Basalt vessels in Chalcolithic burial caves: Variations in prestige burial offerings during the Chalcolithic period of the southern Levant and their social significance

Abstract

The Late Chalcolithic of the southern Levant is in part characterized by increased formalized ritual behavior, specifically in the form of burial caves. These caves feature a high variety of utilitarian and prestige grave goods. One of the notable finds in some of the burial caves are basalt vessels, which are considered a hallmark of the Chalcolithic period. Despite their ubiquity in domestic context and likely status as prestige goods produced at specialized production sites, basalt vessels are absent from most burial caves, and the overall frequency of basalt vessels in the caves is highly variable. This paper reviews the phenomenon of basalt vessels in Chalcolithic burial caves and discusses the variability noted. The fact that these labor-intensive prestige goods were found in caves used as arenas for rich symbolic and ritualistic mortuary behavior suggests that while basalt vessels had an important role in Chalcolithic mundane context, the cultic significance of these vessels also entered the spectrum of beliefs concerning death and the afterlife. Moreover, the discrepancies noted in their presence in burial caves suggest that this significance was probably not shared among all Chalcolithic communities in the southern Levant.

Full text

Basalt vessels in Chalcolithic burial caves: Variations in prestige burial
offerings during the Chalcolithic period of the southern Levant and
their social significance
Rivka Chasan
*
, Danny Rosenberg
Laboratory for Ground Stone Tools Research, Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa, 3498838, Israel
article info
Article history:
Received 11 November 2016
Received in revised form
26 January 2017
Accepted 21 February 2017
Available online xxx
Keywords:
Basalt vessels
Burial caves
Grave goods
Chalcolithic
Southern Levant
abstract
The Late Chalcolithic of the southern Levant is in part characterized by increased formalized ritual
behavior, specifically in the form of burial caves. These caves feature a high variety of utilitarian and
prestige grave goods. One of the notable finds in some of the burial caves are basalt vessels, which are
considered a hallmark of the Chalcolithic period. Despite their ubiquity in domestic context and likely
status as prestige goods produced at specialized production sites, basalt vessels are absent from most
burial caves, and the overall frequency of basalt vessels in the caves is highly variable. This paper reviews
the phenomenon of basalt vessels in Chalcolithic burial caves and discusses the variability noted. The fact
that these labor-intensive prestige goods were found in caves used as arenas for rich symbolic and
ritualistic mortuary behavior suggests that while basalt vessels had an important role in Chalcolithic
mundane context, the cultic significance of these vessels also entered the spectrum of beliefs concerning
death and the afterlife. Moreover, the discrepancies noted in their presence in burial caves suggest that
this significance was probably not shared among all Chalcolithic communities in the southern Levant.
©2017 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Burial customs are a set of practices that are part of mortuary
protocols involved in the disposal of the deceased (Bendann, 1930,
pp. 45). These behaviors are variable, dictated by the wider social
concerns of the community and reflect on the social organization
and culture of the living population as well as on the status of the
deceased (Saxe, 1970; Binford, 1971, pp. 6e16). As such, the inclu-
sion of specifically selected objects in burial context attests to an
intrinsic value ascribed to them. However, these items often vary
between burial sites dated to the same period. This raises important
questions regarding the role of certain objects in burial contexts,
the importance of prestige goods in this respect and the meaning of
the variations in burial practices among contemporary
communities.
The Late Chalcolithic period (henceforth Chalcolithic, ca.
4500e3900 cal. BC) of the southern Levant offers one of the best
candidates for testing questions pertaining to the variability in
mortuary practices among contemporary populations in the
context of village communities reflecting increasing social and
economic complexity. The Chalcolithic features major changes in
settlement patterns, cult and social organization as well as in
subsistence economy (Levy, 1986; Joffe and Dessel, 1995; Rowan
and Golden, 2009). Within this system there is increased evi-
dence for the development of craft specialization, apparent pri-
marily in the appearance of metallurgy (e.g. Golden, 2009),
standardized ceramics (Roux, 2003; Kerner, 2010), specific com-
ponents in the flint and ground stone tools assemblages (Rosen,
1983; Amiran and Porat, 1984; Gilead et al., 2004; Rowan, 1998;
Rosenberg et al., 2016; Rosenberg and Shimelmitz, 2017) and
probably also in the production of ivory objects (Perrot, 1959) and
figurines. Coeval with these innovations is a rise in symbolic rep-
resentations and a notable increase in ritual and symbolic behavior
relating to potential formalized ritualistic places such as shrines
and temples (e.g. Perrot, 1959; Ussishkin, 1980; Alon and Levy,
1989; Rowan and Ilan, 2007; Ilan and Rowan, 2012; Shalem,
2015). Within this context one of the clear changes characteristic
of the Chalcolithic is the higher frequency of formal burial grounds
and the special attention given to burials and mortuary practices
(van den Brink, 1998, 2005a; Nativ, 2014).
*Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: rivka.chasan@gmail.com (R. Chasan), drosenberg@research.
haifa.ac.il (D. Rosenberg).
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Please cite this article in press as: Chasan, R., Rosenberg, D., Basalt vessels in Chalcolithic burial caves: Variations in prestige burial offerings
during the Chalcolithic period of the southern Levant and their social significance, Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.quaint.2017.02.026

The Chalcolithic reflects diverse mortuary practices, which
include burials within settlements (e.g. Smith et al., 2006, pp.
327e336) and formal extramural cemeteries (van den Brink, 1998,
2005a; Nativ, 2014). Primary interments apparently occurred
mainly in villages; however, remains were often later moved into
secondary burials located in extramural localities (e.g.Ilan and
Rowan, 2012; Rowan and Ilan, 2013; Nativ, 2014, pp. 25e35).
These secondary burials were deposited in caves (van den Brink,
1998, 2005a; Nativ, 2014) and, more rarely, in various grave struc-
tures such as stone lined cists, circular graves, built stone structures
or semi-subterranean mudbrick structures (Levy and Alon, 1985;
Goren and Fabian, 2002, pp. 6e17; Gorzalczany, 2007). In many
cases Chalcolithic burial caves incorporated rich assemblages of
material culture items that were brought to the caves as containers
for the bones of the deceased or as grave goods.
In this paper we draw attention to a specific type of grave of-
fering - basalt vessels - which are found only in some of the Chal-
colithic burial caves, and discuss their value as prestige grave goods.
The fact that these highly invested, labor-intensive prestige goods
were found in caves used as arenas for symbolic and ritualistic
mortuary behavior suggests that while basalt vessels seem to have
played an important role in non-mortuary Chalcolithic contexts,
their cultic significance also entered the spectrum of beliefs con-
cerning death and the afterlife. Moreover, the discrepancies noted
in their presence/absence in burial caves suggest that this signifi-
cance was probably not shared among all Chalcolithic communities
in the southern Levant.
2. Chalcolithic burial caves
Data concerning Chalcolithic burial caves accumulated over the
past eight decades since the first burial cave was discovered and
excavated in Hadera (Sukenik, 1937). Several recent studies of
Chalcolithic mortuary practices discuss different numbers of
Chalcolithic burial caves and cemeteries; the discrepancy origi-
nated from the varying definitions (see e.g. van den Brink, 1998,
2005a, table exc. 1.1; Nativ, 2014, table 3.1). In the current study,
we include 32 cave sites (Fig. 1,Table 1) that meet the definition of a
natural or artificial cave or a complex of caves with skeletal remains
and/or ossuary fragments that primarily functioned for burial
purposes during the Chalcolithic period (¼burial cave). Following
this definition, certain Chalcolithic caves in which burials were
found, such as Umm Qatafa, the Cave of Horrors and Nahal Mishmar
are not included in the present study due to their ambiguous pri-
mary function (Neuville and Mallon, 1931; Bar-Adon, 1980; Davi-
dovich, 2008, pp. 130; Ilan and Rowan, 2015; Rosenberg and
Davidovich, 2015 and see also van den Brink, 2006; Winter-
Livneh et al., 2012 concerning the site of Qurnat Haramiya). For
the purpose of the current paper, sites with multiple burial caves
were quantified as a single burial complex.
Chalcolithic burial caves are situated primarily between the
Yarqon and Ayalon rivers with a few exceptions (van den Brink,
2005a, pp. 175e178; Nativ, 2014, pp. 26). The burial caves are
either modified natural cavities hewn into kurkar ridges and chalk
hills or natural karstic caves (van den Brink, 1998, 2005a, pp.
175 e178; Rowan and Ilan, 2013). In the burial caves, individuals are
typically interred in containers such as ceramic ossuaries, chests,
burial jars and bowls as well as in stone basins. Many of the burial
containers are highly decorated with red painted geometric designs
and additional motifs or plastered anthropomorphic features
(Perrot and Ladiray, 1980, pp. 28e35; Shalem, 2008, 2015).
A wide variety of grave goods was found in the burial caves (van
den Brink, 2005a, pp. 180e184). The dominating grave goods are
pottery vessels, including V-shaped bowls, basins, fenestrated
pedestal vessels, jars, churns and occasionally cornets (e.g. Epstein,
2001). Flint tools, while less frequent, are typologically varied,
including perforated discs, tabular scrapers, sickle blades and
bifacial tools (e.g. Gopher and Tsuk, 1996a, pp. 109; van den Brink,
2005a, pp. 182; Shalem et al., 2013, pp. 55e67; Rosenberg and
Shimelmitz, 2017). Rare hematite maceheads, copper objects, gold
and electrum rings, ivory tools, various ornaments, beads and fig-
urines were also found (e.g. Gophna and Lifshitz, 1980; Gopher and
Tsuk, 1996a, pp. 91e130; Milevski, 2007).
Ground stone tools are less frequent and mostly include basalt
vessels and occasionally perforated items and grinding tools (e.g.
van den Brink, 2005a, pp. 181e182; Avrutis, 2012a, pp. 181e199;
van den Brink, 2013, pp. 321). Despite the ubiquity of basalt vessels
in domestic contexts and their importance as prestige goods, these
vessels, regarded as one of the hallmarks of the Chalcolithic period
(Rowan and Golden, 2009), occur inconsistently in burial contexts.
3. The Chalcolithic basalt vessel industry
Basalt vessels are abundantly found in Chalcolithic sites
throughout the southern Levant, most typically in domestic con-
texts (Rowan, 1998 and see references within). Two basalt vessel
types predominate the Chalcolithic assemblages: the more com-
mon flat-based, V-shaped vessels, also referred to as “flower pots,”
and the fenestrated pedestal vessels. The latter is characterized by a
V-shaped bowl “mounted”on a fenestrated hollowed pedestal base
(Amiran and Porat, 1984; Rowan, 1998, pp. 132e170). Stylistic and
morphological variations within the fenestrated vessel assem-
blages are mostly exhibited in the characteristics of the lower part
of the vessels; the hollowed pedestal base has either three or four
carved out windows or three or four legs conjoined by a ring base
(Amiran and Porat, 1984; Rowan, 1998, pp. 162e170). The fenes-
trations exhibit variations in the window shape and the leg and ring
base cross-section and thickness. The former fenestrated type with
carved windows is considered chronologically early as the type
shares stylistic similarities with earlier pedestal vessels, and it is
often associated with additional chronologically early items
(Rowan, 1998, pp. 290e292). A central support, carved to
strengthen high pedestal legs, was noted in only a few instances
(van den Brink et al., 1999).
All basalt vessel types are often decorated on the interior rim.
The most prevalent decoration style is incised triangles, typically
filled with oblique hatches (Amiran and Porat, 1984; Rowan, 1998,
pp. 236; Rosenberg et al., 2016). The triangles are less frequently
filled with crosshatching, herringbone and superimposed triangles.
More rarely, basalt vessels have additional externally incised
decoration on the vessel wall, base, ring base and/or legs. These
elaborate designs include parallel horizontal lines, checkered di-
amonds, herringbones, crosshatching and other geometric designs.
Further decoration includes raised bands formed in relief that
frequently encircle the vessel base or the joint area. This decoration
type may be considered chronologically early as simple and rope
raised bands are apparent on some basalt and limestone/chalk
pedestal vessels from sites dated to the Wadi Rabah and Middle
Chalcolithic (e.g. Bekker and Garfinkel, 2016: Fig. 6; Gopher, 2012:
Fig. 24:3.2).
The suggestion that basalt vessels were regarded as valued
prestige items by the Chalcolithic communities of the southern
Levant is in part supported by the long distance between basalt
sources and many of the sites in the northern Negev and central
coastal plain (where the closest suitable basalt source is over
100 km away). Chalcolithic basalt vessels were likely produced in
specialized workshops located at or near the basalt sources and
later distributed through various exchange networks to the sites
(Rowan, 1998, pp. 320e327; Rosenberg et al., 2016). These work-
shops involved highly specialized stone artisans who were required
R. Chasan, D. Rosenberg / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e152
Please cite this article in press as: Chasan, R., Rosenberg, D., Basalt vessels in Chalcolithic burial caves: Variations in prestige burial offerings
during the Chalcolithic period of the southern Levant and their social significance, Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.quaint.2017.02.026

to produce basalt vessels following specific guidelines. The high
skill required for vessel production was the outcome of the complex
multi-step production process, involving preform production, hol-
lowing of the vessel interior and the pedestal base and fine vessel
finishing. This suggests a high risk of failure and breakage during
the production sequence.
Thus, the early steps of basalt vessel production were risky,
incorporating a high likelihood of fracturing the vessel and pro-
duction failure (van den Brink et al., 1999; Rosenberg et al., 2016).
The final vessel finishing involved careful smoothing and occasional
Fig. 1. Map of Chalcolithic burial caves. Caves where basalt vessels were found are marked with a V-shaped vessel.
R. Chasan, D. Rosenberg / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e15 3
Please cite this article in press as: Chasan, R., Rosenberg, D., Basalt vessels in Chalcolithic burial caves: Variations in prestige burial offerings
during the Chalcolithic period of the southern Levant and their social significance, Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.quaint.2017.02.026

polishing aimed at producing vessels with even and symmetrical
rims and bases. The incised decoration was formed with great care
to produce uniform patterns. While decoration is typically stan-
dardized to incised triangles (the design also used much less
frequently on pottery vessels, see e.g. Perrot and Ladiray, 1980,
Fig. 70:5; Commenge-Pellerin, 1990, planche IX; Burton, 2004, pp.
307e308; Roux et al., 2013), some sites (e.g. Abu Matar, Jabotinsky
Street, Shiqmim and Namir Road) exhibit basalt vessels with highly
elaborate incised decoration on the entire external vessel surface
area (Kaplan, 1958, Fig. 9:3; Amiran and Porat, 1984, Fig. 1:1; Levy
and Alon, 1985, Fig. 4.5; Rosenberg et al., 2016). The technology
involved in executing the incised decorations was simple (probably
including hammerstones, flint chisels, pointed tools and maybe
expedient tools); however, great care and effort were invested in
their implementation. The investment in labor and the risk in
production failure coupled with the raw material value and strict
vessel and decorative stylistic conventions suggest that these were
prized artifacts with notable social and possibly cultic significance.
For the current study, all the available data concerning basalt
vessels found in burial caves was recorded. This includes their
frequency (number of fragments/complete vessels) based on the
available data, typology (flat base V-shaped vessels/fenestrated
Table 1
Chalcolithic burial caves.
# Site General description Excavated Selected material remains References
1 Peqi'in Cave Large active karstic cave; numerous
ossuaries and skeletal remains
Yes Pottery, flint, ground stone tools,
copper, hematite, ivory and bone
tools, ornaments and figurines
Shalem et al., 2013
2 H. Castra Karstic cave hewn in a natural cavity;
bone heaps and ossuaries
Yes Pottery, flint and ornaments van den Brink et al., 2004
3 Usba Cave Karstic cave; ossuary fragments? Yes Pottery and flint Albright, 1942, Fig. 5; Kaplan, 1959
4 Midrach Oz Cave; ossuary fragments Yes Stelae and pottery Getzov et al., 2008
5 El-Fureidis Natural cavity; ossuary fragments Yes Pottery and ornaments Yannai, 2007
6 Shuni Karstic cave reutilized during the IBA Yes ePeilst€
ocker and Sklar-Parnes, 2005
7 Hadera Artificial cave cut into kurkar; bones
and ossuaries
Yes Pottery Sukenik, 1937
8 Ma'abarot Artificial cave cut into kurkar; ossuaries
and bone heaps
Yes Pottery Porath, 2006
9 Sha'ar
Efrayim
Seven karstic caves; bones and ossuary
fragments
Yes Pottery, flint, ground stone tools, bone
tools and ornaments
Oren and Scheftelowitz, 1998; van den
Brink, 2011
10 Taiyba Artificial cave cut into chalk; ossuaries Yes Pottery Yannai and Porath, 2006
11 Tell el-Far'ah
(N)
Single karstic cave; bone fragments on a
bench
Yes Pottery de Vaux, 1957
12 Shechem Karstic cave; ossuary fragments Yes Pottery Guyot, 2008
13 Nahal Qanah
Cave
Large active karstic cave; ossuaries and
skeletal remains
Yes Pottery, flint, ground stone tools,
copper, hematite, gold and electrum,
ivory and bone tools and ornaments
Gopher and Tsuk, 1996a, pp. 91e130, b,
pp. 13e47
14 Yannai St. Two caves hewn into kurkar; ossuary
fragments and skeletal remains
Yes Pottery Kaplan, 1958, pp. 17e19
15 Bene Beraq Multiple caves hewn into kurkar;
ossuary fragments
Yes Stelae, pottery, flint, copper, hematite
maceheads and ornaments
Ory, 1946; Kaplan, 1963, Perrot and
Ladiray, 1980, pp. 117
16 Giv'atayim Seven caves hewn into kurkar;
ossuaries
Yes Stelae, pottery and flint Sussman and Ben-Arieh, 1966;
Korenfeld, 2013
17 Azor Multiple caves hewn into kurkar;
ossuaries.
One cave was excavated Stelae, pottery, ground stone tools,
copper and hematite
Perrot and Ladiray, 1980, pp. 41e58
18 Qula Ten karstic caves; ossuaries Six caves were excavated Pottery, flint and a figurine Milevski, 2001a, b
19 Mazor Several karstic caves; ossuary
fragments and skeletal remains
deposited in kraters on the cave floor
Yes, one systematically
excavated
Pottery, flint, ground stone tools, bone
tools and ornaments
Milevski, 2007; Lupo, 2008
20 H. Hani Karstic caves; ossuary fragments Yes Pottery Lass, 2003
21 Giv'at Ha-
Oranim
Six caves hewn into chalk; ossuaries
and skeletal remains (primary and
secondary interments)
Yes Pottery, ground stone tools, copper,
bone tools and ornaments
Scheftelowitz and Oren, 2004a
22 Ras es-
Summaq
Single karstic cave; ossuaries fragments Surveyed eGophna and Beit-Arieh, 1997, pp. 30
23 Shoham (N) Four karstic caves; ossuary fragments
and skeletal remains
Partially excavated Stelae, pottery, flint and ground stone
tools
van den Brink, 2005b, pp. 12e25; van
den Brink and Gophna, 2005a; Marder,
2005, pp. 141e145; Rowan, 2005,
pp. 113e119
24 Shoham (NE) Single karstic cave; ossuary fragments
and skeletal remains
Partially excavated Pottery and ground stone tools van den Brink, 2009
25 Shoham (S) Two karstic caves; ossuary fragments Yes eGophna and Beit-Arieh, 1997,
pp. 52e53; Gophna and Feldstein, 1998
26 Nahal Bet Arif Single karstic cave; ossuaries Surveyed Pottery Gophna and Beit-Arieh, 1997, pp. 46
27 Ben Shemen Six caves hewn into chalk; ossuaries
and skeletal remains
Yes Stelae, pottery, flint and ground stone
tools
Perrot and Ladiray, 1980, pp. 59e100
28 Nesher-Ramla Seven karstic caves; ossuaries and
skeletal remains (primary and
secondary burials)
Yes Stelae, pottery, flint and ground stone
tools
Avrutis, 2012a, pp. 181e199, b,
pp. 11e27
29 Palmahim Eleven artificial caves hewn into kurkar;
ossuaries and skeletal remains
Yes Pottery, flint, ground stone tools,
copper and ornaments
Gophna and Lifshitz, 1980
30 Mesillat
Ziyyon
Single karstic cave; ossuaries ePottery Perrot and Ladiray, 1980, pp. 104
31 Nahal Ha-Ela Caves inside natural cavities; ossuaries Yes Pottery Eirikh-Rose, 2009
32 H. Qarqar Karstic caves; ossuaries 22 caves were excavated Stelae, pottery and ornaments Fabian et al., 2015
R. Chasan, D. Rosenberg / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e154
Please cite this article in press as: Chasan, R., Rosenberg, D., Basalt vessels in Chalcolithic burial caves: Variations in prestige burial offerings
during the Chalcolithic period of the southern Levant and their social significance, Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.quaint.2017.02.026

vessel), preservation and discard patterns (whole/broken), repre-
sented elements (rim, wall, base, medial, leg, ring base and central
support), decoration and context.
4. Chalcolithic burial caves in which basalt vessels were
discovered
Basalt vessels were reported in eight Chalcolithic burial cave
sites (25% of the 32 Chalcolithic burial cave sites included here),
although basalt vessels found in Umm Qatafa and Qurnat Haramiya
were likely also used in burial context (Neuville and Mallon, 1931;
van den Brink, 2006). In these sites they appear in varying fre-
quencies (Fig. 1,Table 2). These caves are variable in utilization
intensity as exhibited by the number of buried individuals and the
density and characteristics of the material remains.
4.1. Peqi'in cave
Peqi'in cave is a complex multi-chambered active karstic cave
site in the Galilee, modified with a stone platform and terraces
(Shalem et al., 2013, pp. 53e68). Material remains are abundant
with a notably high frequency of decorated ossuaries and pottery
vessels and some flint and ground stone tools. A few copper and
ivory objects, uncommon finds in Chalcolithic sites in northern
Israel, were also found. Additional remains include figurines and
beads. Peqi'in skeletal remains represent the largest Chalcolithic
human bone sample, with at least 453 individuals, most above the
age of 15 (Nagar, 2013, pp. 27e35).
The basalt vessel assemblage from burial context includes six
vessels dispersed throughout the cave (some of these are composed
of multiple pieces reconstructed to their incomplete form). Only
one of these is whole (Fig. 2). Four of the vessel fragments are from
fenestrated vessels with legs connected by a ring base. When
observable, there are four legs. The complete vessel is flat-based
and V-shaped, and classification for the remaining rim fragment
is unclear. None of the fragments are decorated; however, all are
well smoothed. Two fenestrated vessels have traces of soot on the
interiors (van den Brink, 2013, pp. 319e323).
4.2. Sha'ar Efrayim
Sha'ar Efrayim is a complex of karstic caves in the Sharon coastal
plain, utilized mainly during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age
as a mortuary site. Chalcolithic finds include ossuaries and burial
jars, pottery vessels, beads, bone artifacts and an anthropomorphic
figurine (Oren and Scheftelowitz, 1998; van den Brink, 2011). Skel-
etal remains of 58 individuals were found in six caves; however,
some may date to the Early Bronze Age (Oren and Scheftelowitz,
1998; Nagar, 2011).
Only one Chalcolithic basalt vessel fragment was found. This
non-diagnostic fragment was retrieved from Cave 1 (van den Brink,
2011).
4.3. Nahal Qanah Cave
Nahal Qanah is a multi-chambered active karstic cave in the
Samaria hills with multiple levels, passages and branches. The site
was utilized during the Pottery Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Early
Bronze Age I periods. Chalcolithic remains are rich and include a
perforated flint disc, hematite maceheads, ivory objects, bone tools,
copper items and, notably, eight gold and electrum rings (Gopher
and Tsuk, 1996a, b). Skeletal remains of 23 individuals are dated
to the Chalcolithic via association with ossuary fragments
(Hershkovitz and Gopher, 1996, pp. 176e180).
Nahal Qanah cave has an unusually high frequency of basalt
vessels (n ¼101, Figs. 3e4)(Gopher and Tsuk, 1996a, pp. 109).
Twenty-seven of these fragments were directly associated with
burials. These interments contain individuals of varied ages and
genders (Gopher and Tsuk, 1996c, pp. 220e224). The fragments are
of V-shaped and fenestrated vessels. The assemblage is composed
of 27 rim fragments, 21 body fragments, 17 base fragments, 24 leg
fragments, five ring base fragments and seven leg/ring base frag-
ments. Three rim fragments are decorated internally with incised
triangles filled with oblique lines (Fig. 4:1e2), and two additional
fragments are decorated with incised parallel lines. No whole basalt
vessels were found. However, 29 fragments were rejoined,
although none formed a complete vessel. Some of these connecting
fragments were uncovered from different areas in the cave (Gopher
and Tsuk, 1996a, pp. 109, d, pp. 248e249).
4.4. Azor
Azor is located in the coastal plain, hewn into the kurkar ridge.
The site is characterized by its high frequency of complexly deco-
rated ossuaries. Other finds include pottery vessels, flint and
ground stone tools, hematite maceheads and a single copper chisel
(Perrot and Ladiray, 1980, pp. 41e58, 117). Markedly, one fenes-
trated pottery vessel is decorated similar to a Chalcolithic basalt
Table 2
Skeletal remains and other finds in Chalcolithic burial caves in which basalt vessels were discovered.
Site Number of
basalt vessels
Skeletal
remains
Prestige and other finds References
Peqi'in Cave 6 453 Perforated flint discs, copper, hematite maceheads, ivory
and bone tools, beads and figurines
van den Brink, 2013, pp. 319e321;
Shalem et al., 2013
Sha'ar Efraim 1 58 Bone tools, beads and an anthropomorphic figurine van den Brink, 2011
Nahal Qanah Cave 101 23 Perforated flint discs, copper, hematite maceheads, gold and
electrum rings, ivory and bone tools and ornaments
Gopher and Tsuk, 1996a, pp. 91e130;
Hershkovitz and Gopher, 1996, pp. 176
e180
Azor 2 6 Stelae, a copper chisel and hematite maceheads Perrot and Ladiray, 1980, pp. 41e58;
Golani and Nagar, 2011, table 7.1
Giv'at Ha-Oranim 19 11 Shells, pendants, copper and bone tools Scheftelowitz and Oren, 2004a, pp. 18
e33
Shoham (N) 67 18 Stelae and Nilotic shells Eshed, 2005, pp. 149e150; Mienis,
2005, pp. 155e156; Rowan, 2005, pp.
113e119
Nesher-Ramla 2 138 Stelae and Nilotic shells Avrutis, 2012a, pp. 183e187; Deutsch,
2012, pp. 233e238; Mienis, 2012, pp.
251e252
Palmahim 1 14 Bird-vases, a copper standard and stone pendants Gophna and Lifshitz, 1980; Golani and
Nagar, 2011, table 7.1
R. Chasan, D. Rosenberg / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e15 5
Please cite this article in press as: Chasan, R., Rosenberg, D., Basalt vessels in Chalcolithic burial caves: Variations in prestige burial offerings
during the Chalcolithic period of the southern Levant and their social significance, Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.quaint.2017.02.026

vessel. The interior rim bears incised triangles filled with oblique
hatches (Perrot and Ladiray, 1980, Fig. 70:5). Skeletal remains
represent six individuals (Golani and Nagar, 2011, table 7.1).
Two basalt vessel fragments were found ea rim and a base
(Perrot and Ladiray, 1980, pp. 55, appendix 1). Because of the state
of preservation, they are typologically unclassified. The rim is
decorated internally with incised triangles filled with oblique
hatches (Fig. 5). Both fragments were found with ossuary and
pottery fragments.
4.5. Giv'at Ha-Oranim
Giv'at Ha-Oranim is a large site located near Nahal Beit Arif and
composed of domestic and underground features, as well as caves
with primary burials (Scheftelowitz and Oren, 2004a, b). These
burial caves (caves 1185, 1595, 1596, 1597, 1778 and 1779) are
functionally distinct from domestic context. Finds from burial
context include pottery vessels, copper objects, ground stone tools,
bone tools, ornaments and shells. A few ossuary fragments were
noted, and a minimum of 11 individuals were buried in the caves
(Scheftelowitz and Oren, 2004a, table 2.1).
Nineteen basalt vessels and fragments were confirmed to have
been found in the Giv'at Ha-Oranim burial caves (Figs. 6e7), but the
exact number of vessels from these contexts is unclear. It must be
emphasized that the site has additional basalt vessels and frag-
ments, some found in pits associated with burials, however not in
the burial caves (Scheftelowitz, 2004, pp. 61e67; Scheftelowitz and
Oren, 2004a).
Ten vessels are complete while the rest are fragments, some
retaining much of the original vessel. Typologically, ten fenestrated
vessels (one of which is square from a top view) and nine V-shaped
vessels are represented by the full range of vessel elements (vessel,
base, rim, wall, medial, ring base and leg). Some of the rim frag-
ments are decorated internally with incised triangles filled with
Fig. 2. Basalt vessels from Peqi'in Cave (after van den Brink, 2011).
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10.1016/j.quaint.2017.02.026

oblique lines (Fig. 7:1e2, 6). Two vessels are unique to Giv'at Ha-
Oranim and contradict the common Chalcolithic basalt vessel
conventions. One of these is a fenestrated stand that has a long
central leg and three narrow legs extending from it at a 45

angle
(Fig. 7:5), while the other is a square fenestrated vessel with a
central support and eight lug handles carved on the corners of the
bowl (Fig. 7:6). The square fenestrated vessel was found broken, but
the fragments refit into a complete vessel.
The vessel distribution and context is variable (Scheftelowitz,
2004, pp. 61e67; Scheftelowitz and Oren, 2004a, pp. 19e32).
Cave 1185 has two V-shaped basalt vessels, one fenestrated vessel
and additional fragments. Two vessels (a V-shaped and a fenes-
trated vessel) were found sunken into the cave floor (Fig. 6a). The
second V-shaped vessel and additional fragments were found with
the burial of an adult. Cave 1595 has three fenestrated basalt vessels
in association with the burial of a female adult and a child. There is
an additional rim fragment in another chamber in the cave. Cave
1596 has only a single V-shaped basalt vessel associated with the
burial of a young adult. Cave 1597 has several basalt vessels in
multiple loci. In particular, six basalt vessels were found near the
joint burial of an adult and a juvenile boy (four fenestrated and two
V-shaped). The square fenestrated vessel was positioned near their
skulls (Fig. 7:6), and another complete fenestrated vessel was
placed upside down near their legs (Fig. 6b). In addition, there are
two whole V-shaped vessels and two fragments of fenestrated
vessels (including the unique fenestrated stand noted above) not in
Fig. 3. Basalt vessel fragments in situ in Nahal Qanah Cave (after Gopher and Tsuk,
1996b).
Fig. 4. Basalt vessels from Nahal Qanah Cave (after Gopher and Tsuk, 1996a).
Fig. 5. One of the basalt vessels from Azor (after Perrot and Ladiray, 1980).
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direct association with these burials. In a different locus, there is
one rim fragment and a fenestrated ring base/leg fragment. Cave
1778 has one fenestrated vessel and several basalt vessel fragments
in different loci associated with the remains of adult individuals. In
addition there is a rim fragment and a wall fragment in another
chamber in the cave. In Cave 1779 basalt vessel fragments were
found with the remains of an individual over 60 years old.
4.6. Shoham (N)
Shoham (N) is a complex of four natural karstic caves located in
the Lod Valley in the central coastal plain that was used for do-
mestic and burial purposes from the Chalcolithic onwards (van den
Brink and Gophna, 2005b, pp. 1e2). Material remains include os-
suaries and burial jars, stelae, pottery vessels, flint and ground
stone tools and shells (van den Brink, 2005b, pp. 16e24; Marder,
2005, pp. 141e145; Mienis, 2005, pp. 155e156; Rowan, 2005, pp.
113 e119). Skeletal remains of 18 adult individuals were recovered
from Caves 1, 2 and 4 (Eshed, 2005, pp. 149e150).
A total of 68 basalt vessel fragments (Figs. 8e12) was found in
Chalcolithic burial context in Caves 2 and 4 (van den Brink, 2005b,
pp. 16e24; Rowan, 2005, table 9.2). There are additional fragments
not from Chalcolithic burial context, which were not included.
In Cave 2 four vessel fragments were found: one non-diagnostic
fragment, a single wall fragment and two fenestrated vessel leg
fragments. The fragments are undecorated and come from a layer
below stone debris, fallen from the ceiling, and a locus associated
with a burial on the bedrock (van den Brink and Gophna, 2005c, pp.
199 e200; Rowan, 2005, pp. 113e114).
Cave 4 yielded most of the basalt vessels associated with Chal-
colithic burials at this site (n ¼64, 94% of all basalt vessels in
Shoham (N) burial context; Figs. 8e12). These include a wide range
of vessel elements: 35 fenestrated stand and pedestal fragments
(16 legs, two leg/ring bases, six medial sections and 11 ring bases),
16 rim fragments, nine wall fragments and four base fragments.
Two of the fenestrated vessels have a central support, and for one of
these, the support was carved connected to struts at a 100

angle,
possibly to increase the overall strength of the base construction
(Fig. 10). Several fragments (n ¼15, 23.4% of basalt vessels in Cave 4
burial context) are complexly decorated with a variety of incised
designs (triangles, parallel horizontal lines, herringbone and di-
amonds) or raised bands (Figs. 8e9, 12), and other fragments are
highly polished. One rim fragment (Fig. 12.5) is uniquely decorated
externally with a large triangular design and oblique hatches. There
is also evidence of abraded medial sections intended to form flat-
based vessels from broken fenestrated vessels. Furthermore, two
rim fragments bear evidence of soot internally. The assemblage is
composed exclusively of fragments; however, several of the frag-
ments connect together. Some of these connecting fragments come
from different loci, suggesting post-depositional processes or
intentional relocation of fragments during revisits to the site. Vessel
fragments were discovered near bedrock and pits hewn into the
bedrock, and one fragment comes from a burial locus (van den
Brink and Gophna, 2005c, pp. 201e203; Rowan, 2005, pp.
117e120).
4.7. Nesher-Ramla
Nesher-Ramla is a Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age site in the
Lod Valley. The site is composed of multiple caves in natural cavities
used for domestic and mortuary purposes. Six Chalcolithic burial
caves were identified. Caves F-314 and F-380 have only skeletal
remains, Cave F-410 has only ossuary fragments and Caves F-355, F-
477 and F-570 have skeletal remains and ossuary fragments. Some
of these caves were also used as dwellings during the Chalcolithic
and for burials during the Early Bronze Age; however, the differing
utilizations are typically stratigraphically distinct. Remains include
ossuary fragments, stelae, pottery vessels, flint and ground stone
tools and shells, some Nilotic (Avrutis, 2012a, pp. 180e189, b, pp.
7e27, c, pp. 1; Mienis, 2012, pp. 251e252). In total, there are 138
individuals, although some may date to the Early Bronze Age. The
remains indicate the caves were used for burial purpose indis-
criminately of age and gender (Deutsch, 2012, pp. 233e238).
Two basalt vessel fragments were found in Chalcolithic burial
context (Avrutis, 2012a, pp. 186). These are an incomplete flat-
based vessel and a V-shaped-like rim fragment (Fig. 13:1e2). Both
fragments seem to be more typical of the Early Bronze Age period
but were found in Cave F-477 which was only used for mortuary
purposes during the Chalcolithic. Additional basalt vessel frag-
ments were retrieved from loci defined as domestic Chalcolithic
context and Early Bronze Age burial context.
Fig. 6. Basalt vessel fragments in situ in Giv'at Ha-Oranim burial caves: a. V-shaped
vessel inserted in a specially designed cavity in the cave floor; b. fenestrated vessel
placed upside down above a joint burial (after Scheftelowitz and Oren, 2004a).
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10.1016/j.quaint.2017.02.026

4.8. Palmahim
Palmahim is a burial site near the Mediterranean Sea shore,
composed of 11 caves with Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age re-
mains. Chalcolithic remains include primarily ossuary fragments
and pottery vessels with a few flint items; two unique “bird-vases,”
stone pendants and a copper standard were also found (Gophna
and Lifshitz, 1980). Skeletal remains represent 14 individuals
(Golani and Nagar, 2011, table 7.1).
A single basalt V-shaped rim fragment was found at the site
(Gophna and Lifshitz, 1980). The interior rim is decorated with
incised triangles (Fig. 13:3). One preserved triangle is filled with
Fig. 7. Basalt vessels from Giv'at Ha-Oranim (after Scheftelowitz, 2004).
Fig. 8. Basalt fenestrated vessel leg fragments from Shoham (N) (after Rowan, 2005).
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10.1016/j.quaint.2017.02.026

oblique lines while the other triangle is filled with superimposed
triangles.
5. Discussion
Chalcolithic burial practices reflect diverse mortuary-related
behavior, with intermural and extramural and primary and sec-
ondary interments in funerary structures, single-caves, multi-cave
complexes and complex karstic cave systems (Nativ, 2014, pp. 26,
33). To add further complexity, the Chalcolithic multi-cave ceme-
teries (e.g. Yannai St., Tel Aviv, Bene Beraq, Mazor, Nesher-Ramla
and Nahal Ha-Ela) often have stratigraphically distinct non-
funerary related features (e.g. storage pits and flint production
areas), indicating additional either contemporaneous or seasonal
economic activities. This suggests the caves were central arenas for
a combination of mortuary-related and utilitarian activities, form-
ing community cohesion through interaction (Nativ, 2014, pp.
72e73). Similarly, the karstic caves were probably centers utilized
by large groups repeatedly as evidenced by the high number of
interred individuals and material remains (Nativ, 2014, pp. 87). In
all cave types, the mortuary behavior was systemic and therefore
reflects the social ideals of a community (Nativ, 2014, pp. 128e129).
One of the notable aspects pertaining to the dramatic change in
burial practices during the Chalcolithic period is the appearance of
varied assemblages of material culture items associated with
burials in the burial caves (Nativ, 2014 and see references therein).
The functions of grave goods and funerary rituals are frequently
debated (e.g. Bendann, 1930; Saxe, 1970; Binford, 1971; Parker
Pearson, 1999; Nativ, 2014, pp. 200); this debate becomes
increasingly complex in relation to the variety of the Chalcolithic
mortuary practices, a diversity perhaps mirroring the nature of the
Chalcolithic social organization and the diverse belief systems and
ideals of the communities utilizing the different caves (Nativ, 2014,
pp. 128e129).
Nearly all of the burial caves examined here revealed the
frequent presence of rich assemblages of decorated ossuaries and
Fig. 9. Basalt fenestrated vessel ring base fragments from Shoham (N) (after Rowan, 2005).
Fig. 10. Basalt fenestrated vessel base with a central support from Shoham (N) (after Rowan, 2005).
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10.1016/j.quaint.2017.02.026

ceramics, an overarching convention in burial caves (Shalem,
2008). These are often related to provisioning for the afterlife, the
cycle of death and rebirth and fertility (e.g. Callaway, 1963; Bar-
Yosef and Ayalon, 2001; Nativ, 2008; Ilan and Rowan, 2012).
These symbolically charged items frequently included in burial
caves may perhaps be perceived as reflecting a concern for the
deceased in the afterlife.
Other artifacts in burial context reflect equally on the pop-
ulations utilizing the caves; however, few attempts have been made
to understand their significance. The inclusion of basalt vessels in
these burial contexts as grave goods has only rarely been discussed.
Their presence reflects several clear patterns (Table 3); the most
noticeable of these is that only in 25% of the Chalcolithic burial
caves, basalt vessels were found, despite their ubiquity in domestic
context.
This absence of basalt vessels in most burial caves cannot be
attributed to an inability to produce or acquire basalt vessels as the
communities utilizing the burial caves likely had basalt vessels in
their settlements (various amounts of basalt vessels were found in
most Chalcolithic settlement sites in the southern Levant). It ap-
pears that some communities or extended families chose not to
deposit basalt vessels in their burial caves; this suggests that the
exclusion may relate to their function and attached symbolic and
social value for certain groups or sections of the communities and
Fig. 11. Basalt rim, wall and base fragments from Shoham (N) (after Rowan, 2005).
Fig. 12. Basalt decorated fragments from Shoham (N) (after Rowan, 2005).
Fig. 13. Basalt vessels: 1e2. Nesher-Ramla (after Avrutis, 2012a); 3. Palmahim (after Gophna and Lifshitz, 1980).
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10.1016/j.quaint.2017.02.026

not for others. Similar patterns are also observed in other categories
of finds (Table 2). Notably, five (62.5%) of the eight burial caves in
which basalt vessels were discovered also include metal items.
Ivory and bone objects, perforated discs, figurines, Nilotic shells and
hematite maceheads were also found in some of these caves.
In addition, the frequency of basalt vessels within these eight
caves is highly variable, and while some caves (Peqi'in cave, Sha'ar
Efrayim, Azor, Nesher-Ramla and Palmahim) have only a few basalt
vessel fragments, others like Nahal Qanah cave and Cave 4 in
Shoham (N) have a relative abundance (101 and 64, respectively).
The latter two are situated in relative proximity to each other. This
extreme dichotomy cannot be related to the burial cave usage in-
tensity as some sites with high frequencies of ossuaries or buried
individuals (e.g. Peqi'in cave and Azor) do not have many basalt
vessel fragments. It also cannot be correlated with the involvement
in the trade networks associated with basalt vessels. For every
burial site with a high frequency of basalt vessels, there are several
others, only a few kilometers away, without or with a low fre-
quency of these vessels. This discrepancy in basalt vessel frequency
should probably be attributed to specific norms concerning the
social values of the basalt vessels and their significance (general or
burial-related) to some of the Chalcolithic communities utilizing
these burial caves or at least to segments of these communities.
While the Giv'at Ha-Oranim burial caves have a differentdiscard
pattern than most other Chalcolithic burial caves in which basalt
vessels were found, with over half the assemblage composed of
whole vessels, and a comparatively lower frequency of basalt vessel
fragments than Nahal Qanah cave and Shoham (N), they should
regardless be considered similar. The site is in close geographic
proximity to Nahal Qanah cave and Shoham (N), and it has sub-
stantially more basalt vessel fragments than most other sites. As
such, the community likely followed the same norms dictating
basalt vessel inclusion in these caves rich in basalt vessels.
Both flat-based vessels, mostly V-shaped, and fenestrated
pedestal vessels are included in burial context. These forms are
typically represented by fragments, usually preserving only a small
rim section of the original vessel, and as such the exact number of
flat-based, V-shaped vessels versus fenestrated vessels cannot be
quantified as one cannot distinguish between rims of flat-based
and fenestrated pedestal vessels. No clear typological preference
then is exhibited, although previous studies suggest the high fre-
quency of fenestrated vessels may have symbolic and cultic
significance (van den Brink, 2013, pp. 324e325), and as with
fenestrated ceramic vessels, these may represent cultic objects
(Epstein, 1978, pp. 32). Notably, most of the fenestrated basalt
vessels appear to have legs connected by a ring base. This later
vessel type (Rowan, 1998, pp. 290e292) may suggest a relatively
late date in the Chalcolithic for these burial caves. Only Giv'at Ha-
Oranim deviates typologically with the square fenestrated vessel
and the pedestal vessel with a high single leg.
The dominance of fragments over whole vessels noted above is
also evident in domestic contexts (e.g. Rosenberg et al., 2016) and
thus reflects no anomaly. However, the reconstruction of nearly
complete basalt vessels from fragments in some burial caves such
as Peqi'in cave and Shoham (N) is rather rare. We are then forced to
conclude that either many of the vessels were brought to the caves
as fragments (perhaps symbolically representing the entire vessel
and its inherent social, functional and economic significance and
value) or that the vessels were brought to the burial caves whole as
part of the funerals or commemorative ceremonies and intention-
ally broken during the rites. Certain fragments were then taken
elsewhere or returned to the settlement, signifying the link be-
tween the deceased and his living kin. This forms an enchained
relationship and reinforces network linkage between the groups
utilizing the burial caves until relationship reconstitution is
required, and the fragments are structurally deposited (Chapman,
2000, pp. 6, 34e37). Furthermore, there could be additional social
and symbolic value in the vessel destruction as a form of ritual
killing to end the vessel's symbolic connection with the deceased
(Bendann, 1930, pp. 115e120; Chapman, 2000, pp. 25). A case for
ritual destruction may be argued for the square fenestrated vessel
from Giv'at Ha-Oranim, found broken but completely restored. The
damage could not result from post depositional processes as
another fenestrated basalt vessel, placed near the same burial, was
intact. As such, the square vessel was likely deliberately broken, and
all the fragments were included in association with the burial.
The function of the complete basalt vessels is unclear, and use-
wear analysis cannot elucidate and distinguish between the vessels'
function in burial context and likely prior function in domestic
context. However, the evidence of soot on incomplete fenestrated
basalt vessels from Peqi'in (van den Brink, 2013, pp. 319e321) and
on rim fragments from Shoham (N) (Rowan, 2005, Fig. 9.7:3e4)
suggests some of the basalt vessels may have been exposed to fire.
While we cannot corroborate it, these may have been used as
Table 3
Summary of the characteristics of Chalcolithic basalt vessels found in burial caves.
Site Number
of basalt
vessels
Preservation Basalt vessel types Basalt vessel
elements
Basalt vessels decorative motifs References
Peqi'in Cave 6 1 whole
5 broken
V-shaped (n ¼1);
fenestrated (n ¼4);
unidentified rim (n ¼1)
Rim, body, base,
central support, ring
base and leg
evan den Brink, 2013,
pp. 319e321
Sha'ar Efraim 1 All broken Type uncertain Rim evan den Brink, 2011
Nahal Qanah Cave 101 All broken V-shaped and fenestrated
(type frequencies
uncertain)
Rim, body, base, leg
and ring base
Incised triangles with oblique hatches and
incised parallel lines
Gopher and Tsuk, 1996a,
pp. 109e112
Azor 2 All broken Type uncertain Rim and base Incised triangles with oblique hatches Perrot and Ladiray, 1980,
pp. 55
Giv'at Ha-Oranim 19 10 whole
9 broken
V-shaped (n ¼9);
fenestrated (n ¼10)
Rim, body, base, leg,
central support and
ring base
Incised triangles Scheftelowitz, 2004, pp. 61
e66; Scheftelowitz and
Oren, 2004a, pp. 18e33
Shoham (N) 68 All broken V-shaped and fenestrated
(type frequencies
uncertain)
Rim, body, base, leg,
central support and
ring base
Incised triangles with oblique hatches,
horizontal lines, herringbone and diamonds
and motifs in relief
Rowan, 2005,
pp. 113e139
Nesher-Ramla 2 All broken V-shaped (n ¼1) Rim and base eAvrutis, 2012a, pp. 186
Palmahim 1 All broken Type uncertain Rim Incised triangles with oblique hatches and
superimposed triangles
Gophna and Lifshitz, 1980
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10.1016/j.quaint.2017.02.026

incense burners, a suggestion that was also offered for ceramic
fenestrated vessel found in burial caves (e.g. Kaplan, 1963; Ilan and
Rowan, 2012), as many of these also bear internal soot marks (e.g.
Gopher and Tsuk, 1996a,b, pp. 91; Scheftelowitz and Oren, 2004a,
pp. 19e20, van den Brink, 2011, Fig. 37.9). Others suggested these
were used for placing offerings (Epstein, 1978, pp. 32).
All diagnostic basalt vessel elements are represented in the
eight burial caves under discussion. However, only the presence of
rim fragments is shared in all eight caves. This may relate to the
general symbolic significance of the rim area and the particular
significance in the Chalcolithic as basalt vessel rims frequently bear
decoration. The rim is important because it is liminal, connecting
the interior and exterior of the vessel. It is also the vessel opening,
and as such, it may signify the vessel itself. From a symbolic
perspective, the rim opening may also represent the womb or the
female genitals and relate to fertility (e.g. Orrelle and Gopher, 2002,
pp. 301e302), a theme prevalent in other elements incorporated
into burial context, such as red paint, modeled breasts on ossuaries
and additional anthropomorphic and zoomorphic features
(Epstein, 1978; Ilan and Rowan, 2012; Shalem, 2015 and see refer-
ences therein).
Five out of eight sites include decorated basalt vessels (62.5% of
burial caves with basalt vessels) although the overall percentage
decorated is low. As in the basalt vessel assemblages found in the
Chalcolithic settlements, decoration is dominated by incised motifs,
in particular hatched triangles pointing down at the rim (Gophna
and Lifshitz, 1980; Perrot and Ladiray, 1980, pp. 55; Gopher and
Tsuk, 1996a, pp. 109; Scheftelowitz, 2004, pp. 61e67; Rowan,
2005, pp. 117e120; Rosenberg et al., 2016). Only Nahal Qanah
cave and Shoham (N) have further external incised decorations
(Gopher and Tsuk, 1996d, 248; Rowan, 2005, pp. 117e120), with
several fragments in Shoham (N) bearing notably complex and
unique incised decoration as well as decoration formed in relief.
Similar painted geometric motifs appear on ossuaries (Shalem,
2008). Because the same decoration technique and style are used
on basalt vessels in domestic and mortuary contexts, this indicates
that the symbolism behind the incised patterns is relevant in both
arenas. This therefore links intramural household symbolic and
potentially ritualistic behavior with extramural mortuary practices
and rituals. The same themes permeate both contexts. Several
studies indicated a link between triangles and females, specifically
the mother goddess and fertility (e.g. Diringer, 1949, pp. 46; James,
1958, pp. 53). As an agrarian society practicing mixed agriculture,
fertility was likely a major concern for the Chalcolithic commu-
nities, and therefore, the triangle was used in decoration in both
domestic and mortuary context.
Basalt vessels are located only in multi-cave cemeteries or
complex karstic caves systems, which were likely used intensively;
however, the specific contexts of the basalt vessels reflect no clear
patterns, thereby indicating the specific location in the cave was of
no special significance. Basalt vessels are deposited with other
material culture remains (mainly pottery vessels and ossuaries) in
bedrock crevices and in fills (e.g. Perrot and Ladiray, 1980; van den
Brink and Gophna, 2005c, pp. 199e203). Only Giv'at Ha-Oranim
features distinct vessel context: two vessels that were placed in
small pits and additional vessels found in relation to a joint burial
including the square vessel placed near the heads of the buried
individuals and a fenestrated vessel placed upside down near the
individuals' legs (Scheftelowitz and Oren, 2004a, pp. 20, 31).
Additionally, in Nahal Qanah cave, Shoham (N) and Giv'at Ha-
Oranim, vessels are located in direct association with individual
burials (Gopher and Tsuk, 1996c, pp. 220e224; Scheftelowitz and
Oren, 2004a, pp. 29e32; van den Brink and Gophna, 2005c, pp.
199e203; Rowan, 2005, table 9.2).
Why only some sites included basalt vessels in burial context
and what value dictated their inclusion is yet unknown. However,
we should consider that the function and symbolic meaning is not
mortuary specific as the observed patterns exhibit similarities to
basalt vessels in domestic context. While the vessels may be sym-
bolically charged, they also reflect prestige by means of the raw
material they were made of, the expertise required for their pro-
duction, the risk in production failure it involves and the invest-
ment in their production and transportation to the site (Rosenberg
et al., 2016). Other prestige objects and distinctive finds are also
found in burial context and may distinguish the deceased or the
group who buried the deceased, using costly signaling to gain a
social advantage (Bird and Smith, 2005). By incorporating basalt
vessels in burial contexts, the signaler signifies publically his strong
connections with the trade networks and specialized production
centers.
Amongst the prestige grave goods, basalt vessels exhibit the
clearest parallels with copper items. Copper production is highly
specialized (Golden, 2009), and copper items were found in only
six (18.75% of the studied sites) Chalcolithic burial caves: Peqi'in
cave, Nahal Qanah cave, Bene Beraq, Azor, Giv'at Ha-Oranim and
Palmahim. The frequency is highly variable, ranging from one
copper standard in Palmahim, one fish hook in Bene Beraq and
one chisel in Azor to 16 varied items in Nahal Qanah cave
(Gophna and Lifshitz, 1980; Perrot and Ladiray, 1980, pp. 117;
Gopher and Tsuk, 1996a, pp. 114e115 ; Scheftelowitz and Oren,
2004a, pp. 32; Shalem et al., 2013, pp. 66). Notably, almost all
sites with copper items also have basalt vessels (excluding Bene
Beraq), and this could suggest that they shared trade networks or
had linked symbolic and social significance. However, this is
problematized by Nahal Mishmar, a site containing a hoard of
copper objects and other prestige items but only a few Chalco-
lithic burials (Bar-Adon, 1980, pp. 15e133, 198) and no basalt
vessels (Rosenberg and Davidovich, 2015). The symbolic link then
is only established in cave sites used predominately for burial
function.
Similar variability is exhibited for ivory, beads, perforated flint
objects and shells (e.g. Mienis, 2005, pp. 155e156; Shalem et al.,
2013, pp. 53e68; Rosenberg and Shimelmitz, 2017). Many of
these items, including the basalt vessels, reflect the existence of
long-distance trade networks and, for some objects, specialized
production. Such prestige items were incorporated into burial
context because they represented certain symbolic, economic or
other values to the populations utilizing the burial caves.
Basalt vessels then and other Chalcolithic grave goods reflect the
communities' wish to actively influence the fate of the deceased
individual by incorporating goods loaded with symbolic and eco-
nomic significance. These goods reaffirm and compound the link
between the dead and the living. Basalt vessels achieve this as they
have a high inherent economic and symbolic value.
Summing up, it is clear that while basalt vessels had special
prestige-related and possibly cultic significance for Chalcolithic
communities, an importance that is reflected in their presence in
most Chalcolithic settlements, only a few of these communities
transferred the social virtues of basalt vessels to burial contexts.
This may suggest that most communities held the function of
basalt vessels distinct from mortuary rituals and therefore did
not incorporate them into mortuary context. As most burial
caves that featured basalt vessels are located in or near the
Shephela, it is possible that the communities using these caves
shared specific burial rites dictating the incorporation of basalt
vessels. While Chalcolithic mortuary practices reflect some
overarching conventions, the differences in the inclusion of
basalt vessels in Chalcolithic burial caves indicates that specific
variations also existed and that these may have been formed on
a regional basis.
R. Chasan, D. Rosenberg / Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e15 13
Please cite this article in press as: Chasan, R., Rosenberg, D., Basalt vessels in Chalcolithic burial caves: Variations in prestige burial offerings
during the Chalcolithic period of the southern Levant and their social significance, Quaternary International (2017), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.quaint.2017.02.026

Acknowledgments
We would like to thank E. Orrelle and A. Chasan for their helpful
comments and suggestions that improved the current paper and
E.C.M. van den Brink and an anonymous reviewer for their
insightful remarks. We are also indebted to A. Regev-Gisis for her
infinite assistance in the preparation of the plates.
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