No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Measuring Global Leader Intercultural Competency: Development and Validation of the Global Competencies Inventory (GCI)
... In 50 cases, the researchers conducted a factor analysis to evaluate and adjust the dimensions (in 24 instruments) and/ or to assess and refine the measurement items (in 37 instruments). On average, researchers used 39 items per instrumentranging between six (Hobman et al., 2004) and 160 items (Stevens et al., 2014). ...
... Tests of pre-and post-training and improvement in CCC pre-and post-international assignment (e.g., Raver & Van Dyne, 2017;Varela, 2017) are of particular relevance in this respect. An example of such a study is that of Furuya et al. (2009) who found that the GCI (Stevens et al., 2014) predicted better job performance abroad and upon repatriation and documented increases in general global managerial competence. Moreover, tests may refer to outcomes such as the ability to adjust and perform well when working in an international context. ...
... Likewise, we advise testing the measures' invariance across different languages and cultures. To date, few instruments are tested statistically for measurement invariance across countries or cultural clusters (e.g., Ang et al., 2007;Stevens et al., 2014;Thomas et al., 2015). In addition, some studies have reported that the instruments function differently in different cultures (e.g., Survey of Global Business Experience by Tucker et al., 2014). ...
We provide a comprehensive review of how cross-cultural competence (CCC) has been measured over the past half-century in order to more closely align theoretical constructs and empirical measures. Based on a content analysis of 68 academic and commercial CCC instruments and a supplemental survey of 160 experts, we review the approaches used in these instruments to conceptualize and quantify CCC, discuss their limitations, and recommend best practices and directions for future researchers and practitioners when selecting and using CCC instruments or developing new alternatives.
... In this panel, we acknowledge that this exclusiveness has helped us develop maturity as a field, with a strong body of theory and empirical work (Stevens, Bird, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 2014). It has honed and sharpened the concept of Intercultural Competences. ...
... More and more businessesand indeed business schoolsrecognize and emphasize the importance of being able to work effectively with people from diverse geographic, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds (Bird, Oddou, & Bond, 2020). "Intercultural Competences" is the appropriate and effective management of interaction between people who, to some degree or another, represent different or divergent affective, cognitive, and behavioral orientations to the world (Bird & Mendenhall, 2016;Stevens et al., 2014). This panel segment will categorize the approaches to developing Intercultural Competences and delineate the underlying framework for competency development, as well as address contextual considerations that influence competency acquisition. ...
Researchers have been studying the effectiveness of people working across borders for decades, through many different disciplinary lenses. In management research, Intercultural Competence (ICC) developed mainly by theorizing about and studying a narrow set of cross-boundary interactions: professionals working outside their home country. Increasingly, individuals work in new countries for reasons other than professional expatriation, and they work across cultural boundaries even without working internationally. Simultaneously, individuals themselves are becoming increasingly multicultural. These conditions have arisen in tandem with the challenges and opportunities facing the world today, from technological advances and interconnectedness to social inequity and fragmentation. This symposium confronts our assumptions about the context of ICC research, linking it more closely to Diversity and Inclusion research and research on multicultural societies. It encourages us to expand our horizons both to enrich the field and increase our positive impact.
... According to Caliguiri (2012) and Stevens et al. (2014), the Big Five personality test is frequently used as the very first step to measure an individual´s degree of 1) extroversion, 2) agreeableness and ability to form good and durable interpersonal relationships with culturally different others, and 3) conscientiousness including perseverance, self-discipline, maturity and resourcefulness in exploring options and risks and making the best possible decisions and the most effective completion of task-related goals. 4) Emotional strength and ability to cope with challenging and frustrating situations and 5) openness to experience are expected to predispose people to be both comfortable and satisfied when working in different cultures and receptive to new and different ways of doing things. ...
... Those who have a personality profile that make them open to Cultural Others and resilient to cultural challenges will then have to deal actively with managing their perceptions, their relationships and their emotions, when going through cultural learning processes and thereby developing a so called 'global leader intercultural competency' (Stevens et al. 2014): ...
Globalization with increased mobility of the workforce and more frequent use of information and communication technologies means still more people must develop a deeper understanding of Cultural Others, a higher degree of cultural self-awareness and an ability to bridge across multiple cultural divides. This chapter discusses a number of issues in relation to cultural learning processes in global business contexts: various concepts of learning, different approaches to cross-cultural competence training of future global leaders, and various learning contexts in management education and training. Learners in today’s global business (school) world are more culturally diverse, and the potential of the increasing number of bi-cultural and bi-lingual students and managers as boundary-spanners must be considered. Recent empirical studies of face-to-face and virtual global collaboration show that cross-cultural encounters may not only trigger existing values and cognitive patterns, but also create motivation to find new ways to cope with challenging situations. Through storytelling the actors involved may create a deeper understanding of the specific socio-cultural context, but a teacher or coach is needed to facilitate a learning process that transforms emotionally laden experiences into learning through conceptualization, active experimentation and reflective observation.
... Being able to adapt socially and with different social environment and understanding the people and the organization's culture will allow leaders to influence and lead organizational community effectively. Situational approach encompasses of leaders being able to apply various positive leadership style that works well in situations or scenarios with different cultural values or attitudes of people accordingly [21]. ...
The dynamics of diversity and cultural competency are elements that run
parallel with globalization. Appreciating diversity is part of global leadership
competency. However, this assumption may not hold in a context in which
multiculturalism diversity and competency are not an integral element for
leadership competency for public sector educational leaders. Public
organization should assimilate and practice appreciating diversity in the
organizational leadership competency. Thus, the central aim of this study is to
investigate and examine the appreciating diversity competency for
educational leaders. The paper analyzed the appreciating competencies by
using interpretive structural modelling (ISM) based on experts’ consensus.
The cross-impact matrix multiplication applied to classification (MICMAC)
analysis ascertained and classified each competency based on their driving
and dependent power. The hierarchical model developed through ISM yielded
seven appreciating competencies divided into two dimensions for educational
leaders. The model proposed could be adopted by stakeholders to upgrade the
competency of educational leaders to practice and apply appreciating
diversity. The ISM model could be adopted for the training and development
of future educational leaders in preparation to administer and lead
multicultural and multigenerational organizational communities.
... Specifically, the intercultural communication competence approach was a multidimensional construct to guide the analysis of community college advisors' experiences interacting with international students. The assessment of the cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions of academic advisors' intercultural communication competence provides essential information on their knowledge, attitudes, motivation, and skills in working with international students and suggests implications for practice, policy, and future research (Stevens, Bird, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 2014). ...
2022 International Conference on Multidisciplinary Research (MyRes)
8-9 December 2022, The Ravenala Attitude Hotel, Balaclava, Mauritius
... This paper makes some contributions to the extant research in the field. It advances the cooperative endeavor to quantify global competence across varying contexts through specific psychometric tools (for instance, (Morais & Ogden, 2011;Stevens, Bird, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 2014)) extending the literature to the Central Asian population. ...
Global competence is supposed to possess a transformative capacity allowing for building bridges across cultural diversity to foster international cooperation. Literature searches indicate the paucity of robust tools evaluating global competence. This research strove to adapt and validate a measure for the assessment of students’ global competence in Kazakhstan. For this purpose, the Global Competence Scale was chosen. A total of 467 graduate and undergraduate educational psychology students responded to the adapted scale. Based on the scores collected, the instrument was examined using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Good reliability was yielded (Cronbach’s alpha for the factors ranging from 0.722 to 0.924) and the original nine-factor structure was replicated and accounted for 61.84 % of the total variance. The model fit indices met the criteria set a priori. The Kazakh version of the Global Competence Scale was unprecedented and proved to be a reliable and valid tool for gauging the construct. In contrast to the original study, surveyees with international experience reported no superior scores relative to non-experienced counterparts. Holistically, findings suggest the respondents should work on their global competence, in particular with regard to international academic knowledge and communication. Further validation of the scale with larger sample sizes to increase its generalizability and use is encouraged.
... Specifically, the intercultural communication competence approach was a multidimensional construct to guide the analysis of community college advisors' experiences interacting with international students. The assessment of the cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions of academic advisors' intercultural communication competence provides essential information on their knowledge, attitudes, motivation, and skills in working with international students and suggests implications for practice, policy, and future research (Stevens, Bird, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 2014). ...
This research paper aims to reflect on the strategies used by ten academic advisors to deal with intercultural conflicts. These strategies include being respectful, demonstrating patience and empathy toward international students, creating rapport to foster mutual understanding, and fostering a positive attitude toward other cultures. This paper also analyzes conflicts emerging from cultural differences and language barriers between international students and advisors by considering a qualitative social research approach, which includes interviews and thematic analysis as data collection and interpretation methods. In addition, this paper provides essential information about how international students' poor understanding of the educational system can lead to potential conflicts with advisors. Advisors apply strategies to overcome challenges derived from miscommunications in multicultural educational contexts, like providing emotional support and offering information about the university. Moreover, advisors participating in this study explain how important it is to get training to deal with challenges in advising international studies. Therefore, the primary contribution of this paper to educational and social science research is to propose interculturality and intercultural communication as concepts and pedagogical tools to promote a mutual understanding between advisors and educational students that enhance learning and teaching initiatives within universities. Furthermore, introducing interculturality in the education advising process allows respect for cultural differences between teachers, professors, and students, resulting in more inclusive learning and teaching initiatives.
... Dalakoura (2010) elaborated that Leadership development could be thought of as an integrated strategy to help the persons learn how to realize themselves from within as they operationalize the strategy to eff ectively cope with the changing organization, society, environment, and marketplace. Stevens, Bird, Mendenhall & Oddou (2014) and Marques (2010) further added that holistic development was an essential part of Leadership Development, it should be ongoing and embedded in the organizational culture, daily leadership practice, senior executive's involvement, and human resource system. ...
This research is a research and development study, aiming at examining the gaps between current & expected situations, exploring common insights on Leadership development, and proposing a Leadership development model. The research site is in Thailand, involving six private-higher education institutions/universities. The participants in this study consisted of full-time faculty members and staff, totaling 101 people, and full-time Deans, totaling 25 people. Research instruments included a needs assessment questionnaire and an appreciative inquiry interview. Data treatments and validity included descriptive statistics; priority needs index, contents analysis, and field experts' reviews. The quantitative findings in term of the ranking indicated that human resource management was ranked the first-order need, followed by risk management which was ranked the second-order need, then brand management which was ranked the third-order need, then change management which was ranked the fourth-order need, and lastly, strategic management which was ranked the fifth-order need. The quantitative results implied that there was the gap in the experience of the fellows of the Deans who are faculty members and staff. The largest gap between the current and expected situation was in the area of human resource management and risk management. The overall quantitative results are congruent with the qualitative findings of the appreciative inquiry interviews with 25 Deans, revealing that three attributes that commonly contributed to the Leadership Development Model are: people development, organization culture management, and whole-systems management and development. These attributes are highly valued and commonly patterned as an integrative model of the practicing and enabling systems of the Leadership where each attribute interdependently bolsters one another.
... For example, McCall and Hollenbeck's (2002) research revealed a greater role of significant others and cultural experiences in global leaders' development. Simultaneously, while global leadership development programs are diverse, all target cognitive, affective, and behavioral levels for a comprehensive integration of a highly intricate set of skills, usually have some type of cross-cultural interaction and often include global relocation assignments, and require mastery of unique global leadership competencies (e.g., intercultural competence, global mindset) Osland, Bird, Mendenhall, & Osland, 2006;Stevens, Bird, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 2014). ...
For the past several decades, the field of global leadership has made noteworthy theoretical and empirical progress. The role of a global follower, however, has not been addressed to date. This chapter focuses on global followers and global followership as vital elements of a global leadership process supporting a traditional followership view that 'leadership can only occur if there is followership' (Uhl-Bien, Riggio, Lowe, & Carsten, 2014, p. 83). Two assumptions ground the arguments: global leaders and global followers are engaged in a partnering process of global leadership, and followers and global followers have distinctive characteristics influenced by their specific environments. To explore those assumptions, we start by introducing the followership theory and relevant followership characteristics. Subsequently, we address the role of context in global leader-follower dynamics, extrapolate global followership characteristics from relevant multidisciplinary literature, and offer an example of a global leader-follower partnership. Next, we examine mentions of global followers and global followership in academic and nonacademic literature, and define a global followership construct. The conceptual framework, global followership model, research agenda, and practical implications conclude the manuscript.
... This instrument measures predispositions and/or developed skills for working across cultures as global leaders (Bird et al., 2010). The Global Competency Inventory (Stevens, Bird, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 2014) was developed with a multicultural sample that was fairly balanced in terms of gender (44% female; 56% male). Tests of differential validity with a sample of 40,000 people of various ages, cultures, education, and occupational levels found no significant gender differences. ...
Whereas most societal commentators continue to review the historical patterns of men's leadership in search of models for 21st-century success, few have begun to recognize, let alone appreciate, the equivalent patterns of women's leadership and the future contributions that women could potentially make as leaders. What could and are women bringing to society as global leaders? Why at this moment in history is there such a marked increase in the number of women leaders? Are we entering an era in which both male and female leaders will shape history, both symbolically and in reality? And if so, will we discover that women, on average, lead in different ways than men, or will we learn that role (global leader) explains more than gender? This chapter reveals the accelerating trends of women joining men in senior leadership positions, establishes the relationship of women leaders to our overall understanding of global leadership, and sets forth an agenda to accomplish much needed research and understanding.
... Assessing the degree of intercultural competence is now a necessity for personnel recruitment, development, and retention, resulting in multiple tools for measurement (Leung, Ang, & Tan, 2014 ). Some of the most well-known measurement instruments include the global mind-set inventory (GMI) (Javidan & Teagarden, 2011), global leadership online (GLO) (Gundling, Hogan, & Cvitkovich, 2011), the global competencies inventory (GCI) (Stevens, Bird, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 2014), the cultural intelligence scale (CQS) (Early & Ang, 2003), the global executive leadership inventory (GELI) (Kets de Vries, Vrignaud, & Florent-Treacy, 2004), and the intercultural development inventory (IDI) (Hammer, Bennett, & Wiseman 2003). These constructs and their instruments, 1 2 which seem to be in competition, can, and probably should, be used in a complementary fashion for assessment purposes since they arise from different disciplines such as psychology and management and cover different content domains such as intercultural traits, intercultural attitudes, and worldviews (Leung et al., 2014 ). ...
Cultural intelligence (CI) has often been linked to performance at the individual, team, and firm levels as a key factor in international business success. Using a new measure of CI, the business cultural intelligence quotient (BCIQ), our study provides empirical evidence on several key antecedents of CI using data on business professionals across five diverse countries (Austria, Colombia, Greece, Spain, and the United States). The findings suggest that the most important factors leading to cultural intelligence, in order of importance, are the number of countries that business practitioners have lived in for more than six months, their level of education, and the number of languages spoken. We find that cultural intelligence varies across countries, suggesting that some countries have a higher propensity for cross-cultural business interactions. By teasing out the common antecedents of BCIQ among professionals, our findings may help with screening and training professionals for international assignments. Future research may examine the environmental (country-specific) factors associated with a higher propensity for cultural intelligence (such as immigration, cultural diversity, languages spoken, and international trade) to explain the effect of country of origin on cultural intelligence in the professional community.
Early research on cultural competence laid the groundwork for the development of the cultural intelligence construct. First, the early sojourner research began with a search for an overseas type, but ultimately shifted the focus to the identification of a dynamic set of skills and abilities. Next, models of cross-cultural effectiveness provided the identification of important elements that have influenced the conceptualization of cultural intelligence. Components models identified numerous factors potentially related to intercultural effectiveness, including some that anticipated the higher order cognitive skills associated with cultural intelligence. Coping and adjustment models presented cross-cultural skills in terms of broad skills dimensions, while also considering the effect of contextual factors. Developmental and learning models highlighted the importance of intercultural experience in the development of intercultural competence, which is reflected in the development of cultural intelligence. Despite the production of numerous instruments designed to tap into the construct of cross-cultural competence or related ideas, no truly satisfactory measure gained widespread acceptance. In this chapter, we review the theoretical development of cross-cultural competence and summarize seven of the most popular measures of this construct.
Senior managers in emerging markets often strive to ensure that their companies develop sufficient capabilities to confront the needs they encounter in international markets. However, extant research and practice remain unclear as to how senior managers in emerging market companies can approach assessing the needs of their international markets against their own company's capabilities, to aim for a balance between both. This article offers an innovative approach for assessing the needs of international markets against an emerging market company's capabilities. Based on the assessments of 100 senior managers leading emerging market companies, we explain how this approach can provide two key insights. First, evidence of a balance between the needs of international markets and an emerging market company's capabilities, that indicates the company's competitive position is focused; or evidence of an imbalance between the needs of international markets and an emerging market company's capabilities, that indicates the company's competitive position is either vulnerable or overqualified. Second, an understanding of where the gaps between the needs of international markets and an emerging market company's capabilities are, that enables improving the company's competitive position by closing these gaps. Drawing on this approach, we offer an open access tool that allows senior managers in emerging markets to identify and improve their own company's competitive position for internationalization. Using this tool, senior managers can lead their emerging market companies toward a focused competitive position in international markets, providing better chances of successfully capturing potential benefits.
Globalization has created an accelerated demand for globally competent managers, yet the gap between this demand and the supply of globally oriented, competent graduates is growing. As a result, the mandate for effectively internationalizing business school curriculum is increasing. Yet, given the costly structures required to provide international education opportunities, institutions need to know that those opportunities are positively influencing students learning and skill development. This article tells the story of one school’s comprehensive program that incorporates learner-centered measurement and development with institutional assessment of intercultural effectiveness. We offer a program model and lessons learned for other institutions interested in implementing similar programs.
Despite the need for effective global leaders on the part of business (McKinsey, 2012) and the growing body of empirical research related to the topic of global leadership (Osland, 2013a), very little is known about what global leaders actually do. How do they spend their time? In what kinds of activities are they involved? How do they communicate, coordinate, make decisions, and lead? How is their work similar to or different from that of domestic leaders? In this chapter, we respond to these questions by exploring the nature of global leaders’ work using an approach similar to Mintzberg (1973) in his classic book, The Nature of Managerial Work. We observed five global leaders from five different industries, each for 1 week, and compared our results with Mintzberg’s (1973). In addition, we conducted informal interviews and collected archival data. We content-analyzed the data using the conventions of grounded theory and identified 10 distinguishing characteristics of global leaders’ work. It is characterized by (1) multiple time zones and geographical distance; (2) long hours; (3) flexible schedules and fluid time; (4) dependence on technology; (5) time alone connected to others; (6) extensive travel; (7) functional expertise with global scope; (8) facilitation of information, advice, and action; (9) management of complexity; and (10) confrontation of risk. We conclude by discussing implications for future global leadership research.
Biographical notes: Martha Maznevski is Professor of Organisational Behaviour and International Management at the Institute for Management Development (IMD) in Lausanne, Switzerland. She directs the MBA programme, recognised among the top programmes in the world for developing global leaders. Her research focuses on high-performing global teams, and leading people in global complexity. She has published many articles and books about cross-cultural effectiveness, global leadership, teams, and other international management topics. Her teaching spans a broad range of international organisational behaviour themes, and she has worked on all continents addressing challenges and opportunities of managing people globally. organisations; responsible leadership and corporate social responsibility; talent management; and the socio-cultural processes in teams, alliances, mergers and acquisitions, and how to manage people and culture effectively in those contexts.
The Big Five Inventory (BFI) is a self-report measure designed to assess the high-order personality traits of Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness. As part of the International Sexuality Description Project, the BFI was translated from English into 28 languages and administered to 17,837 individuals from 56 nations. The resulting cross-cultural data set was used to address three main questions: Does the factor structure of the English BFI fully replicate across cultures? How valid are the BFI trait profiles of individual nations? And how are personality traits distributed throughout the world? The five-dimensional structure was robust across major regions of the world. Trait levels were related in predictable ways to self-esteem, sociosexuality, and national personality profiles. People from the geographic regions of South America and East Asia were significantly different in open- ness from those inhabiting other world regions. The discussion focuses on limitations of the current data set and important directions for future research.
This study explores the relationship between interpersonal and social behaviors and patterns of success and failure in cross-cultural adaptation. Seven interpersonal communication skills often mentioned as being important to cross-cultural adaptation were studied: empathy, respect, role behavior flexibility, orientation to knowledge, interaction posture, interaction management and tolerance for ambiguity. For each dimension, behavioral observation indices were developed. Following a week-long predeparture training program, behavioral assessments were made on these dimensions for each person in a group of technical advisors and spouses assigned to two-year postings in Kenya. One year later, an in-the-field follow up study was conducted to assess shock dynamics, psychological adjustment, and vocational and interactional effectiveness of these individuals. Comparisons of pre and post-test measures indicated that each of the focal dimensions predicted patterns of success and failure in adaptation with varying degrees of adequacy. These results and implications for further research, and cross-cultural training and selection, are explored in the final section of the article.
The purpose of this paper is to describe the design of Global Leadership Life Inventory (GlobeInvent), a 360-degree leadership feedback instrument. This instrument is presently used in executive programmes to help identify the operational mode of individual executives. Proper use of this instrument enables the user to determinate those areas of leadership behaviour where improvement is needed. Because most studies pay attention only to the surface manifestations of leadership, most leadership feedback instruments, in turn, are not concerned with the psychodynamic processes that underlie leaders' character and behaviour. To address this gap, the GlobeInvent is based on a clinical orientation to the study of leadership. This approach provides a more complete analysis of the 'inner theatre' of leaders - that is, what makes them tick - as well as measuring the dynamic, two-way relationship between leaders and followers. The first step in designing the instrument was to pinpoint significant themes pertaining to exemplary leadership. To that end, semi-structured interviews with senior executives were held. The leadership dimensions that emerged from that process were then tested on an international sample of senior executives. Analysis of the data from the testing confirmed the existence of twelve robust dimensions with a high reliability and internal consistency. Because the GlobeInvent is a 360-degree feedback instrument, this article addresses differences between 'Self' scores and scores given by others ('Observers'), gender differences in scoring and the influence of nationality, management experience and age on test results. The implications of using such an instrument as a 360-degree feedback tool are reviewed, and suggestions for future research are offered.
Research on global leadership, expatriate adjustment and performance, and adaptive performance suggests that tolerance for ambiguity is positively related to performance in the global work environment and in cross-cultural settings. A critique of existing measures of the construct of tolerance for ambiguity is presented, followed by a report of the development of a new measure of tolerance for ambiguity—the Tolerance for Ambiguity Scale (TAS). Findings demonstrate improved factor structure and internal consistency for the TAS compared to the measure of tolerance for ambiguity that is most commonly reported in the extant literature. Utility of the scale is discussed in terms of future research directions as well as implementation in practice.
The relationship between impression management and cross-cultural adaptation was assessed. A sample of 112 individuals, 35 employees of a U.S.-based corporation and 77 undergraduate students, completed a packet of questionnaires containing M. Snyder's (1974) Self-Monitoring Scale, the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (D. L. Paulhus, 1988), the Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (J. Meyers & C. Kelley, 1992), and the Cross-Cultural Interaction Inventory (T M. Yellen & S. J. Mumford, 1975). The individuals' scores on two impression management measures (the Self-Monitoring Scale and the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding) were found to be significantly correlated with responses on two cross-cultural adaptability measures (the Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory and the Cross-Cultural Interaction Inventory). The results suggest that impression management tendencies may be related to the ability to adapt cross-culturally.
Expatriate adjustment has been a prominent theme in international management research; nevertheless, the mechanisms of adjustment have rarely been investigated. This article addresses the issue by introducing a conceptual framework that integrates the theoretical notion of adjustment `modes' used in expatriation research with empirical descriptions of adjustment behaviours from the literature on intercultural management. The article further reports on a qualitative, in-depth study of German expatriates in the People's Republic of China. Participants detailed the differences they perceived in the new environment, as well as ways of adjusting to them. These included changes of expatriates' norms of interaction, the implemention of new working methods in the Chinese workplace, and the acquisition of new living habits. Perceived environmental conditions and adjustment behaviours were contingent a number of factors, such as education and job level of Chinese colleagues. Conclusions are drawn and implications for organizational practice and future research are made.
This article meta-analytically reviews empirical studies on the prediction of expatriate job performance.
Using 30 primary studies (totalN= 4,046), itwas found that predictive validities of the Big Five were similar
to Big Five validities reported for domestic employees. Extraversion,emotional stability, agreeableness, and
conscientiousness were predictive of expatriate job performance; openness was not. Other predictors that
were found to relate to expatriate job performance were cultural sensitivity and local language ability. Cultural
flexibility, selection board ratings, tolerance for ambiguity, ego strength, peer nominations, task leadership,
people leadership, social adaptability, and interpersonal interest emerged as predictors from exploratory
investigations (K < 4). It is surprising that intelligence has seldom been investigated as a predictor of
expatriate job performance.
A review of empirical studies that directly investigated the overseas adjustment of expatriate managers revealed four dimensions that were related to successful expatriate acculturation: (1) the "self-oriented" dimension; (2) the "others-oriented" dimension; (3) the "perceptual" dimension; and (4) the "cultural-toughness" dimension. The study's implications for expatriate selection and training procedures in multinational corporations are discussed.
Purpose
From the competency point of view, this article aims to review and discuss existing global leadership and other related literature, and to combine findings and suggestions provided in previous literature in a more integrative framework of global leadership competencies.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper reviews and discusses the terminology used in the international global leadership literature. This is followed by a review of the main outcomes of previous research. Finally an attempt is made to combine these outcomes into a more integrative framework of global leadership competencies, offering suggestions for further research.
Findings
This paper provides information about previous research, integrating earlier findings into a more comprehensive framework of global competencies. It also discusses deficiencies in use of terminology and research methods used in earlier studies giving suggestions for further research.
Research limitations/implications
The references used for this review are not an exhaustive list and majority of them are drawn from American journals publishing within the topic area. Relevant sources of information may also exist in other domains of scientific inquiry.
Practical implications
The framework provided in this paper incorporates main findings of previous research and, as such, it may serve as a starting point for practitioners in planning of different selection, training, and career development activities, and for academics in starting their research.
Originality/value
This paper fulfils an identified information/resource need.
Primarily because of the significant rate and costs of failed international assignments, the attention paid by scholars to the topic of international adjustment has increased recently. Unfortunately, most of the work has been without substantial theoretical grounding. In an effort to move toward a theoretical framework for guiding future research, this article integrates theoretical and empirical work of both the international and the domestic adjustment literatures. This integration provides a more comprehensive framework than might be obtained from either of the literatures alone.
Purpose
Research on expatriation and global leadership has been characterized by wide variations in defining what constitutes intercultural competence. Greater progress can be achieved if a comprehensive definition of the intercultural competence domain can be established, particularly with regard to the specific context of global leadership. This paper aims to focus on the issues.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors conduct an extensive review of the global leadership and expatriation literatures, integrating and synthesizing prior theoretical and empirical efforts to develop a comprehensive domain definition for intercultural competence in the context of global leadership.
Findings
The domain of intercultural competence in the context of global leadership comprised three dimensions – perception management, relationship management and self management. Each dimension is characterized by facets that further delineate aspects of intercultural competence.
Research limitations/implications
The domain definition of intercultural competence for global leadership appears to be well supported in prior theoretical and empirical work focusing on expatriation and global leadership; however that work was fragmented in nature. A test of the comprehensive model, i.e. all three dimensions and 17 facets, is called for, as well as the validation of an instrument that measures them.
Originality/value
The paper integrates and synthesizes the extensive body of theoretical and empirical work related to intercultural competence and clearly establishes the content domain, thereby enhancing the efficacy of future theoretical and empirical efforts.
Integrating work on international assignments and domestic stress, we conducted meta-analyses of over 50 determinants and consequences of expatriate adjustment using data from 8,474 expatriates in 66 studies. We also examined the trajectory of adjustment over time, and time as a moderator of adjustment effects. Results emphasize the centrality, criticality, and complexity of adjustment, strongly supporting Black, Mendenhall, and Oddou's (1991) model. Structural modeling of proposed model extensions showed that adjustment uniquely affects job satisfaction, withdrawal cognitions, and performance.
This paper presents a model of second language acquisition based on the social-psychology of acculturation. The model maintains that certain social and psychological variables cluster into a single variable, acculturation. The model predicts that learners will acquire the target language to the degree they acculturate to the target language group. Six studies that, in various, ways seek to test the Acculturation Model are reviewed and evaluated. Technical problems that affect such research are discussed, and the current status of the model is assessed.
The development of testing in psychology is undoubtedly one of the greatest contributions that psychology has accomplished as a discipline. Psychology has evolved as one of the most useful disciplines in a large variety of institutions in our society (clinical and counseling settings, industry, medicine, and the schools) primarily because of its model of diagnosis and treatment (Anastasi, 1979), according to which treatments are applied largely on the basis of assessments made about the current functioning of an individual, a group, or an organization. Assessments of many different kinds can be made, and it is probably safe to report that, if one can imagine every possible human characteristic, behavior, thought pattern, or tendency, some psychologist has attempted to measure it.
Presents an integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment. This theory states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that expectations of personal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences. Persistence in activities that are subjectively threatening but in fact relatively safe produces, through experiences of mastery, further enhancement of self-efficacy and corresponding reductions in defensive behavior. In the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from 4 principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. Factors influencing the cognitive processing of efficacy information arise from enactive, vicarious, exhortative, and emotive sources. The differential power of diverse therapeutic procedures is analyzed in terms of the postulated cognitive mechanism of operation. Findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive modes of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes. (21/2 p ref)
Culture plays a major role in the success of expatriate managers. If companies can identify the crucial cultural variables associated with success, they will be able to select and train expatriate managers more effectively and increase the success of their expatriation process. In this article, we argue that conscious cultural self-knowledge is a crucial variable in adapting to other cultures; yet the development of self-knowledge is typically not part of expatriate training. The article analyses and synthesises research and theories from the literature and presents an integrated four-stage plan for preparing expatriates, using cultural self-knowledge to improve the success of cultural adaptation. The discussion demonstrates the impact of self-knowledge on business behaviour and advances eight propositions about specific cultural variables and how they relate to expatriate behaviour. The focus is on be role of be individual, the importance of hierarchy, the importance of context in communication, and attitudes towards time and change. The article closes with discussing four stages in the expatriation process. In stage 1, potential expatriates are screened for personality characteristics that have been identified in the literature as contributing to expatriate success. In stage 2, expatriates focus on developing a conscious self-awareness including their preferences, likes, and dislikes. During stage 3, potential expatriates study the other culture and their reaction to it. In this process they are developing a cognitive map of their own and the other behaviours. In the final stage, expatriates explore adaptation possibilities and strategies.
In this chapter we examine an assumption in the literature on international assignments, the belief in a direct positive relationship between the adjustment of expatriates and their performance. We first outline the historical basis for the overwhelming focus on adjustment. We then review the literature on the conceptualization and measurement of both adjustment and performance and on the adjustment–performance relationship. Finally, we reflect on the state of knowledge of this relationship and discuss implications for future research.
Applying the evolutionary theory of personality, this study proposed and tested the hypotheses that each of the Big Five personality characteristics (Extroversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness or Intellect) predict two criteria of expatriate success: (a) desire to prematurely terminate the expatriate assignment, and (b) supervisor-rated performance on the expatriate assignment. The participants were 143 expatriate employees (and 94 supervisors) from a U.S.-based information technology company. Results from correlation and regression analyses suggest that Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Emotional Stability are negatively related to whether expatriates desire to terminate their assignment. Conscientiousness is positively related to the supervisor-rated performance on the expatriate assignment. Practical implications for expatriate management (e.g., self-selection) are given.
This chapter presents reanalyses of data originally reported in McCrae (2001) in an enlarged sample of cultures. Analyses of age and gender differences, the generalizability of culture profiles across gender and age groups, and culture-level factor structure and correlates are replicated after the addition of 30 new subsamples from 10 cultures. Cross-cultural variations in the standard deviations of NEO-PI-R scales are also examined. Standardized factor- and facet-level means are provided for use by other researchers.
As developing excellent global leaders should be an urgent priority of companies in the global business world, there has been considerable research in this area. Despite this, there is limited research on the systematic global leadership competency structure reflecting both on its levels and dimensions and on specific competencies. The purpose of this article is to create a theory-based integrative framework that can be used to identify the competencies comprising global leadership. To accomplish this purpose, an integrative literature review was employed on competency theory and global leadership, resulting in the development of an integrative framework for global leadership competency. The framework, with three levels and four dimensions, established in this article contributes to corporations in providing a means of developing company-specific models of global leadership competency. Also discussed are implications for future human resource development research and theory building.
The critical period hypothesis has been viewed in recent second language research as a biological or developmental phenomenon which explains the inability of learners to acquire certain aspects of a second language beyond a certain age. It is hypothesized here that such explanations are limited, and that sociocultural factors more successfully define a critical period. Research in four related areas-stages of acculturation, anomie, social distance, and perceived social distance-helps to define a socioculturally determined critical period for successful second language acquisition. This understanding of the critical period hypothesis is termed the optimal distance model of second language acquisition. Implications for teaching and further research are discussed.
This study was designed to validate Gouldner's (1957, 1958) definition of the cosmopolitan-local construct using the same research techniques he employed: cumulative scaling and factor analysis. Faculty (N=813) from Pennsylvania's 14 state-owned colleges and universities completed a questionnaire measuring degree of professional orientation. Two of the three cumulative scales that provided the theoretical underpinnings for the cosmopolitan-local construct--commitment to specialized skills and loyalty to organization--were reproduced and cross-tabulated to form a four-fold latent social role typology. It was found that Gouldner's (1957) intermediate category contained two separate role types rather than one. A factor analysis of the questionnaire yielded an approximation of five of Gouldner's (1958) six dimensions. A reanalysis of the data without the constraints imposed by replication produced six factors, the most stable of which measured rule tropism--a concept that for some issues possesses more explanatory power than does the cosmopolitan-local construct. The authors conclude that the differences between factor analysis and scale analysis may help to explain the differences in the number of dimensions which comprise the cosmopolitan-local construct.
This study was designed to investigate the relationships between the dimensions and components of intercultural communication competence. In this study, 149 international students and 129 American people were used as respondents. Significant relationships were predicted. Results from correlation and canonical analyses showed that the two hypotheses were supported. Limitations and directions for future research were also discussed.
Based on a study of 409 expatriates on assignment to 51 countries around the world, this study examines: (1) Expatriates' perceptions of the importance of international assignments to their overall career development; (2) the modes of acculturation in interacting with host country nationals; (3) the mechanisms used to cope with stress abroad; (4) attributes that facilitate interaction abroad; and (5) the relationship between performance and country difficulty. The study yielded some new trends in expatriate assignments.
Much research in second language acquisition (SLA) centres on the relationships among individual difference measures such as language attitudes, motivation, anxiety, self‐confidence, language aptitude, learning strategies, field independence, and measures of achievement in the language. Numerous studies have supported the proposed influences of these individual difference variables on achievement, and a number of models have been developed to explain the relationships among subsets of these variables. However, there is a lack of research examining the relationships among all these variables simultaneously. In the present study, we investigate a large number of individual difference measures to determine their underlying dimensions, to contrast their predictive validities, and to evaluate their contributions in a causal model of SLA. Our study was based on a sample of 102 university students enrolled in introductory French. The results indicated substantial links among the affective measures and achievement. Support was found for these connections in the proposed causal model.
The facets of the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality are presumed to represent distinct, biologically-based tendencies to act, think, and behave; yet they have received little behaviorally-based empirical validation. In this study, FFM facets were used to examine individual differences in affective and cognitive responses to stressors as they are experienced in daily life. Participants (N = 79) completed the NEO-PI-R followed by a week-long experience sampling procedure. As expected, hierarchical linear modeling showed that FFM facets captured affective and cognitive tendencies that were missed at the domain level. They additionally demonstrated convergent and divergent validity in predicting momentary affect. These results provide evidence that facets are distinct, non-interchangeable predictors of daily thoughts and emotions.
The present study investigated some of the major dimensions of intercultural effectiveness. Based upon a review of the literature, 24 “abilities” thought to be important for intercultural effectiveness were generated. Fifty-three subjects who had reported functioning effectively in other cultures rated these abilities in terms of their importance in facilitating intercultural effectiveness. Factor analysis of the data yielded three dimensions of intercultural effectiveness: (1) the ability to deal with psychological stress; (2) the ability to communicate effectively; and (3) the ability to establish interpersonal relationships. Results of the study were then related to previous work on intercultural effectiveness.
A reliability generalization of 51 samples employing one of the NEO personality scales was conducted. Reliability generalization is a meta-analytic method for examining the variability in the reliability of scores by determining which sample characteristics are related to differences in score reliability. It was found that there was a large amount of variability in the reliability of NEO scores, both between and within personality domains. The sample characteristics that are related to score reliability were dependent on NEO domain. Agreeableness scores appear to be the weakest of the domains assessed by the NEO scales in terms of reliability, particularly in clinical samples, for male-only samples, and when temporal consistency was the criterion for reliability. The reliability of Openness to Experience scores was low when the NEO-Five Factor Inventory was used. The advantages of conceptualizing reliability as a property of scores, and not tests, are discussed.
Selecting expatriate managers for an international assignment has been hindered not just by a lack of empirical studies testing construct predictors, but more importantly, by a lack of clearly defined traits and competencies that can, in the first place, be introduced as construct predictors of success. This lack of clarity is largely owing to small variations in semantic differences in describing success factors rather than any conceptual differences in the factors themselves. This review article makes the distinction between stable personality factors, and core behavioural competencies in the development of construct predictors based on recurrent themes within the literature. Three personality attributes of low neuroticism, moderate extroversion, and high openness to experience, and four core expatriate competencies of relational ability, cultural sensitivity, linguistic skill, and ability to handle stress, are identified as crucial selector variables over and above factors typically taken into account in a domestic selection decision.
The paper presents an explicit consideration of the criterion space for expatriate success. Expatriate performance is conceptualized in terms of task completion, relationship building and overall performance. These three dimensions are determined by various features of effort regulation: the amount and pattern of personal resources the expatriate spends on behaviours that constitute his or her position. Drawing upon work motivation and withdrawal literatures, we assess effort in terms of withdrawal cognitions, passive task neglect, active task avoidance, time to proficiency and leader-team exchanges. Effort regulation, in turn, is proposed to be a function of three forms of adjustment (cultural, interaction and work) – which have been the default criterion in past expatriate research. Our model is tested using multi-source data from expatriates, their spouses and their work colleagues. Support for the proposed mapping of successive linkages between adjustment, effort (including the often-studied assignment withdrawal) and performance dimensions provides a more comprehensive perspective of the expatriate criterion space.
We review 25 years of research on expatriate experiences concentrating on expatriate adjustment as a central construct, and relying on a general stressor-stress-strain framework. First, we consider who expatriates are, why their experiences differ from domestic employees, and what adjustment is. Conceptualizing (mal)adjustment in terms of stress, we next review the stressors and strains associated with it. Consolidating the wide range of antecedents (anticipatory and in-country) that have been studied to date, we note major patterns of effects and their implications for how HR managers can facilitate adjustment. Although relatively less research has focused on the consequences of adjustment, enough evidence exists to establish a bottom-line impact of poor adjustment on performance. To stimulate future efforts to understand the experiences of expatriates, we discuss the challenges and opportunities of continuing down this road of research.
Two key concepts used by social scientists are cosmopolitanism and localism. Cosmopolitanism, however, has come to be confused with professionalism This confusion can be eliminated by returning the concepts to their original usage to designate outer and inner reference groups. This more restricted definition of cosmopolitanism-localism was used to test the proposition that an orientation combining both cosmopolitan and local characteristics, called here "cosmo-local," is optimal for professionals. The cosmo-local was found more likely than other types to hold professional values and to obtain the autonomy necessary to professionals. The relationship between orientation and one form of professional behavior, expertise-seeking behavior, was found to be conditioned by such variables as career stage, work environment, and primary occupational role. While in a few contexts the cosmopolitan orientation was the most likely to lead to expertise-seeking behavior, the cosmo-local orientation was found to be most sensitive to changes favorable to professional behavior and therefore the most conducive to professionalism.
Business expatriates currently assigned to the Chinese mainland, mainly from the USA, France, Germany, Australia and Great Britain participated in a survey examining two sets of psychological barriers to adjustment and their association with problem-focused and symptom-focused coping strategies. As presumed, there is a negative relationship between expatriates' perceived inability to adjust and problem-focused coping, while this psychological barrier had no significant association with symptom-focused coping. Unwillingness to adjust has a negative relationship with only one of the problem-focused coping variables, social involvement with host country nationals, whereas the same psychological barrier correlated only negatively with parent-country escapism of the symptom-focused strategies. Implications for Western business expatriates on the Chinese mainland and for their assigning companies are discussed as well as possible avenues for further research.
Some 100 variables were studied on adaptation and effectiveness of technical assistance personnel working in six developing countries. Variables related to job effectiveness, personal and cultural adaptation, transfer of skills, receptivity of nationals, and personal characteristics of the effective Canadian working and living in another culture. Data analyzed included options and standardized ratings by self, colleagues, and national counterparts. Results detailed the components of “Overseas Effectiveness” of technical assistance personnel and spouses. There was evidence of at least two categories of adaptation and two categories of effectiveness. It was found that the best predictor of overseas effectiveness was “Interpersonal Skills,” followed by “Idenity” and “realistic predeparture expectations.” Regarding transfer of skills to nationals, it was found that technical assistance personnel were likely ineffective because of their inability to engage in intercultural interaction.
The present study examined the concept of intercultural effectiveness, which integrates five dimensions: language and interpersonal skills, social interaction, cultural empathy, personality traits, and managerial ability. The factorial structures of intercultural effectiveness were examined in reference to cross-cultural adjustment and job performance. The impact of background and situational variables on adjustment and job performance was also assessed. Seventy-four American business people in a foreign country (China) responded to the survey. The results show that effective cross-cultural adjustment and job performance are moderately correlated. The factorial structures of intercultural effectiveness differ in reference to cross-cultural adjustment and job performance. Cross-cultural adjustment emphasizes personality traits, whereas overseas job performance requires interpersonal skills. Marital status, presence of sojourners' family, and occupation of sojourners were found to influence adjustment and job performance.