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The environmental impact of poultry production

Authors:
Vesna Rodic at University of Novi Sad
Vesna Rodic
Lidija Peric at University of Novi Sad
Lidija Peric
Mirjana Đukić Stojčić at University of Novi Sad Faculty of Agriculture
Mirjana Đukić Stojčić
  • University of Novi Sad Faculty of Agriculture
Natasa Vukelić at University of Novi Sad
Natasa Vukelić
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Abstract

The main aim of the animal production is to produce animal proteins of high value in a sustainable manner. However, sustainability is not easy to define. It is a complex phenomenon, which includes integration of economic, social, and environmental dimensions of the certain production, within a given socio-economic context. In this respect, poultry production meets first two dimensions – it provides affordable dietary item for consumers and profit for producers. It additionally generates up and downstream investment opportunities and it contributes to the development of the local economy. However, with the concentration of poultry production and increase in operation size, considerable environmental problems have occurred. During the last several decades, the environmental impact of the poultry production has received an ever-growing attention. Nowadays, producers are under heavy pressure, from different fronts, to minimize the impact of their production on the environment and to adopt welfare friendly practices. The major challenges, which will affect animal production in the future, will likely deal with the environment. In this paper, the environmental impact of poultry production and the differences in this respect between the different production systems are presented.
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Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry 27 (4), p 1673-1679 , 2011 ISSN 1450-9156
Publisher: Institute for Animal Husbandry, Belgrade-Zemun UDC 636.083
DOI: 10.2298/BAH1104673R
THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF POULTRY
PRODUCTION
V. Rodić1, L. Perić2, M. Đukić-Stojčić2, N. Vukelić1
1Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, Faculty of Agriculture, Novi Sad,
Trg D. Obradovića 8, Republic of Serbia
2Department of Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Agriculture, Novi Sad, Trg D. Obradovića 8, Republic
of Serbia
Corresponding author: rodicv@polj.uns.ac.rs
Review paper
Abstract: The main aim of the animal production is to produce animal proteins
of high value in a sustainable manner. However, sustainability is not easy to define. It
is a complex phenomenon, which includes integration of economic, social, and
environmental dimensions of the certain production, within a given socio-economic
context. In this respect, poultry production meets first two dimensions – it provides
affordable dietary item for consumers and profit for producers. It additionally
generates up and downstream investment opportunities and it contributes to the
development of the local economy. However, with the concentration of poultry
production and increase in operation size, considerable environmental problems have
occurred. During the last several decades, the environmental impact of the poultry
production has received an ever-growing attention. Nowadays, producers are under
heavy pressure, from different fronts, to minimize the impact of their production on
the environment and to adopt welfare friendly practices. The major challenges, which
will affect animal production in the future, will likely deal with the environment. In
this paper, the environmental impact of poultry production and the differences in this
respect between the different production systems are presented.
Key words: poultry, sustainability, environment, impact, management
Introduction
During the last several decades, sustainable development has become one of
the most important developmental priorities worldwide. Although the concept of
sustainable development was officially promoted in the late 1980s, there is still no
precise definition of this phenomenon (Daly, 1996; Atkinson et al., 2007).
Nevertheless, there is a consensus among the authors that each economic activity
depends on the global ecosystem (for its resources and for the absorption of
pollutants) and that sustainable development is possible only if an integration of
V. Rodić et al.
1674
three different dimensions - economic, social and environmental is achieved
(Jovanović-Gavrilović, 2003; Rodić et al., 2007a; Boggia et al., 2010).
As poultry production provides an affordable dietary item of a good quality for
consumers and profit for producers. Additionally it generates up and downstream
investment opportunities and it contributes to the development of the local
economy. Therefore, one can say that it clearly meets first two dimensions
(economic and social) of sustainability. However, intensification, concentration,
and an increase in operation size, have been coupled with some detrimental
environmental consequences (Rae, 1999; Wossink and Wefering, 2003; Rodić, 2006;
Rodić et al., 2007a). Poultry is increasingly seen as a production that is not
environmentally friendly and treated either as a pressure (in the “Pressure-State-
Response” models), or as a driving force (in the “Driving Force-Pressure-State-
Impact-Response” models) (Willeke-Wetstein, 1998; OECD, 2003; Belini, 2005;
Kostić and Rodić, 2009). As a result, producers are nowadays under intense
pressure, from different fronts, to minimize the impact of their production on
environment. According to Tabler (2007), the major challenge affecting animal
production in the future will be environmental.
In the paper, the environmental impact of poultry production and the
differences in this respect between the different production systems are presented.
Poultry production as a polluter
Driven by economic efficiency, poultry production, like everything else in market
economy, has been significantly developed and changed over the last several decades.
Global poultry population has grown from 4.2 billions birds in 1961 to 17.8 billion
birds in 2005 (Hegg, 2006). Due to the increase in operational size, the concentration,
and the intensification of poultry production, its off-site impacts have been
considerably increased. Consequently, the public’s perception of farmers is changing,
and the public is less and less tolerant to those negative impacts (Tabler, 2007). As a
result, environmental regulation is increasingly developing worldwide and poultry
producers have to comply with it. What always should be bear in mind is that people,
not animals, are the ones who pollute, ignoring environmental constraints when
managing their operations (Rodić et al, 1999; Rodić et al., 2007b).
Poultry production adversely affects the environment in numerous ways –
through poor management of manure and litter, waste streams from processing
plants (blood, bones, feathers, etc), birds’ carcasses, dust, insects, odour, etc.
Furthermore, intensive poultry production is held responsible for the emission of
greenhouse gasses, acidification, and eutrophication.
The environmental impact of poultry production depends on numerous factors,
among which are farm size, production system, diet composition, type of bedding
used, etc. It is well known that, if properly managed, waste generated in the poultry
The environmental impact of poultry ...
1675
production, especially manure and litter, could be a valuable resource, i.e. it could
be used as fertilizer, soil conditioner, animal feed, or energy source (Nahm, 2000).
However, thanks to the large amount of waste generated (which exceed crop
fertiliser requirements), content of harmful elements (such as heavy metals,
pesticide residues, pathogens, pharmaceuticals, etc.), and/or unwisely management,
poultry waste is often polluter instead of the valuable resource. Thus, producers
have to search for environmentally sound ways of waste disposal, which inevitably
affects their income.
Interest in using poultry manure and litter as a soil fertilizer for crop production has
emerged in parallel with rising interest in alternative agricultural production systems,
firs of all organic production. Poultry litter contains significant amounts of nutrients
essential for plant growth (Table 1). Its chemical composition can vary widely
depending on the type and category of poultry, type and quantity of bedding used,
environmental conditions in the facility, feed source, handling of manure, etc.
Table 1. Nutrient composition of poultry litter (modified according to Dick et al., 1998)
Type of manure
Layer Broiler
Nutrients (%)
Nitrogen (N) 3.3 4.1
Phosphorus (P) 2.9 2.1
Potassium (K) 3.6 2.7
Sulphur (S) 1.0 0.73
Trace elements (ppm)
Iron (Fe) 2.040 3.254
Zinc (Zn) 403 383
Copper (Cu) 163 163
From an ecological viewpoint, organic amendments offer some advantages if
compared to mineral fertilizers. In addition to nutrient supply, they improve soil
structure, control erosion, and improve water-holding capacity. However, there are
also some disadvantages, as unpleasant odours, high content of inorganic
phosphorus, which exceeds the needs of plants, release of volatile and reactive
organic compounds into the air, etc. The alternative use of poultry waste, as animal
feed or as a source of energy, is rather limited due to contaminants and high moisture
content. Farmers have to be aware of all these advantages and disadvantages in order
to be able to find and adopt acceptable and sustainable solutions.
Environmentalists often treat poultry less environmental-friendly than other
livestock productions, mainly because of the fact that birds’ nutritional needs
should be met exclusively by crops produced on arable land (since they cannot,
unlike ruminants, digest cellulose and use less productive land). However,
according to recent researches, where so called “cradle-to-grave” approach has
V. Rodić et al.
1676
been applied1 (Williams et al., 2006; Van der Sluis, 2007; De Vries and De Boer;
2010; Van Der Werf, 2010) poultry appears to be the most environmentally
efficient of all livestock productions. In Table 2 main environmental burdens for
different animal productions are given. One can see that poultry production (both
meat and eggs) is more environmentally efficient than other meat productions. This
is due, among other factors, very efficient feed conversation, high daily weight
gain, and lower emission of enteric methane.
Table 2. Main environmental burdens of animal products (Van der Sluis, 2007)
Beef Sheep
Meat
Pig
Meat
Poultry
Meat
Impact
(per tonne of carcass weight)
Eggs
(20,000)
Milk
(10,000 l)
Primary Energy used, GJ 27 26 23 15 14 26
Global warming potential (GWP)*
t CO2 equivalent 15 17 4.9 3.6 3.8 11
Eutrophication potential (EP)**
kg PO4 equivalent 101 153 32 26 26 45
Acidification potential (AP)***
kg SO2 equivalent 162 130 83 61 70 94
*Impacts of CO2, N2O, N2O-N and CH4 are aggregated and quantified in terms of CO2 equivalents
**NO3 and PO4 leaching to water and NH3 emissions to air are aggregated and quantified in terms of PO4 equivalents
*** NH3 and SO2 (from foss il fuel combustion) emission are aggrega ted and quantified in terms of SO2 equivalents
The differences in environmental impact of different poultry
housing systems
Interest in alternative housing systems is growing worldwide (Perić et al.,
2007; Rodić, 2010a; Rodić 2010b). It is often thought that these systems are more
environmental friendly. However, research done by Williams et al. (2006) has
shown that free range and organic poultry production are more environmentally
harmful than intensive production systems (Table 3).
Table 3. Comparison environmental burdens of different production systems (Wiliams et al., 2006)
Poultry meat systems
(per tonne)
Egg production system
(per 20,000 eggs)
Impact and land used
Traditional Free range Organic Cage Free range Organic
Primary Energy used, GJ 12 14.5 16 13.6 15.4 16.1
Global worming potential (GWP) 4.6 5.5 6.7 5.3 6.2 7.0
Eutrophication potential (EP) 49 63 86 75 80 102
Acidification potential (AP) 173 230 264 300 312 344
Land use, ha 0.64 0.73 1.40 0.63 0.78 1.48
1 By LCA method, all inputs into on-farm production for the observed livestock commodities (meat, milk, and
eggs) were tracked back to primary resources. All activities supporting farm production (feed production
processing, machinery and fertiliser manufacture, fertility building and cover crops) were also included.
The environmental impact of poultry ...
1677
While other field crops and animal products consume less primary energy and
have less environmental burdens when grown organically, poultry meat and eggs
are exceptions, because of the much lower bird performance (Perić et al., 2007)
and low efficiency of feed conversion in alternative housing systems.
Conclusion
Since environmental burdens depend, to great extent, on chosen management
practices, one can say that poultry industry will not threaten the environment only
if both economically and environmentally acceptable management practices are
applied. Unfortunately, it is still not the case and there are still many issues, related
to environmental impact of poultry production, which have to be solved in the
future (together with health and animal welfare issues). Unfortunately, existing
scientific knowledge is sufficient for problem recognition, however it is still not
capable of presenting a final solution. Farmers must be aware of ways in which
their production threatens environment. Only thus, they will be able to find and
adopt solutions that will provide both profitability and sustainability of poultry
production.
Acknowledgment
Research was financed by the Ministry of Education and Science, Republic
of Serbia, project TR 31033.
Uticaj živinarske proizvodnje na životnu sredinu
V. Rodić, L. Perić, M. Đukić-Stojčić, N. Vukelić
Rezime
Osnovni cilj koji se postavlja pred savremenu stočarsku proizvodnju je da na
održiv način proizvede visokokvalitetne proteine životinjskog porekla. Održivost, međutim,
nije lako definisati. To je složen pojam koji uključuje ekonomsku, socijalnu i ekološku
dimenziju određene proizvodnje, u datom društveno-ekonomskom kontekstu. U ovom
smislu, savremena živinarska proizvodnja ispunjava prve dve dimenzije – ona potrošačima
obezbeđuje kvalitetan prehrambeni proizvod po pristupačnoj ceni, a proizvođačima pruža
mogućnost stvaranja profita, uz stvaranje mogućnosti investiranja u čitavom lancu,
doprinoseći na taj način razvoju lokalne ekonomije. Međutim, sa koncentracijom i
specijalizacijom živinarske proizvodnje javljaju se i sve veći ekološki problemi. U
poslednje dve decenije, uticaj živinarske proizvodnje na životnu sredinu privlači sve veću
V. Rodić et al.
1678
pažnju. Na proizvođače se danas, sa različitih strana, vrši sve veći pritisak da negativan
uticaj na životnu sredinu svedu na minimum. Čini se da će glavni izazov pred
proizvođačima u budućnosti biti upravo zadovoljavanje visokih ekoloških standarda. U
radu su prikazani najznačajniji uticaji koje živinarska proizvodnja ima na životnu sredinu i
razlike koje u ovom pogledu postoje između pojedinih sistema proizvodnje.
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Received 30 June 2011; accepted for publication 15 August 2011
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Chapter
  • Oct 2023
This volume is a comprehensive compilation of reviews that show how various waste products can be used to produce useful products. Thirteen chapters highlight the following topics: - applications of plant-derived and fruit waste for value-added product formation; - fuel and chemical production from lignin - food waste bioconversion to high-value products - organic residues valorization for value-added chemicals - valorization of waste plastics to produce fuels and chemicals - food valorization for bioplastic production and concepts of circular economy in the valorization process. Chapters are written in an organized and strategic manner and also include the references from recent years. It will help students and researchers to quickly learn about modern waste valorization practices and advance their knowledge on the subject. The book is suitable as a reference for courses in environmental science, chemical engineering and agriculture. It also serves as a guide for trainees, managers and readers involved in waste management, sustainability and value-added product supply chains
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A critical assessment of the cellular defences of the avian respiratory system: are birds in general and poultry in particular relatively more susceptible to pulmonary infections/afflictions?
Article
  • Jul 2023
  • BIOL REV
In commercial poultry farming, respiratory diseases cause high morbidities and mortalities, begetting colossal economic losses. Without empirical evidence, early observations led to the supposition that birds in general, and poultry in particular, have weak innate and adaptive pulmonary defences and are therefore highly susceptible to injury by pathogens. Recent findings have, however, shown that birds possess notably efficient pulmonary defences that include: (i) a structurally complex three-tiered airway arrangement with aerodynamically intricate air-flow dynamics that provide efficient filtration of inhaled air; (ii) a specialised airway mucosal lining that comprises air-filtering (ciliated) cells and various resident phagocytic cells such as surface and tissue macrophages, dendritic cells and lymphocytes; (iii) an exceptionally efficient mucociliary escalator system that efficiently removes trapped foreign agents; (iv) phagocytotic atrial and infundibular epithelial cells; (v) phagocytically competent surface macrophages that destroy pathogens and injurious particulates; (vi) pulmonary intravascular macrophages that protect the lung from the vascular side; and (vii) proficiently phagocytic pulmonary extravasated erythrocytes. Additionally, the avian respiratory system rapidly translocates phagocytic cells onto the respiratory surface, ostensibly from the subepithelial space and the circulatory system: the mobilised cells complement the surface macrophages in destroying foreign agents. Further studies are needed to determine whether the posited weak defence of the avian respiratory system is a global avian feature or is exclusive to poultry. This review argues that any inadequacies of pulmonary defences in poultry may have derived from exacting genetic manipulation(s) for traits such as rapid weight gain from efficient conversion of food into meat and eggs and the harsh environmental conditions and severe husbandry operations in modern poultry farming. To reduce pulmonary diseases and their severity, greater effort must be directed at establishment of optimal poultry housing conditions and use of more humane husbandry practices.
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Privatized Waste Management Service Practices and Service Performance: Evidence from Oman
Article
  • Jan 2023
Waste management service is an important issue that needs great attention and support from the government because of its impact on public health and the physical environment. The purpose of this research is to investigate the linkage between privatized waste management (waste sorting by category, waste collection and transfer, waste treatment, waste transport, waste disposal, general cleaning) on service performance. The data collection instrument used was a questionnaire which was administrated to a total sample of 625 Omani resident unit. Reliability and validity tests employed. The research findings indicate significant correlation between waste management service practice and service performance. Based on the findings, strategic recommendations are proposed to implement the Privatization of waste management service for the private sector in Oman.
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SUSTAINABILITY OF AGRICULTURAL LAND MANAGEMENT IN THE AUTONOMOUS PROVINCE OF VOJVODINA
Article
Full-text available
Since the second half of the 20th century the awareness has grown of the unsustainability of economic systems that do not adequately appreciate natural resources as a public value, but stimulate unlimited economic growth in spite of limited resources. As the concept of sustainable development spread globally, preserving of natural resources for the generations to come became an increasingly acceptable task. In agricultural production, a very important precondition for achieving the goal of sustainable development is sustainable land management. Soil is a priceless, irreplaceable and fixed resource in agricultural production and it is “a good for the whole of mankind, not for a generation, a nation, a group or a person”. Thus any management resulting in land degradation either at the macro- or micro-level, should be considered as unsustainable and socially unacceptable. The paper analyses the changes in agricultural land of the Province of Vojvodina in the last fifty years and focuses on the basic problems in land management. The analysis has shown that land is not a factor limiting agricultural development. Vojvodina has about 0.88 ha of agricultural land per capita, but the question is whether land management is sustainable in the long run. The authors point out the untenability of the present approach to land management and the necessity of taking proper actions at the macro level as well as at the level of farm production. Although much was expected from the Law on Agricultural Land that was passed in 2006, the mechanisms that would support and secure sustainable management of this highly important natural resource have not been provided yet.
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Results of egg production in different housing systems
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2007
The aim of this work was to present the production results of laying hens kept in different housing systems - conventional cages with different stocking densities, enriched cages or in houses with a range. The used hybrid was Shaver 579 (564 birds). The main production parameters were monitored: No. of laid eggs, laying percentage, mortality rate, feed intake, egg weight and number of culled eggs. Data were analyzed by ANOVA followed by t-test. Main production parameters in production of table eggs were significantly different depending on the housing system. The best results were realized in cage system with lower housing density, and the worst results in hens housed in floor system on free range.
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Improving the poultry sector in Serbia: Major economic constraints and opportunities
Article
Full-text available
Poultry production is an important livestock sector in Serbia. It accounts for about 12% of the total value of country's livestock production. Providing relatively cheap food of high quality it is nowadays of particular importance due to economic transition problems and the consequent economic crisis that the country has faced since the beginning of the 1990s. However, despite the sector's importance, poultry production has actually had no institutional support for many years, and the poultry population, as well as broiler meat and table eggs production, has significantly declined over the last two decades. The sector is characterized by insufficient level of concentration, specialization, vertical integration and efficiency. It is estimated that small-scale farms and backyard poultry production in Serbia account for more than half of poultry meat production and two thirds of egg production, with a significant seasonal impact on local markets. The following paper gives an overview of both commercial and small-scale poultry production in Serbia and examine the major economic constrains to and opportunities for poultry sector improvement needed in view of Serbia's prospective EU integration.
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Uses and management of poultry litter
Article
Full-text available
The poultry industry is one of the largest and fastest growing agro-based industries in the world. This can be attributed to an increasing demand for poultry meat and egg products. However, a major problem facing the poultry industry is the large-scale accumulation of wastes including manure and litter which may pose disposal and pollution problems unless environmentally and economically sustainable management technologies are evolved. Most of the litter produced by the poultry industry is currently applied to agricultural land as a source of nutrients and soil amendment. However environmental pollution, resulting from nutrient and contaminant leaching can occur when poultry litter is applied under soil and climatic conditions that do not favour agronomic utilisation of the manure-borne nutrients. This review examines the composition of poultry litter in relation to nutrient content and environmental contaminants, its value as a nutrient source, soil amendment, animal feed and fuel source, and cost-effective innovative technologies for improving its value. Poultry litter provides a major source of nitrogen, phosphorus and trace elements for crop production and is effective in improving physical and biological fertility, indicating that land application remains as the main option for the utilisation of this valuable resource. The alternative use of poultry litter; as an animal feed and fuel source, is limited by contaminants, and high moisture content, respectively. The review proposes best management practices to mitigate environmental consequences associated with air and water quality parameters that are impacted by land application in order to maintain the continued productivity, profitability, and sustainability of the poultry industry.
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Competitiveness of table eggs from non-cage housing systems
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2010
Experiences of developed countries show that production costs in non-cage housing systems for layer hens are from 8 to 59%, and in organic production over 200% higher compared to production costs in the conventional cage system. Consequently, eggs deriving from non-cage systems can be competitive only provided that the consumers are willing to pay adequately higher price for eggs produced in said way. In this paper, 720 consumers were interviewed with aim to determine to what extent they are prepared to pay higher price for eggs deriving from non-cage systems. Obtained results show that over ¾ of consumers were willing to pay higher price for such eggs. This, however, was limited in majority of consumers (53%) to increase of price by up to 20%. This is enough to cover increased costs of production in the floor system, but not in case of free range system and organic production. Taking into consideration the fact that in EU, from year 2012, serious egg deficit can be expected due to the ban of housing of layers in battery cages, and that this deficit will probably be covered by supply from surrounding countries, it can be concluded that for certain number of producers transition to non-cage housing systems can be good business decision. For most of them, however, transition to so called enriched cages poses less risk, and in this production system they can expect premium price for egg with increase of production costs not exceeding 15%.
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A strategy to solve environmental concerns caused by poultry production
Article
Poultry manure and litter have the potential to be either land resources or pollutants of surface and ground water as well as giving rise to unpleasant odours. Provided proper attention is paid to nutrient management, they can be used as fertilisers, soil amendments and feed ingredients. Furthermore, the contents of nitrogen, phosphorus and other minerals in poultry manure and litter can be reduced by paying careful attention to diet composition – for example, by applying the concept of ideal protein, supplementation with synthetic amino acids, the addition of various types of enzymes including phytase, the lowering of the protein and phosphorus contents and the use of highly available sources of supplementary phosphorus and vitamin D. Good nutrient management also depends on obtaining representative samples of feed, manure, litter, water and soil from each handling system and having these analysed on a regular basis in a reliable laboratory. This not only ensures that proper quantities of nutrients are added to the native soil on which the crops that are ultimately to be used as feed sources are to be grown, but also means that lower amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and other elements are present in the feed. One outcome of the latter effect is that the poultry manure and litter excreted contains fewer potential pollutants and reduces the criticism levelled at the poultry industry that it runs roughshod over environmental concerns. It would be beneficial if all of these analytical procedures were handled in one laboratory specialising in animal agriculture with specialists advising farmers on how best to apply the analytical data.
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Environmental impact evaluation of conventional, organic and organic-plus poultry production systems using life cycle assessment
Article
The concept of environmental sustainability is crucial for the development of human actions, and it is one of the most important concerns of the European Union that requires attention in all of the economic sectors. In particular, the potential environmental impact of livestock is well known and has been one of the most important constraints on the development of animal breeding in certain areas. The main aim of this paper is to compare the environmental impact of different poultry production systems: conventional, organic and organic-plus. Organic-plus has more restrictive requirements than the organic system for improving animal welfare (i.e., use of slow-growing strains and 10 m2 pasture/bird), and the quality of the product. For environmental evaluation, life cycle assessment (LCA) has been used in this review, which is a method to evaluate the environmental impact of products, activities and services, based on a 'cradle-to-grave' approach. This article provides information for improving the environmental impacts in a process of assessing the sustainability that is specific for poultry production. An important recommendation can be drawn from this study: great attention has to be paid to the feed production phase, since it contributes more to the systems than animal rearing does to the environmental impact of the overall system. With reference to the comparison among the systems, our results show that the organic system has the best environmental performance because it not only has the lowest impact values for two of the most important impact categories (i.e., respiratory inorganics and fossil fuels), but it also has the lowest values for most of the remaining categories. LCA provides important data and specific indicators that can be used in a wider process for the analysis of sustainability, and to adapt and improve production systems. Taking into account the entire life cycle, the organic system has shown a better environmental performance than the organic-plus system. On the other hand, the organic-plus system improves animal welfare and meat quality, which are not considered by LCA. Therefore, to reach an equilibrium among all of these factors (namely environment protection, animal welfare and meat quality), it would be necessary to find a production system that conciliates them into one coherent scheme.
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Comparing environmental impacts for livestock products: A review of life cycle assessments
Article
  • Mar 2010
  • LIVEST SCI
Livestock production has a major impact on the environment. Choosing a more environmentally-friendly livestock product in a diet can mitigate environmental impact. The objective of this research was to compare assessments of the environmental impact of livestock products. Twenty-five peer-reviewed studies were found that assessed the impact of production of pork, chicken, beef, milk, and eggs using life cycle analysis (LCA). Only 16 of these studies were reviewed, based on five criteria: study from an OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) country, non-organic production, type of LCA methodology, allocation method used, and definition of system boundary. LCA results of these 16 studies were expressed in three ways: per kg product, per kg protein, and per kg of average daily intake of each product for an OECD country. The review yielded a consistent ranging of results for use of land and energy, and for climate change. No clear pattern was found, however, for eutrophication and acidification. Production of 1 kg of beef used most land and energy, and had highest global warming potential (GWP), followed by production of 1 kg of pork, chicken, eggs, and milk. Differences in environmental impact among pork, chicken, and beef can be explained mainly by 3 factors: differences in feed efficiency, differences in enteric CH4 emission between monogastric animals and ruminants, and differences in reproduction rates. The impact of production of 1 kg of meat (pork, chicken, beef) was high compared with production of 1 kg of milk and eggs because of the relatively high water content of milk and eggs. Production of 1 kg of beef protein also had the highest impact, followed by pork protein, whereas chicken protein had the lowest impact. This result also explained why consumption of beef was responsible for the largest part of the land use and GWP in an average OECD diet. This review did not show consistent differences in environmental impact per kg protein in milk, pork, chicken and eggs. Only one study compared environmental impact of meat versus milk and eggs. Conclusions regarding impact of pork or chicken versus impact of milk or eggs require additional comparative studies and further harmonization of LCA methodology. Interpretation of current LCA results for livestock products, moreover, is hindered because results do not include environmental consequences of competition for land between humans and animals, and consequences of land-use changes. We recommend, therefore, to include these consequences in future LCAs of livestock products
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Handbook of sustainable development
Article
  • Jan 2007
'As a whole, it thoughtfully reflects upon and elucidates the fundamental ideas and contributions that have taken root in the 20 years since publication of the Brundtland Report. Contributors offer a comprehensive survey of the field as it stands today, starting from basic principles, through inter- and intragenerational equity, to questions of growth and development, concluding with international perspectives. . . Atkinson, Dietz, and Neumayer have produced a volume that defines clearly the important thinking on sustainability as it stands today. Highly recommended.' © Giles Atkinson, Simon Dietz, Eric Neumayer, 2007. All rights reserved.
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Hot spots in animal agriculture, emerging federal environmental policies and the potential for efficiency and innovation offsets
Article
  • Feb 2003
In North America and Northern Europe, high livestock densities in concentrated areas (hot spots) have led to manure surpluses, which have resulted in water pollution problems. Using the emerging policy objectives for animal waste in the European Union and the USA as a backdrop, this paper discusses the impact of environmental regulation on farm profits. A theoretical model of the farm is presented where pollution is a joint output of production and where inefficiency in production prevails. Given this assumption, environmental regulations affect both the level of inefficiency and the extent of technological change and can induce cost offsets. Data from the Netherlands, where strict environmental regulation has been in place for animal agriculture since 1987, are used to test the hypothesis about efficiency and innovation offsets. Furthermore, differences in these offsets between farm types are assessed.
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