearch asserts the number of tree species to be at
the lower end of previous estimates. Nevertheless, the GlobalTreeSearch database contains
over 375,500 plant names and country entries, an indication of the scale of the task.
Having an accurate number of tree species and their country level distributions will
encourage extensive applications by a wide range of users, from conservation planning
and action to sustainable forestry practices.
The tropical hotspots of tree diversity identified by this analysis are unsurprising, with
countries in the Neotropic biome coming out on top as reported in more general
assessments of the distribution of biodiversity (Giam, Bradshaw, Tan, & Sodhi, 2010;
Heywood & Watson, 1995; Myers, Mittermeier, Mittermeier, Da Fonseca, & Kent, 2000).
Other estimates of tree diversity hotspots (such as Slik et al., 2015) have reported that the
4333
2991
2584
2149
1520 1395 1372 1365 1341 1282
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
Figure 4. Top ten countries with the largest number of endemic species.
Figure 5. Tree species numbers by biome.
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Indo-Pacific region, comprising the Australasian, Oceania, and Indo-Malay biomes as well
as Madagascar, is of comparable species diversity to the Neotropics. Again, our analysis
reflects this assertion. Similarly, countries with the highest levels of tree endemism reflect
broader measures of plant diversity (e.g., Brazil, China, Australia) or islands where
isolation has resulted in speciation (e.g., Madagascar, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia).
The preliminary analysis of tree distributions by country and biome represented in this
article will be followed by more in-depth analyses in future publications.
Data availability was an important factor in developing this checklist. Several biodiverse
countries have electronic online floras developed in response to the Global Strategy for
Plant Conservation Target 1: An online flora of all known plants (Sharrock, Oldfield, &
Wilson, 2014). For this reason, countries such as Colombia, Brazil, and China are likely to
have more up-to-date data in the GlobalTreeSearch database. Other regions with diverse
tree floras (e.g., Southeast Asia) have not been as extensively surveyed or have not
compiled their data electronically. Although hard copy publications were used extensively
in cases where floras are still incomplete (e.g., Flora Malesiana), there will still inevitably
be data that are poorer for some areas. Projects are already under way to complete online
floras on national, regional, and global scales, sources which will be utilized by
GlobalTreeSearch when available.
The fact that Leguminosae is the most diverse tree family is not surprising given that
Leguminosae is the third most diverse plant family after the (primarily herbaceous)
families Asteraceae and Orchidaceae. Rubiaceae, the second most diverse tree family is
the fourth most diverse plant family and is primarily tropical and woody. Myrtaceae is the
third most diverse tree family and, interestingly, accounts for the top three tree genera
Syzygium, Eugenia, and Eucalyptus. This reflects the fact that the family Myrtaceae is
almost entirely woody, and it is characteristic of highly diverse subtropical and tropical
zones.
GlobalTreeSearch is not a static database and it will incorporate both changes in
taxonomy and increased availability of data. BGCI encourages submissions from regions
where data may not be as readily available to improve the GlobalTreeSearch database.
There is also scope for increasing the levels of regional data for countries other than those
already included as new data become available. For example, island level data for countries
such as Indonesia and the Philippines would be useful for conservation planning and
forestry.
At the policy level, documenting trends in the conservation, sustainable use, and
development of Forest Genetic Resources (FGR) has been undertaken by the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. In 2014, FAO published the
first State of the World’s Forest Genetic Resources (SOWFGR) report (FAO, 2014).
The purpose of this report was “[to build] the information and knowledge base
required for action towards better conservation and sustainable management of FGR
at national, regional, and international levels”. Based on the preliminary, draft findings
of this report, FAO noted that “very few countries have detailed tree species checklists
that include species characteristics allowing distinction between different life forms”
(FAO, 2014). As a result, the inventories submitted by the 86 countries that contrib-
uted to the report were inconsistent and incomplete. The completion of
GlobalTreeSearch will greatly support the FAO in achieving the strategic priorities
outlined in their “Global Plan of Action for the Conservation, Sustainable Use, and
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Development of Forest Genetic Resources”(FAO, 2013). Specifically, the
GlobalTreeSearch database will enable country checklists to be routinely produced
and will constitute a comprehensive data set that can be used to measure trends in
the conservation and use of FGR over time. Furthermore, production of tree species
distribution maps is an essential step in conservation and management of FGR, though
few countries have the resources to produce such maps. With the GlobalTreeSearch
database, the production of country-level and precise location distribution maps for all
tree species is achievable.
Mapping species is also an important step in assessing the conservation status of all of
the world’s tree species, an activity essential to ensure effective conservation and manage-
ment of tree diversity. This is the aim of the Global Tree Assessment—a complete
assessment of the conservation status of all trees by 2020 (Newton et al., 2015). The
Global Tree Assessment is being made possible by the GlobalTreeSearch database, which
will be used to prioritize species in need of conservation assessment. GlobalTreeSearch is
used to develop a workflow to rapidly and accurately assess and map species not at risk of
extinction (“Least Concern”), in conjunction with GBIF data, which in turn will enable
subsequent activities to focus on the often less well-known species that are at risk of
extinction. Tree red listing activities are already under way or completed for the Global
Tree Assessment including assessment of European trees, assessment of various taxonomic
groups (Magnoliaceae, oaks, Betulaceae, etc.), and initial assessment of the world’s com-
mercial timbers. To date, conservation status assessments of only around 20,000 of the
trees with scientifically accepted names have been recorded in global, regional, or national
red lists; that is, about a third of known tree species (BGCI, ThreatSearch, unpublished
data). BGCI will build on this work by carrying out a gap analysis bringing in data from its
ThreatSearch database (a compilation of plant conservation assessments), PlantSearch
database (taxa in botanic garden collections), and GardenSearch database (location of
botanic gardens worldwide) to identify where capacity is needed to prioritize tree con-
servation through red listing and to conserve trees both in situ and ex situ.
The Global Tree Assessment supports the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation and
the broader Aichi Targets of the Convention on Biological Diversity but is not simply a
tool for tree conservation. GlobalTreeSearch and the Global Tree Assessment also support
initiatives to improve sustainable forest management, for example through regulation of
the international timber trade. FAO estimates that in 2006 the trade in timber products
contributed some $468 billion annually to global GDP (FAO, 2009). A recently compiled
working list of internationally traded timbers documented 1,575 timber taxa (Mark,
Newton, Oldfield, & Rivers, 2014). The conservation status of many of these species is
unknown, and this is even more the case for the thousands of species that are traded
locally or regionally. The national inventories and conservation assessments provided by
GlobalTreeSearch and the GTA will greatly assist national authorities in regulating
unsustainable trade in the species concerned. The Global Tree Assessment will also
support implementation of the UNFCCC, which aims to tackle greenhouse gas emissions
from deforestation and forest degradation through the “REDD+”program. Recognizing
the potential for social and environmental risks and benefits from REDD+, the UNFCCC
has agreed on a set of broad safeguards that countries should promote and support,
specifically focusing on the conservation of natural forests and biodiversity (Visseren-
Hamakers, McDermmott, Marjanneke, & Cashore, 2012). Improved information on the
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conservation status of tree species will help to focus REDD+ activities and enhance their
conservation impacts.
Conclusions
It is perhaps surprising that it has taken until 2017 to compile GlobalTreeSearch, the first
global, authoritative list of tree species. However, it is worth acknowledging that
GlobalTreeSearch represents a huge scientificeffort encompassing the discovery,
collection, and description of tens of thousands of plant species. This is “big science”
involving the work of thousands of botanists over a period of centuries, and the advent of
digital checklists and databases over the past few decades has made the collation and
refinement of so many data sources possible. Furthermore, GlobalTreeSearch is not a
static list; it will continue to be refined, revised, and added to. Some geographic regions
remain relatively unexplored botanically and, even where thorough fieldwork has been
undertaken, there can be a substantial lag between discovery and publication. Similarly,
plant taxonomy is constantly changing with new discoveries and taxonomic revisions
augmenting our knowledge.
GlobalTreeSearch has both immediate value to a wide range of user communities and
will allow for the assessment and monitoring of tree species diversity on a global, regional,
and/or national level over time.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank in particular the following organizations for providing data
contributing to GlobalTreeSearch: African Plant Database; World Checklist of Selected Plant
Families; IPNI; Flora of China; Brazilian Flora 2020; Missouri Botanical Gardens Tropicos; Plants
of Southern Africa; FloraBase. A full list of the 500+ sources consulted for GlobalTreeList is
available at the end of this article. We would also like to thank the following contributors and
reviewers: Megan Barstow, Henk Beentje, Steven Brewer, Chien-Fan Chen, Lillian Chua, Alison
Copeland, Iain Darbyshire, Neville Evans, Alfredo Fuentes, Zoe Irwin, Yvette Harvey-Brown,
Thomas Heller, Alison Hutchinson, Ben Jones, David Kikodze, Esteban Martínez, Mónica Moraes
R., Lydia Murphy, Sachiko Nishida, Naomi Rich, Marie-Stéphanie Samain, George Schatz, Anne-
Cathrine Scheen, Ferry Slik, Harry Smith, Daniela Suarez, Jonathan Timberlake, Philip Thomas, Lex
Thomson, Carmen Ulloa Ulloa, Salako K. Valère, Freddy Zenteno, and the following IUCN Species
Survival Committee Specialist Groups: Global Tree Specialist Group, Cuban Plant Specialist Group,
New Caledonia Plant Red List Authority, Madagascar Plant Specialist Group.
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