Article

Why Did It End? Breakup Reasons of Youth of Different Gender, Dating Stages, and Ages

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Abstract

Romantic breakups are common among youths. Yet “why” they occur is not well understood. In adolescence and emerging adulthood, unique characteristics of romantic participation call for investigation of breakups from a developmental perspective. Our principal objective was to map out breakup reasons of adolescents and emerging adults, accounting for relevant theory and research on both age-groups. We considered the role of age, gender, and dating stage (casual vs. serious) on youths’ breakup reasons. Results revealed a five-factor scale with affiliation, intimacy, autonomy, infidelity, and status as unique factors. Consistent with theory and research, we found similarities and differences in how youths of different age, dating stage, and gender endorse these reasons. These findings are consistent with the notion that breakups stem from a failure of romantic relationships to meet youths’ emerging romantic needs, and that there is considerable continuity in these relational dimensions from adolescence into emerging adulthood.

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... Dating relationships during adolescence have negative outcomes for a significant number of young people impacting on mental wellbeing and associated with risk taking behaviours such as substance misuse and contraceptive non-use (Shorey et al., 2015) and has been linked to antisocial behaviour, school absence and poor educational attainment (Exner-Cortens et al., 2013;Filkin et al., 2022). Adolescence is defined as three development stages, often referred to as, early adolescence (ages 10-13), middle adolescence (ages 14-17) and late adolescence (ages 18-25) (Bowen and Walker, 2015). Studies indicate that dating relationships in adolescence exist in a variety of guises from early adolescence, often progressing in frequency and length as adolescence stages are experienced. ...
... Studies indicate that dating relationships in adolescence exist in a variety of guises from early adolescence, often progressing in frequency and length as adolescence stages are experienced. Resultantly, such relationships are defined differently to adult domestic relationships (Collins, 2003;Bowen and Walker, 2015;Bravo et al., 2017). Adolescent women aged 16-24 years old experience the highest rate of dating violence in the United States and the UK, almost triple the national average, with nearly half (43%) of college and university women experiencing violence and abuse within dating relationships (Greenfield et al., 1998;Rennison and Welchans, 2000;Office of National Statistics, 2020). ...
... Studies indicate that dating relationships in adolescence exist in a variety of guises from early adolescence, often progressing in frequency and length as adolescence stages are experienced. Resultantly, such relationships are defined differently to adult domestic relationships (Collins, 2003;Bowen and Walker, 2015;Bravo et al., 2017). Adolescent women aged 16-24 years old experience the highest rate of dating violence in the United States and the UK, almost triple the national average, with nearly half (43%) of college and university women experiencing violence and abuse within dating relationships (Greenfield et al., 1998;Rennison and Welchans, 2000;Office of National Statistics, 2020). ...
Article
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The study developed and validated the Modern Adolescent Dating Violence Attitude (MADVA) scale, examining young people's attitudes towards online and offline variants of adolescent dating violence and abuse (ADVA). Data were collected among 2011 adolescents from England, aged 10-25 (M 15.72 years). Dimensionality and construct validity of the MADVA was investigated using traditional Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Results indicate a six-factor model (Attitudes towards: Sexual Abuse-Online; Sexual Abuse-Offline; Psychological Abuse-Online; Psychological Abuse-Offline; Physical Abuse-Offline; Controlling Behaviour-Offline). Excellent composite reliability and differential predictive validity were observed for all six subscales. The MADVA scale enables users to better evaluate ADVA prevention-programmes.
... Habitualmente, las personas atribuyen sus rupturas a problemas para satisfacer determinadas necesidades dentro de la relación (Bravo et al., 2017). Por un lado, están las referidas a los procesos de interdependencia, donde encontramos las necesidades de afiliación, intimidad y sexualidad. ...
... La hipótesis 1 se cumple en sus dos extremos, ya que por un lado encontramos que el motivo principal para terminar una relación amorosa entre los jóvenes fue la pérdida de intimidad. Este dato es similar a lo encontrado en otros trabajos (Bravo et al., 2017;Connolly & McIsaac, 2009), donde se señala que los jóvenes buscan relaciones amorosas para sentirse emocionalmente cercanos y conectados con otra persona. A medida que los jóvenes llevan más tiempo con su pareja, construir conexiones profundas y significativas es más importante que participar en actividades compartidas o la satisfacción sexual. ...
... Como futuras líneas de investigación, se debería diseñar y evaluar la eficacia de un programa de intervención basado en autocompasión para ayudar específicamente a quienes se enfrentan a la experiencia relativamente común de la ruptura de una relación, con el fin de poder sobrellevar el dolor que esta produce y mejorar el bienestar, puesto que la autocompasión es una habilidad que se puede enseñar y mejorar mediante la intervención psicosocial (Ferrari et al., 2019). También se deberían realizar estudios longitudinales sobre los motivos de ruptura, dado que la mayoría son transversales (Bravo et al., 2017;Connolly & McIsaac, 2009) y es importante conocer los cambios y continuidades en las razones y el razonamiento de la ruptura de las personas. Además, se debería examinar si los motivos para terminar una relación varían si la ruptura es temporal o por mutuo acuerdo. ...
Article
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Cuando una relación termina, es fundamental identificar estrategias que ayuden a las personas a afrontar la ruptura, ya que eso condicionará su bienestar futuro. El objetivo de este trabajo fue explorar la relación entre el duelo por ruptura amorosa y el florecimiento, contemplando la autocompasión como variable mediadora. Participaron 506 estudiantes de diferentes niveles educativos (secundario y superior) y edades (15 a más de 23 años), a los que se administró un cuestionario para obtener información sobre las variables de estudio. Se realizaron análisis correlacionales e inferenciales. Los resultados indicaron que la pérdida de intimidad fue el motivo principal de ruptura. Además, existieron diferencias significativas en el duelo según la duración de la relación rota, el estatus de iniciador de la ruptura y de relación actual. Finalmente, se encontró un efecto indirecto significativo del duelo sobre el florecimiento a través de la autocompasión.
... In this study, the process of breaking up can be defined as the gradual change from a state of deep attachment, obsession, identification, and commitment to the idol and the fan community as a loyal fan to a non-fan (Rezapour et al., 2021). The breakup can be triggered by the idols, the fan community, or the fans themselves (Bravo et al., 2017). Trigger by the idol refers to negative events of the idol, for example, public exposure of a secret partner, infidelity, and engaging in criminal acts. ...
... Romantic breakup is considered one of the most distressing, traumatic, and stressful experiences in youth (Bravo et al., 2017), and accompanied by feelings of panic, fear, and helplessness. It may be followed by positive outcomes, such as post-breakup growth, or adverse outcomes that persist for many months, such as anxiety, depression, grief (Earp et al., 2017), maladaptive coping, suicidal tendencies (Bravo et al., 2017;Palacio-González et al., 2017). ...
... Romantic breakup is considered one of the most distressing, traumatic, and stressful experiences in youth (Bravo et al., 2017), and accompanied by feelings of panic, fear, and helplessness. It may be followed by positive outcomes, such as post-breakup growth, or adverse outcomes that persist for many months, such as anxiety, depression, grief (Earp et al., 2017), maladaptive coping, suicidal tendencies (Bravo et al., 2017;Palacio-González et al., 2017). Both biological and psychological vulnerabilities contribute to emotional disorders (Rezapour et al., 2021). ...
Article
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Introduction This study aimed to explore the psychological adaptation process of renouncing fanship due to para-loveshock in the context of fandom culture. Methods We adopted netnography to explore social media platforms used by fans in China (Weibo, WeChat, and Douban) as research fields for 3 years. Results (1) The process of “breaking up with” or renouncing an idol can be divided into three phases: the resistance phase with acute stress, the negotiation phase with bargaining, and the recovery phase with attachment reconstruction. In the resistance phase, fans displayed acute stress responses due to loveshock in psychological, physical, and behavioral aspects. In the negotiation phase, fans faced four barriers to renouncement: cognitive dissonance, emotional attachment, behavioral dependence, and social threat. They bargained within the three types of cognitive framework before deciding to “leave” or “re-follow” their idol. In the recovery phase, fans adopted two types of strategies to promote recovery: healing the past and facing the future. Healing the past involved public outcry, sharing their breakup plans, cognitive reconstruction, and seeking closure to the fan role. Facing the future involved switching environments, seeking new interests, and inhibiting the re-intrusion of trauma cues. (2) Internal factors affecting the psychological adaptation process of renouncement include the level of initiative, attribution styles, experience, attachment status and core belief systems, and alternative lifestyles; external factors include social support, peer pressure from the fan community, life stressors, and types and impact of traumatic events. (3) Based on the two dimensions of orientation and commitment, fans were classified into four types: short-term rational, short-term passionate, bounded loyal, and unconditionally loyal, corresponding to non-traumatic, stressful, accumulated, and traumatic breakup processes, respectively. (4) The post-renouncement growth of fans mainly manifested in the development of mental modes, coping skills toward trauma, emotional adaptation experience, and behavior patterns. Implications This investigation of the recovery process from para-loveshock after renouncement of fanship can provide theoretical and practical insights into the development of psychological resilience for fans, reduction of the psychological distress and negative outcomes, and public governance on social media platform and cyber pop culture industry.
... During emerging adulthood, a developmental life stage that spans from the late teen years to the midtwenties, both infidelity and relationship dissolution are common (Norona, Olmstead, et al., 2017;. Infidelity is associated with negative outcomes for individuals and relationships, including distress, depression, and divorce or dissolution (Allen & Atkins, 2012;Bravo et al., 2017;Bird et al., 2007). ...
... Emerging adulthood is a developmental life stage characterized by personal and relational exploration and experimentation (Arnett, 2014;Bravo et al., 2017). This stage encompasses many transitions to adult living, including establishing intimate relationships. ...
... For a variety of reasons, many emerging adults experience multiple breakups in the process of forming a stable partnership (Norona, Olmstead, et al., 2017). While a significant portion of older couples who experience infidelity choose to stay together, infidelity is a salient predictor of relationship dissolution for emerging adults (Bravo et al., 2017). A survey of undergraduate students found that 98% of them had experienced at least one breakup (Morris & Reiber, 2011), while another study found that nearly 40% of emerging adults had experienced a breakup in the last 20 months (Rhoades et al., 2011). ...
Article
Full-text available
Objective: Infidelity is a relationship betrayal that can lead to significant negative individual and relational outcomes. When infidelity leads to relationship dissolution, this can further exacerbate these challenges. The purpose of the present study is to develop a grounded theory of the process of healing from infidelity and consequent relationship dissolution for non-straying partners who are emerging adults. Methods: We employed constructivist grounded theory (Charmaz, 2014) to conduct and analyze semi-structured interviews with 22 emerging adults who had experienced infidelity in a dating relationship and were no longer with their former partner. Results: We present a grounded theory of the process of healing from infidelity and breakup for emerging adults consisting of four stages and three interrelated dimensions—emotional, relational, and personal—within a healing context of supportive relationships. Unhelpful contact with the former partner constituted a significant setback to healing. Conclusion: This study builds on previous research about healing from infidelity (O’Connor & Canevello, 2019) and relationship breakup (Hebert & Popadiuk, 2008) for emerging adults and highlights the importance of supportive relationships and attending to emotional, relational, and personal dimensions of healing. Our findings also suggest that clinical assessment and intervention should address these aspects of healing and be informed by elapsed time since infidelity and relationship dissolution.
... Research on romantic break-ups provides guidance on the types of unmet needs that might characterise BUA. Explanations for break-ups in adolescents and emerging adults map onto developmentally significant processes related to negotiating unmet relationship needs (Bravo, Connolly, & McIsaac, 2017;Connolly & McIsaac, 2009;Norona, Olmstead, & Welsh, 2017). Interdependence processes concern interpersonal needs that strengthen connections between partners, such as the need for affiliation, intimacy and sexuality, and independence processes concern needs related to autonomous self-expression and individuality. ...
... Interdependence processes concern interpersonal needs that strengthen connections between partners, such as the need for affiliation, intimacy and sexuality, and independence processes concern needs related to autonomous self-expression and individuality. The inability to meet interdependence and independence needs largely contributes to reasons for romantic break-ups (Bravo et al., 2017;Connolly & McIsaac, 2009;Norona et al., 2017). For emerging adults, the interdependence unmet needs of intimacy (e.g., not sharing feelings and problems) and affiliation (e.g., not spending enough time together) were most commonly reported as reasons for break-ups. ...
... Women report more negative emotional reactivity to romantic conflict (Crane & Testa, 2014;Fehr, Baldwin, Collins, Patterson, & Benditt, 1999) and may worry that conflict is a sign that their partners will hurt them or want to end the relationship (Bekker & van Assen, 2008). In some work, women were more likely than men to report intimacy concerns around feeling unloved (Gigy & Kelly, 1993), although other work indicates that interdependence themes were equally reported by both sexes (Bravo et al., 2017;Norona et al., 2017). One study reported that women compared to men currently in a relationship were more likely to mention BUA in their conflict narratives (Feiring et al., 2020). ...
Article
Seeking to understand how emerging adult couples frame unmet needs viewed as a threat to their relationship, we examined narratives in which both partners (12 couples) or only one partner (37 couples) expressed break-up anxiety (BUA). The unmet need of Autonomy was more common in partners with BUA whereas Affiliation was more common in those without it. Overlap in narrating the same unmet needs related to BUA was common when both partners expressed BUA, modest when only the female and low when only the male partner expressed BUA. Female partners were more likely to mention BUA and intimacy problems related to BUA than male partners. Couple interventions that target how to disclose and process BUA may help partners develop more effective intimacy skills and, when need be, skills to end relationships in more adaptive ways.
... Research on romantic break-ups provides guidance on the types of unmet needs that might characterise BUA. Explanations for break-ups in adolescents and emerging adults map onto developmentally significant processes related to negotiating unmet relationship needs (Bravo, Connolly, & McIsaac, 2017;Connolly & McIsaac, 2009;Norona, Olmstead, & Welsh, 2017). Interdependence processes concern interpersonal needs that strengthen connections between partners, such as the need for affiliation, intimacy and sexuality, and independence processes concern needs related to autonomous self-expression and individuality. ...
... Interdependence processes concern interpersonal needs that strengthen connections between partners, such as the need for affiliation, intimacy and sexuality, and independence processes concern needs related to autonomous self-expression and individuality. The inability to meet interdependence and independence needs largely contributes to reasons for romantic break-ups (Bravo et al., 2017;Connolly & McIsaac, 2009;Norona et al., 2017). For emerging adults, the interdependence unmet needs of intimacy (e.g., not sharing feelings and problems) and affiliation (e.g., not spending enough time together) were most commonly reported as reasons for break-ups. ...
... Women report more negative emotional reactivity to romantic conflict (Crane & Testa, 2014;Fehr, Baldwin, Collins, Patterson, & Benditt, 1999) and may worry that conflict is a sign that their partners will hurt them or want to end the relationship (Bekker & van Assen, 2008). In some work, women were more likely than men to report intimacy concerns around feeling unloved (Gigy & Kelly, 1993), although other work indicates that interdependence themes were equally reported by both sexes (Bravo et al., 2017;Norona et al., 2017). One study reported that women compared to men currently in a relationship were more likely to mention BUA in their conflict narratives (Feiring et al., 2020). ...
Preprint
Seeking to understand how emerging adult couples frame unmet needs viewed as a threat to their relationship, we examined narratives in which both partners (12 couples) or only one partner (37 couples) expressed break-up anxiety (BUA). The unmet need of Autonomy was more common in partners with BUA whereas Affiliation was more common in those without it. Overlap in narrating the same unmet needs related to BUA was common when both partners expressed BUA, modest when only the female and low when only the male partner expressed BUA. Female partners were more likely to mention BUA and Intimacy problems related to BUA than male partners. Couple interventions that target how to disclose and process BUA may help partners develop more effective intimacy skills and, when need be, skills to end relationships in more adaptive ways.
... Interdependence processes concern interpersonal needs that strengthen connections between partners such as the need for affiliation, intimacy, and sexuality and independence processes concern needs related to autonomous self-expression and individuality. The inability to meet interdependence and independence needs largely contributes to reasons for romantic break-ups (Bravo et al., 2017;Connolly & McIssac, 2009;Norona et al., 2017). For emerging adults, the interdependence unmet needs of intimacy (e.g., not sharing feelings and problems) and affiliation (e.g., not spending enough time together) were most commonly reported as reasons for break-ups. ...
... We examined whether emerging adult women and men differed in key aspects of BUA because gender can be related to how romantic conflict is interpreted and experienced (Brody, Muderrisoglu, & Nakash-Eiskovits, 2002;Perry & Pauletti, that their partners will hurt them or want to end the relationship (Bekker & van Assen, 2008). In some work, women were more likely than men to report intimacy concerns around feeling unloved (Gigy & Kelly, 1993), although other work indicates that interdependence themes were equally reported by both sexes (Bravo et al. 2017;Norona et al., 2017). One study reported that women compared to men currently in a relationship were more likely to mention BUA in their conflict narratives (Feiring et al., 2020). ...
... The types that emerged were consistent with other work on past break-ups or BUA (Bravo et al., 2017;Feiring et al,, 2018;Norona et al., 2017) and included: Affiliation (i.e., not enough time with or access to partner due to circumstances such as prioritizing friends, doing homework or studying for finals); Autonomy (i.e., need for more time or space to self, schoolwork, or friends; desire to try other relationships); Family/Friends problems (i.e., problems with accepting, dealing with, understanding, or getting along with family or friends); Identity (i.e., pinpointing partner or self-characteristics, including personality traits, personal values and goals, or cultural backgrounds, that are a mismatch or problem to the relationship); Infidelity (i.e., having sex, or making out with another person); Intimacy (i.e., lack of closeness; poor communication in regards to sharing about self or relationship issues; self-disclosure issues; lack of support or trust; jealousy); and Sex problems (i.e., not enough, too much, or being indifferent about sex; differing views of premarital sex). The left side of Table 1 gives narrative examples of the different unmet need types. ...
Article
Seeking to understand how emerging adult couples frame unmet needs viewed as a threat to their relationship, we examined narratives in which both partners (12 couples) or only one partner (37 couples) expressed break-up anxiety (BUA). The unmet need of Autonomy was more common in partners with BUA whereas Affiliation was more common in those without it. Overlap in narrating the same unmet needs relate to BUA was common when both partners expressed BUA, modest when only the female and low when only the male partner expressed BUA. Female partners were more likely to mention BUA and Intimacy problems related to BUA than male partners. Couple interventions that target how to disclose and process BUA may help partners develop more effective intimacy skills and, when need be, skills to end relationships in more adaptive ways.
... Relationships involve the ebb and flow of negative and positive experiences, which inevitably influences both partners' well-being (Antonucci et al., 2001). For example, increased negative emotions and adverse mental and physical health outcomes for both partners can result when the relationship's needs and expectations are unmet (Bravo et al., 2017;McNulty et al., 2021;Whisman, 2007). Furthermore, the longer adverse outcomes persist, the more likely it is that relationship quality will decline, potentially leading to relationship breakdown (Bravo, 2017;McNulty et al., 2021). ...
... For example, increased negative emotions and adverse mental and physical health outcomes for both partners can result when the relationship's needs and expectations are unmet (Bravo et al., 2017;McNulty et al., 2021;Whisman, 2007). Furthermore, the longer adverse outcomes persist, the more likely it is that relationship quality will decline, potentially leading to relationship breakdown (Bravo, 2017;McNulty et al., 2021). In contrast, when needs and expectations are met within the relationship, and conflict is addressed with effective communication and emotional support, there are greater overall perceptions of relationship quality within the partnership (Antonucci et al., 2001;Pateraki & Roussi, 2012;Voss et al., 1999). ...
Article
Romantic partners routinely regulate each other’s emotions; this phenomenon is known as extrinsic emotion regulation. Previous research investigating emotion regulation in couples has typically examined self-report of emotion regulation from only one member of the couple. It is therefore unclear how much romantic partners agree on which emotion regulation strategies their partner uses and whether this agreement or the unique perspective of each person is the stronger predictor of relationship quality. In the current study ( N = 395 romantic couples), we applied a bifactor model to assess the extent to which extrinsic emotion regulation processes (expressive suppression, downward social comparison, humor, distraction, direct action, reappraisal, receptive listening, and valuing) related to relationship quality, comparing: (a) the unique perspective of the regulator, (b) the unique perspective of the target, and (c) the shared perspective (consensus) between the target and regulator. The results indicated that it is the target’s, rather than the regulator’s perspective of emotion regulation that predicts the relationship quality of both members of the romantic couple. Overall, these findings suggest that it is not what the regulator thinks they do to regulate their romantic partner’s emotions that relates to relationship quality, but rather the target’s perceptions of the regulation attempt.
... Relationships involve the ebb and flow of negative and positive experiences, which inevitably influences both partners' well-being (Antonucci et al., 2001). For example, increased negative emotions and adverse mental and physical health outcomes for both partners can result when the relationship's needs and expectations are unmet (Bravo et al., 2017;McNulty et al., 2021;Whisman, 2007). Furthermore, the longer adverse outcomes persist, the more likely it is that relationship quality will decline, potentially leading to relationship breakdown (Bravo, 2017;McNulty et al., 2021). ...
... For example, increased negative emotions and adverse mental and physical health outcomes for both partners can result when the relationship's needs and expectations are unmet (Bravo et al., 2017;McNulty et al., 2021;Whisman, 2007). Furthermore, the longer adverse outcomes persist, the more likely it is that relationship quality will decline, potentially leading to relationship breakdown (Bravo, 2017;McNulty et al., 2021). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Romantic partners routinely regulate each other’s emotions; this phenomenon is known as extrinsic emotion regulation. Previous research investigating emotion regulation in couples has typically examined self-report of emotion regulation from only one member of the couple. It is therefore unclear how much romantic partners agree on which emotion regulation strategies their partner uses and whether this agreement or the unique perspective of each person is the stronger predictor of relationship quality. In the current study (N=395 romantic couples), we applied a bifactor model to assess the extent to which extrinsic emotion regulation processes (expressive suppression, downward social comparison, humor, distraction, direct action, reappraisal, receptive listening, and valuing) related to relationship quality, comparing: a) the unique perspective of the regulator, b) the unique perspective of the target, and c) the shared perspective (consensus) between the target and regulator. The results indicated that it is the target’s, rather than the regulator’s perspective of emotion regulation that predicts the relationship quality of both members of the romantic couple. Overall, these findings suggest that it is not what the regulator thinks they do to regulate their romantic partner’s emotions that relates to relationship quality, but rather the target’s perceptions of the regulation attempt.
... Romantic relationships inevitably involve the ebb and flow of negative and positive events that influence both partners' wellbeing (Antonucci et al., 2001). For example, when a person's needs and expectations are not met in the relationship, this can lead to increased negative affect and adverse mental and physical health outcomes for both partners (Bravo et al., 2017;McNulty et al., 2021;Whisman, 2007). Furthermore, the longer adverse outcomes persist, the more likely relationship satisfaction will decline, potentially leading to a breakdown of the relationship (Bravo, 2017;McNulty et al.,2021). ...
... For example, when a person's needs and expectations are not met in the relationship, this can lead to increased negative affect and adverse mental and physical health outcomes for both partners (Bravo et al., 2017;McNulty et al., 2021;Whisman, 2007). Furthermore, the longer adverse outcomes persist, the more likely relationship satisfaction will decline, potentially leading to a breakdown of the relationship (Bravo, 2017;McNulty et al.,2021). In contrast, when a person's needs and expectations are met in the relationship, and arising conflict is met with effective communication and emotional support, this can lead to increased positive affect, wellbeing, self-esteem, life satisfaction, and relationship satisfaction (Antonucci et al., 2001;Pateraki & Roussi, 2013;Voss et al., 1999). ...
Article
Full-text available
Unlabelled: The emotional experiences you have with a romantic partner shape how satisfied you are in your relationship. Engaging in attempts to make a romantic partner feel better is linked with better relationship outcomes. However, it is not yet clear which specific processes people use to regulate their partners' emotions, nor which processes are most strongly linked with relationship satisfaction. In the current study of 277 individuals (55% female), we tested the extent to which eight extrinsic emotion regulation processes (expressive suppression, downward social comparison, humor, distraction, direct action, reappraisal, receptive listening, and valuing) predict relationship satisfaction. Six of the eight processes showed significant positive correlations with relationship satisfaction, with the strongest associations for valuing (r = .43), humor (r = .33), and receptive listening (r = .27). Relative weights were significant only for valuing, humor, and receptive listening, suggesting that these are the most important predictors of relationship satisfaction. Results are discussed in terms of the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic regulation processes and the potential importance of motives for regulation. Supplementary information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-023-04432-4.
... Casual sex has also been hypothesized to decrease the skill development necessary to successfully navigate later committed partnerships (Claxton & van Dulmen, 2013). Moreover, sexual non-exclusivity has been linked to intimate partner violence Goetz et al., 2008) and relationship break ups for adolescents and emerging adults (Bravo et al., 2017) and divorce among older adults (Amato & Previti, 2003). Exploring why individuals engage in casual sex and sexually non-exclusive behaviors may thus help prevent relationship dissatisfaction and dissolution and interpersonal difficulties such as psychological distress in at least some segments of the emerging adult population. ...
... Rather, at least some populations of emerging adults have been found to experience psychological distress, anxiety, and depression following casual sex engagement, particularly when casual sex encounters are followed by negative experiences such as loneliness and disappointment that a casual sex partner did not continue the relationship (Fielder & Carey, 2010;Napper et al., 2016). Relatedly, when sexual non-exclusivity is not an agreed upon arrangement by primary romantic relationship partners, the presence of such may lead to relationship conflict and violence Goetz et al., 2008) and relationship break ups or divorce (Amato & Previti, 2003;Bravo et al., 2017). As such, exploring the reasons why emerging adults may choose to engage in casual sex and sexually non-exclusive behaviors may aid in the prevention of interpersonal problems such as psychological distress, as well as decrease the prevalence of romantic relationship conflict and dissolution. ...
Article
Full-text available
Prior research acknowledges that families and peers influence adolescents’ sexual behaviors. Far fewer studies have explored whether and how families and peers influence sexual behaviors among emerging adults, especially among those in committed intimate partnerships, while also accounting for dynamics specific to the intimate relationship and respondents’ sociodemographic characteristics. Even less is known about whether and how previous romantic relationship experiences might influence emerging adults’ future sexual behavior both within and outside the confines of committed intimate partnerships. Drawing on longitudinal data from the Toledo Adolescent Relationships Study, we examined how emerging adults’ family backgrounds, peers’ sexual attitudes and behaviors, and past and current relationship experiences influenced their engagement in casual sex and sexual non-exclusivity. We found that each of these contexts was significant predictors of emerging adults’ casual sex, and that both peers and romantic relationship experiences significantly influenced the likelihood of engaging in sexually non-exclusive behaviors among those in committed dating, cohabiting, and marital partnerships. We discuss potential theoretical mechanisms linking these relationships and provide suggestions for future research.
... Relationship satisfaction is a strong indicator of romantic relationship functioning and is related to individual and relational outcomes, such as individual well-being and relationship longevity (Bravo et al., 2017;Davila et al., 2017;Whitton & Kuryluk, 2012). A romantic relationship may be deemed satisfying based on relationship beliefs, relationship experiences, and situational contexts. ...
... For example, Barry and colleagues (2009) found that emerging adults' perceived achievement of adulthood criteria was positively associated with their romantic relationship quality. Taken together, healthy and satisfying romantic relationships have important implications for both individual and relational well-being and functioning (Bravo et al., 2017;Davila et al., 2017). ...
Article
The formation and maintenance of satisfying romantic relationships, a developmental milestone for many emerging adults, has been challenged by the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Yet, the impact of COVID-19 stress on relationship satisfaction has not been explored within the context of individual and relationship factors. Guided by a socio-ecological framework, this study used a longitudinal design to investigate the impact of individual-level (i.e., growth beliefs, destiny beliefs), couple-level (i.e., daily criticism), and societal-level (i.e., COVID-19 stress) factors on relationship satisfaction during Fall 2021. We also explored the moderating effects of destiny beliefs and growth beliefs. Results revealed relationship satisfaction was negatively associated with daily criticism, but not directly associated with destiny beliefs, growth beliefs, or COVID-19 stress. However, growth beliefs buffered against the negative impact of criticism on relationship satisfaction. These findings are consistent with the notion that growth beliefs may play a protective role in relationship processes.
... Interdependence processes concern interpersonal needs that strengthen connections between partners such as the need for affiliation, intimacy and sexuality; independence processes concern needs related to autonomous self-expression and individuality. The inability to meet interdependence and independence needs largely contributes to relationship stress and to reasons for romantic breakups (Bravo, Connolly, & McIsaac, 2017). For emerging adults, pursuing romantic relationships to fulfill their need for closeness is a central developmental task (Collibee & Furman, 2015). ...
... Such relationship need themes are consistently replicated in the literature. While we remained open to new need types, those that emerged were consistent with previous work (e.g., Bravo et al., 2017;Feiring, 1999;Feiring et al., 2020;Le & Agnew, 2001). The need types were companionship; support; intimacy; security/commitment; compatibility; sex; acceptance by family and/or friends; autonomy; and jealousy. ...
Article
Although emerging adulthood is recognized as a pivotal time for relationship development, most studies concern heterosexual youth or older sexual minority partners. Using narratives from 40 college student emerging adults, we sought to understand the particularities and generalities of lesbian, gay, bisexual and other sexual minority (LGB+) relationship experiences. Positive experiences particular to being in a LGB+ relationship concerned partner support for coming and being out; support from family members for the relationship was rarely mentioned. Negative experiences were twice as likely to be mentioned as positive ones. They concerned how partners being at different levels of outness and problems with family support stressed the relationship. Generalities pertaining to positive relationship factors included meeting needs for support and using perspective taking to deal with conflict. Negative factors included unmet needs for companionship and intimacy and break-up anxiety about whether the relationship had a future. Our findings suggest the importance of developing strength-based LGB+ affirmative education for emerging adults to promote core relationship processes and strengthen skills to cope with stressors specific to sexual minority romantic partnerships.
... Relationships involve the ebb and flow of negative and positive experiences, which inevitably influences both partners' well-being (Antonucci et al., 2001). For example, increased negative emotions and adverse mental and physical health outcomes for both partners can result when the relationship's needs and expectations are unmet (Bravo et al., 2017;McNulty et al., 2021;Whisman, 2007). Furthermore, the longer adverse outcomes persist, the more likely it is that relationship quality will decline, potentially leading to relationship breakdown (Bravo, 2017;McNulty et al., 2021). ...
... For example, increased negative emotions and adverse mental and physical health outcomes for both partners can result when the relationship's needs and expectations are unmet (Bravo et al., 2017;McNulty et al., 2021;Whisman, 2007). Furthermore, the longer adverse outcomes persist, the more likely it is that relationship quality will decline, potentially leading to relationship breakdown (Bravo, 2017;McNulty et al., 2021). In contrast, when needs and expectations are met within the relationship, and conflict is addressed with effective communication and emotional support, there are greater overall perceptions of relationship quality within the partnership (Antonucci et al., 2001;Pateraki & Roussi, 2012;Voss et al., 1999). ...
Poster
Romantic couples often attempt to make their partner feel better—they use extrinsic emotion regulation processes, such as positive reappraisal (changing the way their partner views a negative situation), expressive suppression (encouraging their partner to hide their feelings) or distraction (distracting their partner from the emotion-eliciting event). In this study, 430 couples recruited through Prolific crowd-sourcing platform. Each participant rated how much they used eight regulation strategies to regulate their partner’s emotions, and how much their partner used the same eight strategies on them (expressive suppression, downward social comparison, humour, distraction, direct action, positive reappraisal, social sharing, and valuing). For each person, we thus have their own and their partner’s perspective on which regulation processes they use. The aim of the current dyadic study is to model the different perspectives of each partner using an adapted Trait, Reputation, Identity Model (TRI-model). Specifically, we aim to examine whether there are differences between one’s own unique perspective (identity), the partner’s unique perspective (reputation), and the shared perspective (trait) for each of the eight regulation processes, and to examine whether identity, reputation and trait perspectives show differential associations with personal wellbeing (psychological wellbeing, positive affect, negative affect) and relationship wellbeing (trust, closeness, lower conflict, relationship satisfaction).
... Although there is a small but growing body of research since the late 1990s addressing onset (Smiler & Heasley, 2016) and dissolution of intimate relationship in adolescence (Bravo et al., 2017), we know little about relationship status changes, such as moving from friendship to romantic partner or vice versa within a given relationship nor about how status changes might predict the eventual breakup of these relationships. Research on adolescents' relationships tends to omit information regarding the onset and dissolution of specific relationships, and although often designed to track partnerships over time, most typically do not effectively link partnerships to provide insights into these timelines and related processes (Lantagne & Furman, 2017). ...
... A great deal of research attention has been given to the aftermath of relationship dissolution among adults and the severe psychological distress typically associated with such experiences (Bourassa et al., 2019). However, the limited research on adolescents' breakups emerges from cross-sectional research (Bravo et al., 2017). Little is known about the factors that best predict how long a specific adolescent relationship lasts-are adolescents in fact acquiring intimacy skills that they apply to subsequent relationships? ...
Article
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Adolescents acquire important intimacy and communication skills in their relationships that contribute to relationship longevity. Yet we know relatively little about which factors help relationships endure. Objective: This study tracked adolescent women’s (N = 387; 14–17 years) relationships from onset to dissolution to assess factors that contribute to relationship length. Prior relationship experience, relationship characteristics, and current relationship behaviors were assessed as contributors. Method A sample of 387 female adolescents (89% African American) were recruited from three primary care adolescent health clinics serving lower- to middle-income families in a large Midwestern city. All were interviewed every 3 months about ongoing relationships. The main outcome measure was time to dissolution. Results The average relationship lasted 5.87 months (SD = 11.76). Greater numbers and more time spent in prior relationships were associated with longer duration of the current relationship. Being older, having more status changes during the relationship (promotions and demotions), and reporting greater relationship quality, sexual communication, and sexual autonomy were associated with significantly longer time to breakup. Conclusions Research to date has not tracked specific relationship timelines. In line with a developmental tasks perspective, this study provides new insights into the value of adolescent women’s past relationship experiences, measures of aging and accrued experience, as well as current relationship characteristics and behaviors to the development of relationship maintenance skills. These findings have educational and clinical implications as they inform programming initiatives designed to help young people establish healthy, consensual intimate relationships.
... Triggers leading to termination can be determinative in experiencing the break-up process. The reasons such as decrease in love and intimacy, unsatisfied sexual needs and disloyalty take part in the termination of a relationship (Bravo et al., 2017). There is a gradual transformation from romantic relationships to break-up (Lee, 1984). ...
... The intimacy level in the relationship and speeches on marriage issue can be ef fec tive i n gri ef whic h a cco mpa nies bre ak-up (Weitzman, 1998). At the same time, the fact that emerging adults gain experience in experiencing break-ups can be evaluated as the positive result of this experience (Bravo et al., 2017). ...
Article
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The current study aims to understand the romantic experiences of Turkish emerging adults from a cultural perspective. Culture and society play an important role in the lives and romantic experiences of emerging adults. More specifically, the present study addressed the criteria for partner selection and the initiating, maintaining and terminating the romantic relationships among Turkish emerging adults. Consensual qualitative research (CQR) was used as the research method. Participants of the study were selected via purposive sampling. The participants of the study were 25 emerging adults (12 female and 13 male) whose ages range between 19 and 26 years. Individual in-depth interviews were conducted in order to collect data. Data analysis revealed several categories within four domains of romantic experiences. The first domain, namely partner choice involved eight categories. Second domain, namely initiating a romantic relationship involved four categories. The third domain, namely maintaining a romantic relationship involved five categories. Final domain, namely termination of a romantic relationship involved three categories. The results of this study suggest that emerging adults consider various personal, relational and cultural factors in each stage of their romantic relationships.
... Romantic relationships are a core feature of people's lives, as they inevitably involve the ebb and flow of negative and positive events that influence both partners' well-being (Alberts et al., 2005). With expectations not being met in the relationship, it increases negative affect and worsen mental and physical and mental health with longer duration linked with more satisfaction decline in relationship and the breakdown of the relationship (Bravo et al., 2017;McNulty et al., 2021). In contrast, even conflicts then are met with effective communication and emotional support when the expectations are met in the relationship leading to increased positive affect, well-being, self-esteem, life satisfaction, and relationship satisfaction (Alberts et al., 2005;Bressler et al., 2006;Hone et al., 2015). ...
Article
The tendency to display transgression for individuals we consider close is higher than those we consider distant. And not always there is a "forgive and forget" in such interpersonal dynamics. This revenge-seeking may emerge as spitefulness in romantic relationships, in subtle forms of humor, and is linked with self-esteem. The present research aims to study whether humor and self-esteem increase or decrease spitefulness among couples. A total of 100 participants (73 female, 27 male) from Mumbai and Bengaluru were asked to fill out a Google form consisting of the Humor Styles Questionnaire, Collective Self-Esteem Scale, and Spitefulness Scale respectively. The statistical tools used were – Pearson's product-moment correlation, two-way ANOVA, and one-way ANOVA. Highlights of the results section revealed there is a significant correlation between aggressive humor and spitefulness, and humor and self-esteem. Spitefulness was unrelated to other humor styles as well as self-esteem. Additional one-way ANOVA also revealed difference in humor due to gender and relationship status, while self-esteem and spitefulness have little impact due to gender and relationship status. The study also highlights the need for a new scale for measuring spitefulness and suggests future studies for a deeper understanding of the underplaying factors associated with spitefulness among couples. The study concludes by suggesting developing higher self-esteem and benign humor styles to enhance romantic relationship.
... Some of the positive effects include offering a renewed sense of energy and purpose; conferring unlimited freedom; and granting time to re-orient and reassert oneself for the next life course. On the other hand, breakups may result in emotional distress and poor health (Bravo, Connolly, and Caroline 2017); felt rejection (Tan et al. 2015); impacts on self-concept (Slotter, Gardner, and Finkel 2010); and broken heart syndromewithdrawal and decline in life satisfaction and psychological well-being (Rhoades et al. 2011). This evidence reveals that breakups are usually tied to emotional and behavioral outcomes. ...
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This article examines the subjective narratives and experiences of urban female youth in heterosexual-relationship breakups in the Calabar metropolis, southeastern Nigeria, where they “do gender” and reposition female heterosexuality in order to gain access to new social spaces. Drawing on ethnographic qualitative data sourced through purposive sampling and semi-structured interviews conducted with 30 participants who had unilaterally cut romantic ties in the previous eighteen months, I interrogate from participants’ nuanced perspectives their previous relationship quality, causes of breakups, and social and structural factors that informed their decision to quit from the account of “doing gender” – a social-constructionist approach to gender which conceives the phenomenon as a routine accomplishment embedded in everyday interaction that recreates and reinforces the cultural meaning of gender. The results, based on linguistic evidence, demonstrate that narratives of gender equality, access to secure livelihood, and needs for emotional well-being as motivators for ending relationships reflect an agentic shift in the way young Nigerian women enact gendered scripts in heterosexual partnerships. The study concludes that breakups provide avenues for participants to exercise autonomy in decision-making and to negotiate gender and sexuality under conditions of patriarchal dominance and inequality in-line with broader social changes.
... Individuals also described changes to normative scripts for relationship dissolution ( Bravo et al., 2017 ). Different reasons for ending relationships emerged that were attributed to pandemicrelated changes. ...
Article
The COVID-19 pandemic drastically affected how people interact socially. Stay-at-home orders, travel restrictions, and closures of non-essential businesses caused disruptions to the development of intimate relationships. Individuals develop expectations about how relationships should progress based on romantic scripts (i.e., relationship guidelines based on social norms), and typically report feeling more satisfied when their relationships follow these scripts. The current study was designed to assess how individuals involved in, or pursuing, intimate relationships during the COVID-19 pandemic adapted to these significant shifts to the progression of intimate relationships. Data were collected from user-generated posts on a popular online forum site. Analysis of spontaneous online communications during the first calendar year of the pandemic (2020) revealed notable impacts on the romantic scripts of individuals in all relationship stages (i.e., single, dating, new relationship, non-cohabiting, cohabiting, long distance, and relationship dissolution). Content analysis yielded themes related to the dominant discourse, as well as similarities across and differences between relationship stages. Overall, people described notable changes to their intimate relationship scripts that they attributed to the pandemic and restrictions. The results contribute to the current understanding of the pandemic’s impact on our closest, intimate relationships and provide insights for use in policy and research around social change.
... Literature also suggests that coping with stress by physical exercises and seeking social support by spending time with friends can help cope with post-breakup stress (Roepke et al., 2018). The kind of experiences youngsters go through in an intimate romantic relationship helps develop coping skills required for future romantic relationships (Bravo et al., 2017). Moreover, positive cognitive coping skills predict adjustment after losing a romantic relationship because of betrayal (O'Sullivan et al., 2019). ...
Article
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In this phenomenological study, the betrayal experiences of young Pakistani adults in romantic relationships were explored. Eight participants (4 men & 4 women) with an age range of 18-29 years (Mage = 22.63, SD = 2.87) were selected through purposive sampling from various public and private sector universities of Lahore, Pakistan. A demographic sheet with a semi-structured questionnaire was developed, and a face-to-face in-depth interview was conducted with every participant. Interpretative phenomenological framework (IPA) analysis was used to gain insight into participants' betrayal experiences with an ideographic focus. Findings suggest that Betrayal was experienced due to emotional infidelity and withdrawal, where betrayed men
... In our prior work on a different sample of individuals (not couples) in romantic relationships, narrative interpretations of romantic conflict that include BUA are related to stronger beliefs that conflict is destructive and greater relationship aggression (Feiring et al., 2018). Research has mostly focused on the reasons for or consequences of break-ups in individuals (e.g., Bravo et al., 2017;Shulman et al., 2017) and we have limited understanding of how couples' conflict narratives that reflect relationship doubts are associated with relationship aggression. ...
Article
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This cross-sectional study aimed to understand how emerging adult couples interpreted relationship conflicts, and whether such meaning making was associated with psychological relationship aggression and moderated by gender. We specified the I Cubed model of relationship aggression to examine how in the context of recounting relationship conflicts, the impellance factors of anger and break-up anxiety might increase and the inhibition factor of perspective taking might decrease the likelihood of relationship aggression. Each partner in 126 couples was interviewed separately about their unmet relationship needs. Narrative-based measures of impellance and inhibition were obtained as well as self-reported psychological relationship aggression and satisfaction. Although gender was not a moderator, there was some support for associations of impellance and inhibition factors with aggression. Extending prior work using couple observations and diary methods, we found that interpreting conflict events in terms of anger and perspective taking was related to relationship aggression while controlling for relationship satisfaction. Consistent with the I Cubed model, there were actor effects such that anger ratings were an impellance factor that increased and perspective taking was an inhibition factor that decreased the likelihood of aggression. Our findings suggest that narrating past conflicts related to unmet needs is a task that involves the management of anger associated with more relationship aggression. The efficacy of relationship education programs for emerging adult couples might be improved by focusing on skills to decrease anger and facilitate perspective taking.
... Previous research has shown that breakups stem from a failure of the dating or romantic relationship to meet individuals' emerging romantic needs (Bravo, Connolly & McIsaac, 2017). Contextual, relationship and individual factors, such as stressful life events, lower levels of relationship support and romantic appeal, negative interactions, externalizing symptoms and substance abuse, predict relationship dissolution (Le, Dove, Korn, Agnew & Matsu, 2010;Lantagne, Furman & Novak 2017). ...
Article
Ghosting is a relationship dissolution strategy in which the ghoster elects to cease all forms of communication with their partner without explanation. The partner tends to be unaware that they are being ghosted. As a result, the ghosted partner is left to manage and understand what lack of his/her partner’s communication means. The present study was designed to explore if people who are ghosted are more likely to ghost others by analyzing to what extent ghosting initiation is correlated with ghosting victimization, and by also examining to what extent intentions to ghost are related to ghosting behaviors (both being ghosted and being a ghoster). It also examined the relations between ghosting initiation behavior and intention and individual, interpersonal and relationship factors, such as self-esteem, sense of power, moral disengagement, assertiveness, empathy concern and conflict resolution styles. Data were collected from 626 adults (mean age = 29.64 years; SD = 8.84) using online surveys. This study confirmed a close connection between ghosting initiation and ghosting victimization, and a moderate one between ghosting initiation and intentions to ghost. However, the majority of the examined factors did not correlate with ghosting behavior and intention, or displayed weak relations. The present findings suggest that ghosting is an emerging phenomenon in modern communication that warrants further investigation.
... These relationships are a preoccupation for many young people and are one of the key components of social development (Lerner and Steinberg 2009). The romantic experiences of young people provide foundational skills required for interpersonal functioning, and the development of coping and problem-solving strategies for future romantic relationships (Bravo et al. 2017). The primary objective of the current study was to assess individual traits of emerging adults that may be linked to adjustment following a romantic relationship breakup. ...
Article
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Breakups are common but often one of the most distressing experiences that young people can have. Poor adjustment to relationship loss is linked to depressive symptoms and rumination. This study assessed traits that reflect resiliency and that might comprise protective factors that ameliorate depressive symptoms and rumination. Online survey participants included 866 male and female late adolescents (18–22 years; Mean age = 20.7; 62% female; 82% White/Caucasian; 7% Asian/Southeast Asian; 6% Black/African American) who recently had experienced the breakup of a romantic relationship. Analyses assessed whether optimism, grit, and self-esteem moderated the breakup-adjustment relationship. After controlling for gender and current relationship status, higher optimism, self-esteem, and grit were expected to be associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms and rumination for those who had experienced a breakup in the three months prior to the study, and for the most part, these predictions were confirmed. These findings can be reinforced in education and counseling programs to better support individuals suffering the aftermath of a breakup. The findings add to the literature on adolescents’ development of interpersonal functioning and skills required in intimate relationships. © 2019, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.
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This study aimed to develop a comprehensive scale for assessing maladaptive behaviors following romantic break-ups and examine the experiences of university students in this context regarding psychological and relational factors with particular emphasis on the theoretical framework of Attachment Theory. A total of 512 university students aged 18-25, who experienced a break-up within the past year, participated in the study. Measures included the Perceived Relationship Quality Components, Attachment-Based Mental Representation Scale (ABMRS), Distress Intolerance Index (DII), and Complicated Grief Inventory- Relation and Post Break-up Maladaptive Behaviors Scale (PBMBS) explicitly developed within this study. The collected data were analyzed using various statistical techniques, including explanatory factor analysis (EFA), regression analysis, and mediation analysis. Results from the EFA revealed that the final version of the PBMBS consisted of 21 items across four constructs: Aggression Over Others, Dating and Sexual Act, Boundary Violation and Harassment, and Inclination to Pleasure and Denial with a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of .83. Hierarchical regression analysis demonstrated that the increased elapsed time since the breakup, the higher scores of insecure attachment, and the Inventory of Complicated Grief, the lower scores of the Distress Intolerance Index, significantly predicted maladaptive behaviors following break-ups. Furthermore, the mediation analysis indicated a significant relationship between insecure attachment and post-break-up maladaptive behaviors, with distress tolerance mediating in this relationship. Overall, the study enhances understanding of post-break-up dynamics. The findings and implications were discussed concerning existing literature.
Article
Being part of a committed and satisfying relationship is frequently cited as one of the most deeply held values of both men and women in the United States and other Westernized countries. Moreover, relationship infidelity is cited as a frequent cause of dissatisfaction and the termination of committed relationships (Bravo et al. Emerging Adulthood, 5(4), 230–240, 2017). Antecedent self-control strategies, such as avoiding arousing events with nonpartners and self-control strategies like practicing mindfulness to increase sensitivity to temporally extended contingencies of infidelity could serve an abative function that reduces the probability of infidelity. In the present study, we evaluated multiple contextual factors in a randomized control trial design. Participants completed a probability discounting task developed by the experimenters under the hypothetical situation of being in a relationship differing in satisfaction, where they chose to cheat or not cheat on their partner as a function of the subjective attractiveness of the nonpartner and the probability of getting caught by their current partner. Half of the participants then completed the same task after watching a 5-min arousing scene from a movie based on a preference assessment, while the other participants completed 5 min of guided meditation. Results showed that the overall probability of infidelity was greater with lower relationship satisfaction. Moreover, an arousing context may momentarily increase probability discounting whereas mindful meditation may decrease probability discounting, suggesting more research is needed in this area.
Article
A substantial body of research exists documenting the relationship between Dark Triad traits and the formation and maintenance of close personal relationships. Relatively few studies have, however, considered Dark Triad traits in the context of relationship dissolution. The present studies investigate the relationship between Dark Triad traits and the strategies used during the dissolution of romantic relationships (Study 1) and friendships (Study 2). For each study participants (Study 1: N = 722; Study 2: N = 177) completed the Short Dark Triad-3 (SD3) and Break-up Strategies Questionnaire. In Study 1, Machiavellianism predicted greater use of avoidance / withdrawal, cost escalation / manipulation, and de-escalation when terminating a romantic relationship and lower open confrontation. Further, psychopathy predicted greater use of cost escalation / manipulation and distant / mediated communication but lower positive tone / self-blame and open confrontation when terminating a romantic relationship. In Study 2, psychopathy predicted greater distant / mediated communication only and Machiavellianism was not a significant individual predictor of strategies used during the dissolution of friendship. Narcissism was less closely associated with break-up strategies than Machiavellianism or psychopathy, predicting greater open confrontation with romantic partners only (Study 1).
Article
Adolescents' antisocial behavior and negative conflict management styles are each associated with adverse romantic relationship outcomes, yet little research exists on their associations. We investigated whether adolescents' antisocial behavior was associated with conflict management styles, and whether it predicted breakup 3 months later. In total, 91 adolescent couples (Mage = 16.43, SD = 0.99; 41.2% Hispanic/Latinx) participated in videotaped conflict discussions coded for negotiation, coercion, and avoidance. Actor–partner interdependence models suggest adolescents' antisocial behavior is associated with decreased use of negotiation (couple pattern) and increased use of coercion (actor pattern). No significant associations were found for avoidance. Neither antisocial behavior nor conflict management styles predicted breakup. Findings are discussed in light of the unique developmental importance of adolescents' romantic relationships.
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Teen dating violence (TDV) has received increasing research attention. Within the last year, its study has become particularly relevant with the uptick in online aggressive behaviors and interpersonal violence associated with COVID-19 lockdowns. While timely, TDV is not a new phenomenon nor is it unique to human relationships. This paper applies evolutionary theory to current understandings of TDV. First, TDV is oriented within the evolutionary context of adolescence as a developmental period. Next, the adaptive roots of TDV are considered, considering the perspectives of evolutionary theory and developmental genetics. Within the context of adolescence, what might be the evolved function of aggressing against a romantic or sexual partner? Lastly, implications for future research, prevention, and intervention are discussed. This paper highlights the importance of considering TDV from an evolutionary perspective.
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This study investigated whether relationship satisfaction mediates the association between attachment styles and mate-retention strategies. Four-hundred and twenty individuals in a heterosexual committed relationship participated in this study (79.7% women; Mage = 23.22; SDage = 8.07). Participants completed questionnaires assessing attachment styles, relationship satisfaction, and mate-retention strategies. The results replicated previous findings by showing that insecure attachment is positively associated with benefit-provisioning and cost-inflicting mate-retention strategies and extended previous research by showing that relationship satisfaction mediates these associations. The present findings confirm evolutionary predictions on romantic relationships that relationship satisfaction may serve as a monitor determining how individuals act to preserve their relationships. Keywords: mate retention, attachment styles, relationship satisfaction.
Article
Forming, maintaining, and ending romantic relationship is a crucial developmental task in emerging adulthood and highly correlated with psychosocial well-being. Although the direction of associations between relational and individual processes has been investigated in married couples, the longitudinal links between relationship satisfaction and life satisfaction has not yet been explored in premarital relationships of emerging adults. Therefore, the present study aimed to explore whether there is a top-down, bottom-up, or bidirectional effect between these two variables. Emerging adults (n=182; 155 females, 27 males; Mage=21.23, SDage=1.62) from a public university responded self-report measures of the Couples Satisfaction Index and the Satisfaction with Life Scale at two time points over a 14-week interval. A cross-lagged autoregressive panel model analysis indicated that there was a bidirectional association between satisfaction in relationship domain and overall life satisfaction in premarital romantic relationships of emerging adults. The present findings importantly contribute to close relationships and well-being literatures. Study strengths, limitations, and implications are discussed.
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Cambridge Core - Social Psychology - On-Again, Off-Again Relationships - by René M. Dailey
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As the use of social media and mobile phones increase, scholars and practitioners have become concerned about the role these media might play in dating abuse among adolescents. However, less is known about teens’ perceptions of various types of digital dating experiences. The current study sought to understand how teens conceptualized their “worst experiences” of digital dating and how they responded to these experiences. A sample of 262 high school students completed an online survey including an open-ended question asking them to write about their “worst” digital dating experience with follow-up questions about how they responded and whom they told about the incident. A content analysis of open-ended responses found that public insults, general insults, violations of privacy, rumors, break-ups, and pressure for sex/sexual photos were the most commonly reported worst digital dating experiences. Responses to digital dating experiences varied by gender, and girls were more likely than boys to cry or be upset. Teens were more likely to tell their peers than trusted adults about their worst digital dating experiences. The implications of these findings for understanding dating abuse is discussed to better inform educators and practitioners working with teens.
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Although stressful life events have consistently been linked to the onset of major depressive disorder (MDD), most research has not distinguished 1st episodes from recurrences. In a large epidemiologic sample of older adolescents (N = 1,470) assessed at 2 time points, the risk conferred by a recent romantic break-up was examined as a predictor of 1st onset versus recurrence of MDD. Results indicated a heightened likelihood of 1st onset of MDD during adolescence if a recent break-up had been reported; in contrast, a recent break-up did not predict recurrence of depression. These results held for both genders and remained significant after controlling for gender. Additional analyses to determine the discriminant validity and specificity of these findings strongly supported the recent break-up as a significant risk factor for a 1st episode of MDD during adolescence. Implications of these findings and subsequent research directions are discussed.
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An early step in the process of construct validation consists of establishing the fit of an unrestricted "exploratory" factorial model for a prespecified number of common factors. For this initial unrestricted model, researchers have often recommended and used fit indices to estimate the number of factors to retain. Despite the logical appeal of this approach, little is known about the actual accuracy of fit indices in the estimation of data dimensionality. The present study aimed to reduce this gap by systematically evaluating the performance of 4 commonly used fit indices-the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR)-in the estimation of the number of factors with categorical variables, and comparing it with what is arguably the current golden rule, Horn's (1965) parallel analysis. The results indicate that the CFI and TLI provide nearly identical estimations and are the most accurate fit indices, followed at a step below by the RMSEA, and then by the SRMR, which gives notably poor dimensionality estimates. Difficulties in establishing optimal cutoff values for the fit indices and the general superiority of parallel analysis, however, suggest that applied researchers are better served by complementing their theoretical considerations regarding dimensionality with the estimates provided by the latter method. (PsycINFO Database Record
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This chapter examines the theory of emerging adulthood from the perspective of cultural psychology. First it provides a brief overview of the theory. Then it addresses the ways "one size fits all" with respect to emerging adulthood, that is, the demographic and cultural changes that have taken places in many regions worldwide to lay the groundwork for the emerging adulthood life stage. Next it describes the demographic and cultural variability that exists in emerging adulthood worldwide. Finally, the chapter bridges cultural and developmental psychology by focusing on the cultural beliefs that are at the heart of emerging adulthood, in the West and in other world regions.
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We gathered data that would allow us to examine evolutionarily informed predictions regarding emotional and physical responses to a breakup—a cluster of correlated responses we refer to as postrelationship grief (PRG). We tested predictions of the existing biological model of human mating and looked to replicate or expand on the extant literature by surveying 5,705 participants in 96 countries (Mage � 27 years). Seventy-five percent of respondents experienced a breakup and 75% of those individuals experienced multiple breakups. Most responses differed significantly by sex. Emotional response was more severe than physical, with women expressing higher levels than men in each instance. Distribution of responses was similar between sexes. Intensity of emotional response for both sexes was notable: median (and mean) response of nearly 7 (of 10). Component responses, both physical and emotional, again showed significant variation but similar distributions. Women initiated breakups more frequently. Rejected individuals experienced higher PRG levels than those initiating the breakup or breakups via mutual agreement; however, the PRG experience was still relatively severe for both parties. “Lack of communication,” was the most prevalent breakup cause. This initial investigation suggests that PRG requires continued study.
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It is well known that stressful life events can play a role in the development of adolescent depressive symptoms; however, there has been little research on romantic stress specifically. The relationship between romantic stress and depressive symptoms is particularly salient in adolescence, as adolescence often involves the onset of dating. This and other stressors are often dealt with in the context of the family. The present study examined the relationship between romantic stress and depressive symptoms both concurrently and prospectively, controlling for preexisting depressive symptoms. We then explored whether support from parents buffers the negative effects of romantic stress on depressive symptoms. In addition, the study sought to determine whether the benefits of support vary by parent and child gender. A community sample of 375 adolescents completed self-report measures of parental support (both maternal and paternal), romantic stress, and depressive symptoms. A behavioral measure of maternal support was also obtained. For boys and girls, romantic stress at age 15 predicted depressive symptoms at ages 15 and 18, even when controlling for age 13 depressive symptoms. Perceived maternal support buffered the stress-depressive symptom relationship for both genders at age 15, even when controlling for age 13 depressive symptoms. Higher perceived paternal support was associated with lower adolescent depressive symptoms; however, it did not have a buffering effect. These results have implications for the development of effective family-centered methods to prevent the development of depressive symptoms in adolescents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
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This study examined the role of age, gender, and dating experience in adolescent romantic behaviors and perceptions. In addition, the linkage between the quality of relationships with parents and peers, and affective intensity with a romantic partner was investigated. Interviews were held with 168 Israeli adolescents, who also completed questionnaires assessing romantic behaviors, romantic perceptions, and quality of relationships with their romantic partner, parents, and a same-gender close friend. Older adolescents were more likely than younger adolescents to have a romantic partner. Romantic perceptions pertaining to companionship and excitement were less frequent among older adolescents. However, aspects such as intimacy and level of emotional involvement were similar across adolescence. Girls emphasized more attachment and care in their romantic relationships than boys. In addition, adolescents who were currently dating perceived romantic relationships more in terms of emotional involvement than adolescents who were not dating. The affective intensity with same-gender close friend but not with parents was linked to the affective intensity with the romantic partner.
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This study pursued two questions: Why do people in Israel divorce, and what factors contribute to their mental health afterward? To answer these questions, we gave out a questionnaire assessing reasons for divorce to 56 Jewish Israeli couples 2 years after their breakup. The questionnaire yielded three clusters of explanations for divorce: an extramarital affair, problems inherent in the couple's relationship, and factors external to the couple's relationship. The assessment of factors contributing to mental health included reasons for the divorce, divorcées' emotional resources, factors within the divorce process, and demographic factors. Findings showed that mental health was poorer among individuals who were older, less educated, had an avoidant or anxious attachment style, feared intimacy, or perceived new relationships as threats.
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Breakup distress and reasons for breakup including affiliation, intimacy, sexuality and autonomy reasons were stud-ied in 119 university students who had experienced a recent breakup of a romantic relationship. The sample was di-vided into high and low breakup distress groups based on a median score on the Breakup Distress Scale. The groups were then compared on their responses on the Breakup Reasons Scale. Only the intimacy subscale differentiated the high versus low breakup distress groups. These data highlight the importance of intimacy for romantic relationships and the loss of intimacy as a reason for breakups.
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Breakup distress and reasons for breakup including affiliation, intimacy, sexuality and autonomy reasons were studied in 119 university students who had experienced a recent breakup of a romantic relationship. The sample was divided into high and low breakup distress groups based on a median score on the Breakup Distress Scale. The groups were then compared on their responses on the Breakup Reasons Scale. Only the intimacy subscale differentiated the high versus low breakup distress groups. These data highlight the importance of intimacy for romantic relationships and the loss of intimacy as a reason for breakups.
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Extradyadic sexual interactions are a leading cause of relationship strife and break-ups and are known to cause extreme distress for adolescents. Given the rapid uptake of communication technologies among adolescents, the current study was designed to examine the role of online sexual activities and technology use on adolescents’ reports of extradyadic kissing, that is, both romantically kissing another partner while in a relationship (“cheating”) and romantically kissing a person known to be in a relationship with someone else (“poaching”). Online surveys were collected from 268 male and female adolescents (15–19 years of age). One-fifth (21%) of participants reported extradyadic kissing, and one-quarter (26%) reported romantically kissing someone who they knew was in a relationship with someone else. Sensation seeking emerged as a key personality trait relating to higher odds of both types of extradyadic interactions for male and female participants. A history of having sent an explicit sexual photo was associated with far greater odds of poaching behaviours, especially for boys. Engaging in online sex chat dramatically increased girls’ odds (but not boys’ odds) of reporting cheating and poaching interactions. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for adolescents’ psychological and relational health and for work on relationship skills development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)
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We build on the emerging adulthood and marital reconciliation literatures to examine two forms of relationship instability: reconciliations and sex with an ex. Analyzing recent data on young adult daters and cohabitors (n = 792), we find that nearly half report a reconciliation (breakup followed by reunion) and over half of those who break up continue a sexual relationship (sex with an ex). In this young adult sample, cohabitors experience greater relationship churning than daters. We describe individual demographic, social psychological, and relationship factors associated with reconciliations and sex with an ex. These findings showcase that young adult relationships are characterized by considerable volatility and add to our theoretical and empirical understanding of stability in intimate relationships in emerging adulthood.
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Although relational research predominantly conceptualizes romantic relationships as either together or apart, some relationships break up and renew (i.e., on-again/off-again relationships). Partners’ accounts of on-again/off-again relational experiences were qualitatively analyzed to explore both reasons for breakups and reasons for renewals. Themes were interpreted within an interdependence framework to explain why partners dissolved as well as renewed their relationships. The themes in combination suggest renewals occurred due to dissatisfying experiences with alternative relationship partners and an increase in outcomes (i.e., rewards minus costs) after breakups. Partners’ post-dissolution contact and their uncertainty about relational status may have further facilitated renewals. More generally, the themes suggest, for on-again/ off-again partners, breakups did not indicate the end of interdependence but rather a redefinition of the relationship.
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The construction of narratives has been shown to assist sufferers of emotional or traumatic events - such as the ending of relationships - in making sense of and coming to terms with the event. Despite this connection, few studies have explored how the completeness of the narratives contributes to positive outcomes. Building on research in both communication and psychology, we conceptualized a complete narrative as one that clearly and extensively (1) segmented the experience episodically/sequentially, (2) represented causes and consequences in the explained events, (3) developed characters relative to the story, (4) evoked and made sense of affect, (5) drew meaning from the events in the narrative, (6) provided a coherent narrative, and (7) attributed responsibility to the characters in the story. We collected and analyzed the break-up stories of 90 participants. We then rated the narratives to see if relationships exist between narrative completeness and adjustment to relationship dissolution as well as to the teller's role in the break-up and his or her current relationship status. In addition to the implementation of a new method for coding and analyzing narrative content, the results indicate that certain elements of completeness are more related to adjustment than are others.
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Emerging adulthood is proposed as a new conception of development for the period from the late teens through the twenties, with a focus on ages 18–25. A theoretical background is presented. Then evidence is provided to support the idea that emerging adulthood is a distinct period demographically, subjectively, and in terms of identity explorations. How emerging adulthood differs from adolescence and young adulthood is explained. Finally, a cultural context for the idea of emerging adulthood is outlined, and it is specified that emerging adulthood exists only in cultures that allow young people a prolonged period of independent role exploration during the late teens and twenties.
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Age and gender differences in patterns of behavior and experience, cognitive beliefs, affective involvement, and psychosocial functioning in romantic relationships were observed in 473 adolescents and emerging adults (ages 12-24). Older adolescents indicated more dating experiences, times in love, passion, identity, and intimacy. They also reported more commitment-related romantic beliefs but less romantic idealization. Across all grades, females indicated fewer times in love and less tendency to believe in love at first sight but greater intimacy and self-consciousness. In addition, predictions of psychosocial intimacy were examined. For both males and females, greater intimacy was associated with less self-consciousness but more passion, commitment-related beliefs, and psychosocial identity. Implications for creating empirically based resources for facilitating positive development in adolescents’ interpersonal lives are discussed.
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Previous research has primarily focused on negative outcomes following relationship dissolution. The purpose of this study is to add to the growing literature that shows the positive outcomes that are possible. It was hypothesized that growth and positive emotions would be associated with self-related variables such as self-expansion and rediscovery of self, as well as coping strategies. Participants were 155 undergraduates who had experienced the dissolution of a relationship in the past 6 months. Results confirmed the hypotheses that growth would be related to ending a relationship low in self-expansion and that the relationship between these variables would be mediated by experiencing more rediscovery of the self, less loss of self, and more positive emotions following dissolution.
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Although an impressive body of knowledge exists about the attitudes toward and correlates of short-term sex, little is known about men's and women's motives for seeking casual sex partners and for engaging in casual sexual encounters. Men and women college students who had entered casual sexual liaisons were asked to describe the reasons or motives that prompted their behavior in a free response, essay format. As expected, men and women generated similar reasons. Specifically, both genders emphasized intraindividual factors (e.g., sexual desire, sexual experimentation, physical pleasure, alcohol use) and factors associated with the casual sex partner (e.g., attractiveness) as reasons for their short-term sexual encounter(s). In addition, however, a number of gender differences were found. Men more than women emphasized social environmental reasons (e.g., status enhancement, normative peer group behavior), whereas women more than men cited interpersonal reasons (e.g., increase probability of long-term commitment from sex partner) for casual sex. These results are in accord with predictions generated by social context and evolutionary models of human mating.
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Suggests approaching adolescent romantic relationships from a developmental-contextual perspective. The author presents a heuristic model of a prototypic, four-phase sequence through which adolescents pass in their development of romantic interests, skills, and relationship experiences. In each phase the author discusses the character of romantic activity and key features of the peer context. Finally, some applications of this model to future research on the role of peers in adolescent romantic relationships are suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Ecological research and the way that ecologists use statistics continues to change rapidly. This second edition of the best-selling Design and Analysis of Ecological Experiments leads these trends with an update of this now-standard reference book, with a discussion of the latest developments in experimental ecology and statistical practice. The goal of this volume is to encourage the correct use of some of the more well known statistical techniques and to make some of the less well known but potentially very useful techniques available. Chapters from the first edition have been substantially revised and new chapters have been added. Readers are introduced to statistical techniques that may be unfamiliar to many ecologists, including power analysis, logistic regression, randomization tests and empirical Bayesian analysis. In addition, a strong foundation is laid in more established statistical techniques in ecology including exploratory data analysis, spatial statistics, path analysis and meta-analysis. Each technique is presented in the context of resolving an ecological issue. Anyone from graduate students to established research ecologists will find a great deal of new practical and useful information in this current edition.
Chapter
The romantic preoccupations of adolescent youth – meeting potential partners, negotiating new situations, and learning the norms and nuances of love relationships – are central to the social activities of North American youth. In this new venture, adolescents find that it is their peers who are most willing to share in their desire to sort through the subtleties that characterize dating, love, and romance. Not only do friends act as a major conduit for romantic relationships, they typically are the romantic partners! In view of this overlap, the goal of this chapter is to explore the linkages between adolescents' romantic relationships and those with their peers. We focus particularly on development in early adolescence since the emergence of romantic relationships is characteristic of this time. In adolescence, peer relationships undergo substantial differentiation, as the distinction between dyads and groups becomes increasingly important. Adolescents' peer relationships include small cliques of close friends and larger peer networks, as well as one-on-one friendships (Blyth, Hill, & Thiel, 1982). Whether peer relationships are dyadic or group-based likely shapes their links with romantic relationships, and we will attend to these differences in this chapter. We also recognize that children can be more or less successful in their peer relationships (Parker & Asher, 1987).
Chapter
Gender is obviously a key component for understanding romantic relationships in adolescence. If we listen to the narratives of high school seniors describing particular romantic relationships, our assumptions about expected sex-role-appropriate behavior or constructions may be violated or confirmed. Person 1: “Um, we're both very easygoing. Um, we like a lot of affection. Um, not like public affection, but um, just knowing that we, we care for each other. Um, uh, it doesn't even have to be physical affection, just any type. We like cuddling with each other. Um, we enjoy going out and doing things with each other and each other's friends. … We enjoy high action things together. Um, pretty much … we have a very open relationship, and we can talk about anything.” Person 2: “I think after a while like, [person] following me around and wanting to be with me all the time, and maybe the fact that I had a lot to say and had the power … I'd, just like, I don't know, I still think like that. I don't know why but [person] … was getting too serious by following me around all the time and, you know, wanting to spend every minute of the day.
Chapter
Participants in a summer Elderhostel course on grief were invited to complete open-ended questionnaires about their personal experiences in responding to the loss of an important close relationship.
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Factor analysis is a multivariate statistical approach commonly used in psychology, education, and more recently in the health-related professions. This paper will attempt to provide novice researchers with a simplified approach to undertaking exploratory factor analysis (EFA). As the paramedic body of knowledge continues to grow, indeed into scale and instrument psychometrics, it is timely that an uncomplicated article such as this be offered to the paramedic readership both nationally and internationally. Factor analysis is an important tool that can be used in the development, refinement, and evaluation of tests, scales, and measures that can be used in education and clinical contexts by paramedics. The objective of the paper is to provide an exploratory factor analysis protocol, offering potential researchers with an empirically-supported systematic approach that simplifies the many guidelines and options associated with completing EFA.
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The purpose of this study was to assess the ability of young adults to adjust to the breakup of a romantic relationship by examining the possible predictors. The sample comprised 140 women and 143 men. Simultaneous regression analysis indicated that initiator status, existence of a new partner, certainty of the reasons for the breakup, and perceived social support were significant predictors and accounted for 18% of the variance in the measure of adjustment to breakup. © 2015 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved.
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We conducted a longitudinal investigation to advance our understanding of determinants of the breakups of premarital relationships. We considered causes, derived from several major theories, that were located in a variety of sources in the relationship, in the social network environment, and in the individual. We extended previous longitudinal research methodologically by analyzing the data with hazard analysis, in which the dependent variable is the instantaneous rate at which a relationship terminates. In the analyses we examined how measures of different factors affected the rate at which a relationship changed from intact to broken up. We found that several variables were significant predictors of the rate at which relationships terminated, including comparison level for alternatives, amount of time spent together, dissimilarity in race, support from partner's social network, and duration of the relationship. These findings offer evidence suggesting that variables derived from social exchange, similarity, and social network theories all contribute toward an explanation of premarital breakups.
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The aim of this study was to examine occurrence of romantic relationships and relationship break‐ups among young adults in Hong Kong and Australia and to explore associations between relationship style, identity status, negative affect, cultural group, and relationship experiences. Data were collected from Chinese tertiary students in Hong Kong (n = 279) and Anglo‐Australian tertiary students in Melbourne, Australia (n = 204). Participants completed a questionnaire including demographics, romantic relationship items, the Love Schemas Scale measuring romantic relationship style, the Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status, and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale. Secure relationship style and more mature identity statuses were associated with having had a romantic relationship. Among those young people with romantic relationship experience, break‐ups were less common for those with a foreclosed identity status, skittish (avoidant) relationship style, and Hong Kong Chinese background. Negative mood was higher among those for whom a break‐up had been recent. Hurt experienced following a break‐up was greater when the break‐up was partner initiated and among those with less secure relationship styles and identity statuses. Overall, individual factors were stronger predictors of relationship status than cultural factors.
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Adolescent depression may be associated with future relationship problems that have long-term consequences given the developmental importance and health benefits of forming committed unions in emerging adulthood. The authors examined associations between emotional and behavioral indicators of adolescent depression (depressive symptoms, alcohol problems, and suicidal ideation) and romantic relationship and union formation and dissolution in emerging adulthood (n = 14,146) using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Adolescent alcohol problems were associated with more romantic relationships in emerging adulthood. Emerging adults with depressive symptoms or alcohol problems in adolescence were significantly more likely to enter into a cohabiting union, and those with adolescent alcohol problems were less likely to marry. Cohabiting emerging adults with a history of adolescent depressive symptoms were less likely to marry, whereas suicidal ideation was associated with a decreased likelihood of cohabitation dissolution. Implications for future research are discussed.
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This study examined the role of extradyadic involvement (EDI) in heterosexual dating relationships among young adult females (N = 539). A considerable percentage of participants (36 %) reported that they had engaged in an extradyadic emotional or sexual relationship within the last 2 months. Results from logistic regression analyses supported the general hypothesis that emotional and sexual EDI were both significantly associated with relationship dissolution. These associations remained strong even after controlling for participants' age, relationship duration, and relationship quality. The findings also showed that the strength of the association between acts of emotional or sexual extradyadic behaviors and relationship dissolution was linked to relationship quality, gender of the actor, and type of EDI (emotional vs. sexual). Specifically, compared to participants who reported poor relationship quality, those who reported high relationship quality were more likely to end the partnership if they reported emotional or sexual EDI. Findings suggest that individuals in higher quality relationships appear to have considerably more to lose in their relationship when emotional or sexual EDI occurs. This, in part, may be because the more satisfactory the relationship the more disillusionment one may feel when betrayed by their romantic partner. Overall, the present findings underscore the multifaceted nature of the relationships between EDI and relationship dissolution. We call for more research that rigorously examines what contextual factors influence young adults in dating relationships to dissolve relationships following EDI.
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Early romantic experiences are believed to play a central role in the development of the self and intimacy, although little work exists on the nature of romance in early to middle adolescence. This study examines White, middle class 15-year-olds' descriptions of their dating partners and romance. As expected, the majority of the sample had dating experiences that were brief in duration, although they were intense in terms of frequency of contact. Affiliative more than attachment qualities characterized these adolescents' conscious views of romance. Girls were more likely to mention interpersonal qualities, and boys were more likely to mention physical attraction when describing romantic relationships
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Verbal accounts are the principal means by which individuals personally cope with spoiled relationships and socially manage relationship dissolution. The aims of this study are to illuminate the process of relational dissolution through analysis of personal accounts and to identify similarities and differences in the disengaging process for marriages versus dating relationships. Personal accounts of the dissolution of 50 marital and 50 pre‐marital relationships were analyzed in terms of four key features: (1) the problems and relational stresses that motivate one or both members to dissolve the relationship, (2) the attributions of responsibility for these problems, (3) the attempts to repair or manage the dissolving relationship, and (4) the factors that impede termination of the relationship. Findings indicate that the structural and affective enmeshment of marital couples lend to their disengagement accounts a characteristic complexity not paralleled in the accounts of couples who dissolved their relationship prior to marriage.
Article
In an 8-year prospective study conducted on 103 subjects, the developmental sequence of and the factors contributing to a bonded romantic outcome in young adulthood were investigated. The subjects’ self-concepts and their relationships with mothers, fathers, and same-sex friends were assessed at the ages of 13, 15, and 17 years. Having a romantic partner and the quality of relationships with romantic partners were assessed at ages 13, 15, 17, and 21 years. Evidence was found for a developmental sequence in romance with respect to differences in the quality and duration of romantic relationships over time. Factor analysis revealed that at age 21, bonded romantic love emerged as a romantic outcome. Two models of romantic relationship development, varying in complexity, were tested. The results revealed that support from parents, friends, and romantic partners as well as self-concept contributed differently to the prediction of bonded love at age 21. Regression analyses revealed that at age of 13, during the initiation phase, the self-concept contributed significantly to the prediction of bonded love in young adulthood. Similarly, during the affection phase, at age 17, the quality of the relationship with the romantic partner was predictive of bonded love in early adulthood. The results were less clear at age 15, during the status phase. In addition, it was found that the importance of the romantic partner as support provider increased as the relationship developed. Contrary to expectations, peer support was found to be important only during later stages of romantic development.
Article
Divorce is a complex event that can be viewed from multiple perspectives. For example, sociological research has focused primarily on structural and life course predictors of marital disruption, such as social class, race, and age at first marriage (Bumpass, Martin, & Sweet, 1991; White, 1991). Psychological research, in contrast, has focused on dimensions of marital interaction, such as conflict management (Gottman, 1994), or on person- ality characteristics, such as antisocial behavior or chronic negative affect (Leonard & Roberts, 1998). One limitation of these approaches is that nei- ther considers the individual's perceptions about why the divorce oc- curred. Indeed, when explaining what caused their marriages to end, peo- ple appear to give relatively little credence to widely studied factors such as age at marriage or conflict resolution skills. In this article, we use a third approach to studying divorce—one that considers the subjective accounts of recently divorced individuals. Examining the accounts of divorced indi- viduals provides a useful complement to more objective methods and is necessary for a full understanding of the divorce process. This approach to
Article
We used national panel data collected between 1980 and 1997 to classify 208 people's open-ended responses to a question on why their marriages ended in divorce. Infidelity was the most commonly reported cause, followed by incompatibility, drinking or drug use, and growing apart. People's specific reasons for divorcing varied with gender, social class, and life course variables. Former husbands and wives were more likely to blame their ex-spouses than themselves for the problems that led to the divorce. Former husbands and wives claimed, however, that women were more likely to have initiated the divorce. People who attributed the cause of the divorce to the relationship itself, rather than to internal (self) or external factors, tended to have the best postdivorce adjustment.
Article
Traeen, B. & Thuen, F. (2012). Relationship problems and extradyadic romantic and sexual activity in a web-sample of Norwegian men and women. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. The purpose of this paper is to describe the prevalence of self-reported types of extradyadic romantic and sexual activity among adult Norwegians and to explore the role of infidelity in breaking up a permanent relationship. The results are based on 1,001 web interviews with persons ranging in age from 18 to 67 years. The majority of respondents reported having engaged in some kind of extradyadic romantic and/or sexual activity. Forty-five percent of the women and 39% of the men claimed they had experienced a previous breakup from a marriage or cohabiting relationship. Among those aged 50 years or older, the most important reasons for breaking up a previous relationship were infidelity (38%) and lost love (38%). More men (44%) than women (33%) reported infidelity. Respondents younger than 50 years were more motivated by boredom. Among respondents below the age of 50 years, the most frequently reported reasons for considering termination of a present relationship were quarreling (37%), poor sex life (29%), and "other" reasons (25%). Accordingly, infidelity was not identified as an essential factor for considering a breakup from the present relationship.
Article
This chapter provides national estimates of the prevalence and characteristics of adolescent romantic relationships using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). The study addresses a number of questions critical to models of adolescent development. The authors review studies concerning the romantic relationships of adolescents, and additionally review studies that consider romantic relationships among adults and friendship among adolescents. Based on this review, they posit expectations for how relationship qualities vary by the sex, age, and race of adolescents. They note, however, that because studies typically focus on Whites, expectations about racial differences are limited. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Evaluated reactions to the recent ending of a close relationship among 25 female and 15 male undergraduates (aged 20–33 yrs) who had in the last 8 mo terminated an exclusive, close, heterosexual relationship that had been maintained for at least 6 mo. Ss completed a questionnaire regarding their relationship break-up, reactions to the loss, themselves, and the ended relationship. Women were more likely than were men to confide in good friends to recover. Men were more likely to quickly begin dating others as a means of recovery. To the extent that Ss felt the relationship was psychologically over they felt better about the relationship ending. The more complete the Ss' accounts about why the relationship ended, the more they felt that the relationships were over and that they had control over their recovery processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
A 27-item checklist of reasons for divorce was administered to 207 men (aged 23–78 yrs) and 230 women (aged 21–68 yrs) divorcing in the mid-1980s. Factor analysis revealed 9 dimensions underlying the checklist responses. The most frequently cited factors were unmet emotional needs/growing apart, lifestyle differences or boredom with the marriage, and high-conflict demeaning relationships. Statistically significant sex, age, and socioeconomic differences were found. Correlates between the factors and individual psychological functioning, parental functioning, and the emotional ambiance of the divorce reflected diversity among the divorcing population and implications for legal and mental health practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
A primary goal of scale development is to create a valid measure of an underlying construct. We discuss theoretical principles, practical issues, and pragmatic decisions to help developers maximize the construct validity of scales and subscales. First, it is essential to begin with a clear conceptualization of the target construct. Moreover, the content of the initial item pool should be overinclusive and item wording needs careful attention. Next, the item pool should be tested, along with variables that assess closely related constructs, on a heterogeneous sample representing the entire range of the target population. Finally, in selecting scale items, the goal is unidimensionality rather than internal consistency; this means that virtually all interitem correlations should be moderate in magnitude. Factor analysis can play a crucial role in ensuring the unidimensionality and discriminant validity of scales. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)