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South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Education and Recreation, 2017, 39(1): 111 -133.
Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Navorsing in Sport, Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde en Ontspanning, 2017, 39(1): 111 - 133.
ISBN: 0379-9069
111
EFFECTIVENESS OF MARTIAL ARTS TRAINING VS. OTHER TYPES OF
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: DIFFERENCES IN BODY HEIGHT, BODY MASS,
BMI AND MOTOR ABILITIES
Robert PODSTAWSKI1, Piotr MARKOWSKI2, Dariusz CHOSZCZ2,
Adam LIPIŃSKI2 & Krzysztof BORYSŁAWSKI3
1 Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of Warmia and Mazury,
Olsztyn, Poland
2Department of Heavy Duty Machines and Research Methodology, Faculty of Technical
Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland
3Department of Anthropology, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences,
Wrocław, Poland
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to determine the relationships between various forms of
physical activities and anthropometric parameters and motor abilities of female
students. Measurements took place at the beginning and at the end of the summer
semester. It involved 303 first-year full-time female students. The body height, body
mass and BMI of participants were determined. Thirteen motor tests were
administered to assess motor abilities. The tallest and slimmer students chose
martial arts and jogging followed by sauna, whereas the shortest students opted for
aerobics and swimming. Students with higher body mass and higher BMI scores
were more likely to participate in golf, aerobics, general Physical Education (PE)
and swimming classes. Students involved in martial arts, swimming and jogging
scored highest in the majority of motor tests. The choice of physical activity (PA)
correlated with body height, body mass, BMI and motor fitness. In most motor
ability tests, a significant improvement in performance was observed in students who
had opted for martial arts, swimming and jogging followed by sauna, which
indicates that those activities had the most profound influence on the participants'
motor fitness levels.
Key words: Women; Motor performance; Anthropometric features; Forms of
physical activity; Physical education.
INTRODUCTION
Scientific evidence clearly indicates that regular PA, exercise and physical fitness (PF) play a
key role in the maintenance of health. Regular activities, in doses appropriate for the
individual, benefit the physical and mental health of males and females of all ages, including
disabled persons, and enable them to build more satisfactory social relationships (WHO,
2003; Rind & Jones, 2014). The health benefits of PA have been discussed in numerous
studies into the prevention of metabolic diseases that lead to uncontrolled weight gain and
obesity (Kahn & Williamson, 1991; Owens et al., 1992). Obesity increases the risk of serious
medical problems, which contribute to poor health and premature death (Strenfeld et al.,
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski
112
2004; Choi et al., 2011). A balanced diet combined with an appropriate exercise regime seem
to be most effective for maintaining healthy weight and physical fitness. In young adults,
overweight and obesity is frequently associated with excessive weight in childhood (Lee et
al., 2010). The majority of overweight and obese individuals are significantly less physically
active than their peers with a healthy weight (Turconi et al., 2008; Simovska et al., 2012).
The levels of PA change with age (Van Tuyckom & Scheerder, 2010) and a significant
decrease is noted during the transition from secondary school to university (Douglas et al.,
1997; Smith et al., 2014) and during the first year at university (Bray & Born, 2004). In
Poland, most female university students lead highly sedentary lives and their PA is generally
limited to obligatory PE classes (Lisicki, 2006; Umiastowska, 2007; Podstawski et al., 2013a;
Podstawski et al., 2014b). University students with high body mass and high BMI tend to
select less intensive forms of PA than their peers with normal BMI (Podstawski et al., 2015).
Low levels of PA contribute to a drop in PF (Ekelund et al., 2007). Individuals with higher
PF are more inclined to be physically active than their peers with lower levels of motor
competence (Wrotniak et al., 2006). People who remain physically active into old age are
generally characterised by lower body weight, lower waist circumference and lower BMI
(Dunsky et al., 2014).
Body size and body composition are determined by means of anthropometric measurements.
There is evidence to suggest that basic anthropometric parameters (body mass and body
height) and anthropometric indicators (such as BMI) are correlated with PA levels and motor
abilities. Individuals with high body mass and high BMI are characterised by significantly
lower levels of cardiorespiratory fitness, endurance abilities (Creceliuset al., 2008;
Vanderburgh & Laubach, 2008), endurance-strength abilities (Podstawski et al., 2012;
Podstawski et al., 2014a), as well as relative strength and coordination abilities (Mermier et
al., 2000; Sands et al., 2000; Podstawski et al., 2016). High BMI compromises flexibility
(Bénéfice & Ndiaye, 2005), but it is positively correlated with absolute strength (Mondal et
al., 2011; Khalaf et al., 2013). The motor performance of tall individuals can also be
compromised during certain strength and endurance exercises that require constant changes in
body position (Podstawski et al., 2016).
PA programmes (aerobic and resistance training) involve various training methods (long
duration, interval, continuous, high-intensity) with a different impact on the body. The
influence of various training methods on the elements of PF is particularly visible in
professional athletes and health training regimes are often based on professional training
programmes. Health programmes are characterised by growing levels of specialisation and
individualisation and they are largely inspired by the methods used in professional sport
training.
Training programmes in various sport disciplines are developed to promote a particular set of
skills and abilities, including strength (resistance training), speed (sprinting), endurance
(marathon, triathlon) and flexibility (gymnastics). Strength training increases body mass
through hypertrophy, namely the increase in the mass of the existing muscle fibres (Franchini
et al., 2011). It also contributes to bone mineralisation and prevents osteoporosis (Mikesky et
al., 1991). Speed abilities are more genetically based than strength, and the two are highly
positively correlated (Vanderburgh & Laubach, 2008). For this reason, most sprinters have a
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Effectiveness of physical activity types
113
muscular physique, which can be compared to that of bodybuilders (Toriola et al., 1985).
Although endurance is determined mainly by maximal aerobic power (VO2max) and muscle
resistance to fatigue (Szopa, 1998), it should be noted that those parameters can be
considerably impaired in individuals with high body mass and high body fat levels (Crecelius
et al., 2008). The exercise regimes for sedentary individuals are generally referred to as
health training (personal training), and they are part of comprehensive health programmes
aiming to reduce body fat mass, increase lean body mass, improve body composition
(Heyward, 1997; Osiński, 2003) and general PF levels.
The minimum required level of PA for young people is 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous
exercise daily (USA Department of Health and Human Services, 1996; Brown &
Summerbell, 2009). Research studies have demonstrated that many universities fail to meet
this requirement (Douglas et al., 1997; Hilland et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2014). In Polish
universities, the PE curriculum covers 60 academic hours (of 45 minutes each) during the
entire study programme, and most PE classes take place in the first year in the form of 90-
minute sessions (Podstawski & Sławek, 2012). During one semester of approximately five
months, students have to attend 15 PE classes of 90 minutes each. Students choose their
preferred type of activity and a PE instructor. The cited statistics differ between sources, but
according to some researchers, Polish female university students are not engaged in sufficient
amounts of PA during obligatory PE classes to stimulate adaptive physiological changes at
socially expected levels (Grabowski, 2003). The contribution of PE classes in Polish
universities to the students' PF levels and BMI has not been studied to date. Attempts should
be made to determine the effectiveness of various types of PAs undertaken by female students
during obligatory PE classes.
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
In view of the above, the objective of this study was to determine the relationships between
various types of PA (martial arts, general PE, swimming, aerobics, golf, jogging followed by
sauna) undertaken by female students of the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn
(UWM), Poland, on their body mass, body height, BMI and motor abilities.
METHODOLOGY
Ethics
The research was carried out with the prior consent of the Ethical Committee of the UWM.
The study involved female student volunteers who signed a written statement of informed
consent.
Participants
The study involved 303 first-year full-time female students, who were randomly selected
from 260 groups of students attending obligatory PE classes at the UWM, Poland. Statistical
tables were used for that purpose (Zieliński & Zieliński, 2001). Randomly selected students
were asked whether they wished to participate in the study on a volunteer basis, and those
who did, signed a volunteer form. If the chosen student did not wish to participate in the
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski
114
study, another potential candidate was randomly drawn. A total of 27 PE groups were
randomly selected, and only those female students who were absent, for whatever reason, on
the day the tests and measurements were performed, were excluded from the study. More
than 95% of the students, aged 19 to 20 years, from the selected groups were examined. The
vast majority of the participants resided permanently in the Region of Warmia and Mazury,
Poland. The participants were selected from among volunteers who did not take any
medication or nutritional supplements, were in good health, had no history of blood diseases
or diseases affecting biochemical and biomechanical factors, and did not participate in any
PA programmes other than the obligatory PE classes.
PA levels were evaluated in female students with the use of the Polish short version of the
standardised and validated International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) (Biernat et
al., 2007). The participants declared the number of minutes dedicated to PA (minimum 10
minutes) during an average week preceding the study. The energy expenditure associated
with weekly PA levels was expressed in terms of Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET) units.
The MET is the ratio of the work metabolic rate to the resting metabolic rate. One MET
denotes the amount of oxygen consumed in 1 minute, which is estimated at 3.5mL/kg/min.
Based on the frequency, intensity and duration of PA declared by the surveyed students, the
respondents were classified into groups characterised by low (L=<600 METs-min/week),
moderate (M=<1,500 METs-min/week) and high (H=≥1,500 METs-min/week) levels of
activity.
Only female students with low levels of PA, a sedentary lifestyle and energy expenditure of
up to 600 METs per week were chosen for the study. IPAQ was used only to select a
homogenous sample of female students. These results are not presented in this article. The
resulting sample can be regarded as representative of first-year students of the UWM in
Olsztyn. Every student had to attend 15, 90-minute PE classes to receive credit. Students
selected a PE teacher and a preferred type of activity online in the University's USOS WEB
system. The evaluated students were presented with the following choice of PA: martial arts,
general PE, swimming, aerobics, golf, jogging followed by sauna.
Instruments and procedures
Body mass and body height were measured using the Radwag scale and the results were used
to calculate their BMI. Volunteers participated in 13 motor ability tests: standing long jump
[cm], 4×10m shuttle run [s], 8s skipping with hand clapping [number of claps], zig-zag run
[s], standing forward bend [cm], barbell overhead trunk rotation [cm], sit-ups in 30s [number
of sit-ups], medicine ball (4 kg) forward throw [cm], medicine ball (4kg) backward throw
[cm], flexed arm hang on bar [s], 1-minute and 3-minute Burpee tests [number of cycles], and
12-minute Cooper test on a rowing ergometer [m]. The accuracy and reliability of the applied
motor ability tests were confirmed by numerous studies (Szopa et al., 1998). In each group,
motor ability tests were conducted in the same order, beginning from coordination tests,
through speed, agility, flexibility and strength tests, and concluding with endurance and
strength tests. The instructions for each test were given during a PE class, and students were
given sufficient time to practise. The participants performed an active warm up for 10
minutes before the tests (Frandkin et al., 2010).
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Effectiveness of physical activity types
115
Statistical analysis
The results of every trial were averaged and standard deviation was computed using
descriptive statistics. Maximum and minimum values were also noted to classify the
participants into the applicable ranges for every test. The differences in the motor abilities of
students participating in different types of physical activities were determined by analysis of
variance (ANOVA). The mean values of the "physical activity factor" were compared by
Duncan's test. Mean values and significant variations between participants attending different
PE classes were shown in tables. Data were processed and the results were analysed in the
Statistica PL v. 10 software package (Rabiej, 2012).
Definition of the effectiveness of physical education classes
The effectiveness of PE classes for female university students is measured not only by the
extent to which PA contributes to an improvement in PF and body mass reduction to healthy
levels. The results scored by students are a reflection on their overall health, therefore, the
effectiveness of PE classes is also measured in terms of health-related fitness (H-RF) criteria.
In line with the H-RF approach, the goal of PF should be to improve physical health and
minimise the risk of disease. Individuals who have successfully improved their PF levels
have more energy, feel more motivated to accomplish daily tasks and derive a sense of
accomplishment from participating in sports (Howley & Franks, 1997).
RESULTS
The evaluated body mass, body height, BMI and variations in the analysed parameters across
different physical activity groups are presented in Tables 1 and 2. The significance of
differences between the results of motor ability tests within groups at the beginning and end
of the semester is shown in Table 3, and the significance of differences between the results of
motor ability tests between groups at the beginning and end of the semester is presented in
Table 6.
Differences in body mass, body height and BMI values between the beginning and end of the
semester are shown in Table 1. The body mass and BMI of all female students (regardless of
the type of chosen physical activity) increased significantly by 0.05kg (p=0.0010) and
0.02kg/m2 (p=0.0003), respectively. A significant decrease in body mass was found in
students performing martial arts (p=0.0000) and jogging followed by sauna (p=0.0000),
whereas a significant increase in body mass was observed in participants attending golf
(p=0.0000), general PE (p=0.0000), aerobics (p=0.0016) and swimming classes (p=0.0000).
Similar correlations were generally noted in BMI values of the entire population, regardless
of the type of PA. BMI increased significantly by 0.02kg/m2, but it remained within the
reference range at the beginning and end of the semester. A significant decrease in BMI was
noted in students performing martial arts (p=0.0000) and jogging followed by sauna
(p=0.0000), whereas a significant increase in BMI was observed in participants attending golf
(p=0.0000), general PE (p=0.0000), aerobics (p=0.0014) and swimming classes (p=0.0000).
Martial arts students were tallest (mean of 166.10cm) and students attending swimming
classes were shortest (156.69cm) (Table 1).
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski
116
The results presented in Table 2 indicate that at the end of the semester, the body mass of
martial arts students (1) was significantly lower than the body mass of students attending
general PE, swimming, aerobics and golf classes (2,3,4,5), whereas the body mass of joggers
(6) was significantly lower than the body mass of students attending general PE and
swimming classes (2,3).
Table 1. BODY MASS, BODY HEIGHT AND BMI AT BEGINNING AND END OF
SUMMER SEMESTER
Anthropometric
parameters
Begin semester
End semester
p-Value
(Sign.)
Activity
Mean±SD
Min-Max
Mean±SD
Min-Max
Martial arts
n=41
Body mass [kg]
57.10±4.81
49.70-70.20
56.90±4.80
49.20-69.70
0.0000
Body height [cm]
166.10±8.72
149-183
166.10±8.72
149-183
ns
BMI (kg/m2)
20.76±1.82
17.39-25.39
20.69±1.81
17.30-25.27
0.0000
PE classes
n=107
Body mass [kg]
63.37±6.91
54.10-89.30
63.48±6.89
54.20-89.50
0.0000
Body height [cm]
160.18±7.93
148-182
160.18±7.93
148-182
ns
BMI (kg/m2)
24.88±3.73
19.19-39.69
24.92±3.72
19.32-39.78
0.0000
Swimming
n=68
Body mass [kg]
62.93±6.36
53.10-82.30
63.07±6.35
53.30-82.50
0.0000
Body height [cm]
156.69±6.60
146-176
156.69±6.60
146-176
ns
BMI (kg/m2)
25.74±3.20
19.98-35.62
25.79±3.20
20.05-35.71
0.0000
Aerobics
n=63
Body mass [kg])
60.59±6.06
54.20-78.20
60.68±6.06
54.20-78.40
0.0016
Body height [cm]
157.92±7.24
149-178
157.92±7.24
149-178
ns
BMI (kg/m2)
24.47±3.57
19.47-34.37
24.50±3.58
19.51-34.28
0.0014
Golf
n=25
Body mass [kg]
59.44±4.22
56.10-73.10
59.86±4.15
56.60-73.00
0.0000
Body height [cm]
158.44±5.99
149-172
158.44±5.99
149-172
ns
BMI (kg/m2)
23.81±2.84
19.74-30.82
23.98±2.83
19.88-30.78
0.0000
Jogging
then sauna
n=23
Body mass [kg]
58.86±5.91
49.90-76.30
58.47±5.83
49.50-75.60
0.0000
Body height [cm]
162.30±9.53
148-182
162.30±9.53
148-182
ns
BMI (kg/m2)
22.41±2.09
18.11-26.85
22.27±2.08
17.96-26.64
0.0000
Total group
N=327
Body mass [kg]
61.28±6.49
49.70-89.30
61.33±6.51
49.20-89.50
0.0009
Body height [cm]
159.86±8.14
146-183
159.86±8.14
146-183
ns
BMI (kg/m2)
24.16±3.56
17.39-39.69
24.18±3.58
17.30-39.78
0.0003
ns = No significant difference p= Probability of exceeding calculated chi-square value
Table 2. ANTHROPOMETRIC PARAMETERS OF ACTIVITY GROUPS (END OF
SEMESTER)
Parameter
Activity group
Diffe-
rence
1
Mean±SD(
min-max)
2
Mean±SD(
min-max)
3
Mean±SD(
min-max)
4
Mean±SD(
min-max)
5
Mean±SD(
min-max)
6
Mean±SD(
min-max)
Body mass
[kg]
56.90±4.80
(49.2-69.7)
63.48±6.89
(54.2-89.5)
63.07±6.35
(53.3-82.5)
60.68±6.06
(54.2-78.0)
59.86±4.15
(56.6-73.0)
58.47±5.83
(49.5-75.6)
2.3.4.5>1
2.3>6
Body height
[cm]
166.10±8.7
(149-180)
160.18±7.9
(148-182)
156.69±6.6
(146-176)
157.92±7.2
(149-178)
158.44±6.0
(149-172)
162.30±9.5
(148-182)
1>2.5.4.3
2>3
BMI
[kg/m2]
20.69±1.81
(17.3-25.3)
24.92±3.72
(19.3-39.8)
25.79±3.20
(20.1-35.7)
24.50±3.58
(19.5-34.3)
23.98±2.83
(19.9-30.8)
22.27±2.08
(18.0-26.6)
3.2.4.5>1
3.2>6
1=Martial arts, 2=General PE, 3=Swimming, 4=Aerobics, 5=Golf, 6=Jogging then sauna BMI= Body Mass Index
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Effectiveness of physical activity types
117
Martial art students (1) were significantly taller than students attending general PE,
swimming, aerobics and golf classes (2,3,4,5), and students participating in general PE were
significantly taller than swimmers. An analysis of BMI values at the end of the semester
revealed that swimmers (3) were overweight, whereas the body mass of the remaining
students was within the norm, while participants attending golf and general PE classes (2,5)
occupied the upper limit of the normal range of values. The lowest BMI values were noted in
the martial arts group (1), and they were significantly lower than in groups of students
attending general PE, swimming, aerobics and golf classes (2,3,4,5). At the end of the
semester, the BMI of joggers (6) was significantly lower in comparison with students
involved in general PE classes and swimming (2,3) (Table 2).
Martial arts students significant improved their results in all motor ability tests at the end of
the semester. In the group of students attending general PE classes, a significant deterioration
in results at the end of the summer semester was noted in the standing long jump (p=0.0130),
skipping with hand clapping (p=0.0000), barbell overhead trunk rotation (p=0.0078) and 30s
sit-ups (p=0.0416). A significant improvement was observed only in the medicine ball
forward throw test (p=0.0073), whereas no significant differences were found in the
remaining motor ability tests (Table 3).
In the group of swimmers, a significant improvement in results was observed in the following
motor ability tests: 8s skipping with hand clapping (p=0.0001), 30s sit-ups (p=0.0000),
medicine ball forward and backward throw (p=0.0000 for both tests), flexed arm hang on bar
(p=0.0000), 1-minute and 3-minute Burpee tests (p=0.0000 for both tests) and the 12-minute
Cooper test on a rowing ergometer (p=0.0000). Their results deteriorated in the standing
downward bend (p=0.0122), whereas no significant differences were observed in the
remaining motor ability tests. The results scored by aerobics participants deteriorated in the
following tests: standing long jump (p=0.0000), 4×10m shuttle run (shorter time is a better
result, p=0.0000), 8s skipping with hand clapping (p=0.0193), zig-zag run (shorter time is a
better result, p=0.0038), 30s sit-ups (p=0.0242), medicine ball backward throw (p=0.0000), 1-
minute and 3-minute Burpee tests (p=0.0138 and p=0.0026, respectively) and the 12-minute
Cooper test on a rowing ergometer (p=0.0000). A significant improvement in results was
noted only in the standing downward bend test (p=0.0428), whereas the differences observed
in the remaining tests were not significant (Table 3).
In the group of golfers, a significant deterioration in test results was observed in the 4×10m
shuttle run (p=0.0280), zig-zag run (p=0.0000), medicine ball forward throw (p=0.0058) and
the 3-minute Burpee test (p=0.0084). No significant differences in the remaining tests were
noted in the group of golf players between the beginning and end of the summer semester.
Students who jogged and used a sauna significantly improved their results in the standing
long jump (p=0.0021), 4×10m shuttle run (p=0.0001), zig-zag run (p=0.0000), medicine ball
forward throw (p=0.0000), medicine ball backward throw (p=0.0114), 1-minute and 3-minute
Burpee test (p=0.0000 for both tests), and the 12-minute Cooper test on a rowing ergometer
(p=0.0000). No significant differences in results were noted in the remaining motor ability
tests: 8s skipping with hand clapping (p=0.8866), standing downward bend (p=0.5365),
barbell overhead trunk rotation (p=0.6760), 30s sit-ups (p=0.0566) and flexed arm hang on
bar (p=0.0779) (Table 3).
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski
118
Table 3. MOTOR ABILITY TESTS SCORED AT BEGINNING AND END OF
SEMESTER ACCORDING TO ACTIVITY
Activity
Motor ability tests
Beginning of semester
End of semester
Sign.
Differences
(p)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Martial arts
Standing long jump
[cm]
179.37±11.59
(165-211)
180.41±11.43
(165-211)
0.0032
4×10m shuttle run
[s]
12.41±0.62
(10.81-13.45)
11.97±0.60
(10.76-12.95)
0.0000
8s Skipping & hand claps
[no. claps]
22.59±1.86
(18-27)
25.93±1.52
(23-29)
0.0000
Zig-zag run
[s]
30.56±1.19
(28.14-32.78)
28.78±0.86
(27.00-30.91)
0.0000
Standing downward bend
[cm]
8.34±2.24
(4-14)
11.78±2.52
(8-17)
0.0000
Barbell overhead trunk
rotation [cm]
71.73±6.26
(60-85)
67.27±6.42
(54-80)
0.0000
30s Sit-ups
[no. sit-ups]
18.93±1.94
(16-23)
22.00±1.99
(18-27)
0.0000
Medicine ball backward
throw [cm]
744.63±105.79
(560-940)
815.00±105.79
(620-1050)
0.0000
Medicine ball forward
throw [cm]
600.24±77.18
(470-780)
657.68±81.30
(530-830)
0.0000
Flexed arm hang on bar
[s]
9.19±9.04
(2.00-45.23)
11.76±10.64
(3.46-51.34)
0.0000
1-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
16.80±2.22
(14-22)
19.37±2.50
(17-26)
0.0000
3-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
52.56±4.04
(44-61)
55.51±4.31
(47-64)
0.0000
12-min Cooper test,
rowing ergometer [m]
1838.85±165.48
(1549-2156)
1939.95±186.86
(1620-2340)
0.0000
Physical education
Standing long jump
[cm]
161.95±16.19
(119-205)
161.32±16.26
(120-207)
0.0130
4×10m shuttle run
[s]
12.52±3.68
(10.87-46.00)
12.39±0.82
(10.59-14.78)
ns
8s Skipping & hand claps
[no. claps]
23.19±2.61
(17-28)
21.99±2.59
(13-27)
0.0000
Zig-zag run
[s]
28.27±2.85
(22.53-34.99)
28.30±2.49
(23.98-34.40)
ns
Standing downward bend
[cm]
4.74±3.40
(-5-13)
4.54±3.90
(-6-13)
ns
Continued
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Effectiveness of physical activity types
119
Activity
Motor ability tests
Beginning of semester
End of semester
Sign.
Differences
(p)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Physical education
Barbell overhead trunk
rotation [cm]
69.80±6.06
(54-88)
70.30±5.81
(56-85)
0.0078
30s Sit-ups
[no. sit-ups]
19.80±3.73
(12-27)
19.41±3.59
(12-27)
0.0416
Medicine ball backward
throw [cm]
646.08±118.29
(420-1000)
647.47±125.90
(380-1060)
ns
Medicine ball forward
throw [cm]
547.53±88.78
(380-800)
552.52±90.21
(370-820)
0.0073
Flexed arm hang on bar
[s]
5.03±6.65
(0.00-38.03)
4,95±6.67
(0.00-45.99)
ns
1-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
18.02±7.86
(12-91)
17.44±2.39
(11-23)
ns
3-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
48.98±8.45
(18-62)
49.28±8.60
(16-62)
ns
12-min Cooper test,
rowing ergometer [m]
1644.34±309.15
(845-2359)
1649.46±313.57
(788-2340)
ns
Swimming
Standing long jump
[cm]
157.98±14.74
(126-188)
158.31±15.26
(127-190)
ns
4×10m shuttle run
[s]
12.97±0.85
(11.08-15.23)
12.94±0.80
(10.87-15.04)
ns
8s Skipping & hand claps
[no. claps]
24.59±2.65
(17-34)
25.55±2.91
(18-36)
0.0001
Zig-zag run
[s]
30.19±2.72
(24.58-35.46)
30.06±2.62
(25.69-34.87)
ns
Standing downward bend
[cm]
6.84±4.69
(-1- 18)
6.41±4.92
(-2- 20)
0.0122
Barbell overhead trunk
rotation [cm]
64.67±4.59
(55-74)
64.34±4.52
(55-74)
ns
30s Sit-ups
[no. sit-ups]
15.19±2.77
(11-23)
17.48±3.02
(11-25)
0.0000
Medicine ball backward
throw [cm]
720.63±126.68
(470-1000)
747.97±126.83
(500-1080)
0.0000
Medicine ball forward
throw [cm]
587.97±96.73
(400-820)
641.72±99.40
(450-890)
0.0000
Flexed arm hang on bar
[s]
4.34±2.49
(0.00-14.47)
5.71±2.78
(1.23-17.87)
0.0000
1-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
17.39±3.12
(11-24)
18.83± 3.59
(10-28)
0.0000
Continued
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski
120
Activity
Motor ability tests
Beginning of semester
End of semester
Sign.
Differences
(p)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Swimming
3-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
47.50±3.58
(39-54)
49.81±3.39
(42-55)
0.0000
12-min Cooper test,
rowing ergometer [m]
1488.67±245.35
(712-1997)
1630.31±251.63
(889-2147)
0.0000
Aerobics
Standing long jump
[cm]
155.06±16.19
(123-193)
153.06±16.21
(120-192)
0.0000
4×10m shuttle run
[s]
12.77±0.84
(11.00-15.12)
13.12±0.73
(11.72-15.47)
0.0000
8s Skipping & hand claps
[no. claps]
23.49±2.21
(19-29)
22.70±2.22
(17-27)
0.0193
Zig-zag run
[s]
30.66±2.52
(24.59-37.89)
30.95±2.55
(25.28-37.03)
0.0038
Standing downward bend
[cm]
6.94±4.78
(-6- 23)
7.81±5.20
(-9-21)
0.0428
Barbell overhead trunk
rotation [cm]
69.00±5.86
(58-81)
69.34±5.41
(57-80)
ns
30s Sit-ups
[no. sit-ups]
16.17±4.11
(6-24)
15.62±4.00
(7-22)
0.0242
Medicine ball backward
throw [cm]
628.87±97.24
(370-860)
612.60±97.69
(350-840)
0.0000
Medicine ball forward
throw [cm]
559.15±89.76
(350-800)
561.51±91.76
(340-790)
ns
Flexed arm hang on bar
[s]
4.81±7.03
(0.00-45.12)
4.64±7.21
(0.00-46.06)
ns
1-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
17.13±2.19
(13-22)
16.51±1.86
(11-21)
0.0138
3-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
45.77±5.97
(31-58)
44.85±5.73
(29-57)
0.0026
12-min Cooper test,
rowing ergometer [m]
1300.13±194.07
(923-1698)
1250.02±201.67
(823-1671)
0.0000
Golf
Standing long jump
[cm]
157.98±14.74
(126-188)
158.31±15.26
(127-190)
0.0032
4×10m shuttle run
[s]
12.97±0.85
(11.08-15.23)
12.94±0.80
(10.87-15.04)
0.0000
8s Skipping & hand claps
[no. claps]
24.59±2.65
(17-34)
25.55±2.91
(18-36)
0.0000
Continued
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Effectiveness of physical activity types
121
Activity
Motor ability tests
Beginning of semester
End of semester
Sign.
Differences
(p)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Golf
Zig-zag run
[s]
30.19±2.72
(24.58-35.46)
30.06±2.62
(25.69-34.87)
0.0000
Standing downward bend
[cm]
6.84±4.69
(-1- 18)
6.41±4.92
(-2- 20)
0.0000
Barbell overhead trunk
rotation [cm]
64.67±4.59
(55-74)
64.34±4.52
(55-74)
0.0000
30s Sit-ups
[no. sit-ups]
15.19±2.77
(11-23)
17.48±3.02
(11-25)
0.0000
Medicine ball backward
throw [cm]
720.63±126.68
(470.00-1000)
747.97±126.83
(500-1080)
0.0000
Medicine ball forward
throw [cm]
587.97±96.73
(400-820)
641.72±99.40
(450-890)
0.0000
Flexed arm hang on bar
[s]
4.34±2.49
(0.00-14.47)
5.71±2.78
(1.23-17.87)
0.0000
1-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
17.39±3.12
(11-24)
18.83±3.59
(10-28)
0.0000
3-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
47.50±3.58
(39-54)
49.81±3.39
(42-55)
0.0000
12-min Cooper test,
rowing ergometer [m]
1488.67±245.35
(712-1997)
1630.31±251.63
(889-2147)
0.0000
Jogging and sauna
Standing long jump
[cm]
176.22±11.48
(156-204)
177.39±11.30
(160-205)
0.0021
4×10m shuttle run
[s]
12.35±0.88
(10.15-13.56)
12.08±0.82
(10.28-13.52)
0.0001
8s Skipping & hand claps
[no. claps]
24.78±2.49
(19-28)
24.87±2.80
(17-30)
ns
Zig-zag run
[s]
29.39±3.17
(24.15-36.89)
28.68±3.31
(23.18-35.83)
0.0000
Standing downward bend
[cm]
3.43±2.39
(0-9)
3.74±2.97
(-2- 9)
ns
Barbell overhead trunk
rotation [cm]
69.26±5.20
(58-76)
69.43±4.05
(61-75)
ns
30s Sit-ups
[no. sit-ups]
19.83±3.46
(11-26)
19.00±3.57
(10-26)
ns
Medicine ball backward
throw [cm]
683.04±154.14
(500-1000)
702.43±154.40
(520-1030)
0.0000
Medicine ball forward
throw [cm]
546.96±89.35
(410-720)
556.09±85.37
(420-720)
0.0114
Continued
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski
122
Activity
Motor ability tests
Beginning of semester
End of semester
Sign.
Differences
(p)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Jogging and sauna
Medicine ball forward
throw [cm]
546.96±89.35
(410-720)
556.09±85.37
(420-720)
0.0114
1-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
16.96±2.31
(13-22)
19.48±1.86
(16-24)
0.0000
3-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
51.83±5.22
(41-58)
55.13±4.80
(45-62)
0.0000
12-min Cooper test,
rowing ergometer [m]
1411.87±166.48
(1023-1717)
1529.61±171.38
(1158-1892)
0.0000
ns = No significant difference p= Probability of exceeding calculated chi-square value
In the standing long jump, women performing martial arts (1) and jogging followed by sauna
(6) scored significantly better results at the end of the semester than students attending
general PE, swimming, aerobics and golf classes (2,3,4,5) (Table 4). The results scored by
martial arts students (1) and joggers (6) in the 4×10m shuttle run test were significantly better
than those of swimming, aerobics and golf students (3,4,5). Women enrolled in general PE
classes (2) significantly outperformed swimming and aerobics students (3,4). In the 8s
skipping with hand clapping tests, martial arts students (1) also scored the best results which
were significantly higher than those reported in general PE, aerobics and golf groups (2,4,5).
Golfers (5) scored significantly below students from the remaining groups (2,3,4,6). The
results of students enrolled in general PE classes (2) were significantly below those noted in
the group of swimmers (3), and the results of aerobics students (4) were significantly below
those scored by swimmers and joggers (3,6). In the zig-zag run, martial arts students (1)
significantly outperformed aerobics students (4), and students attending general PE classes
scored significantly higher results than swimming, aerobics and golf students (3,4,5).
In the standing downward bend test, martial arts students (1) performed significantly better
than women from the remaining groups (2,3,4,5,6), whereas aerobics students (4)
significantly outperformed women enrolled in general PE, golf and jogging classes (2,5,6). In
the barbell overhead trunk rotation test, swimmers (3) scored significantly higher results
(achieved a greater degree of mobility at the glenohumeral joint) than women from the
remaining groups (2,4,5,6), excluding martial arts students (1) whose performance was
superior to that of general PE class students (2). In the 30s sit-ups, martial arts students (1)
scored significantly higher results than students from the remaining activity groups
(2,3,4,5,6). Students enrolled in general PE classes (2) scored significantly higher results than
swimming, aerobics and golf students (3,4,5). Joggers (6) significantly outperformed aerobics
students (4).
In medicine ball forward and backward throw tests, martial arts students (1) performed
significantly better than general PE, aerobics, golf and jogging students (2,4,5,6). In both
tests, swimmers (3) scored significantly higher results than women attending general PE and
aerobics (2,4) classes. Swimmers (3) significantly outperformed joggers (6) in the medicine
ball forward throw. In the flexed arm hang on bar, martial arts students (1) scored
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Effectiveness of physical activity types
123
significantly better results than general PE, swimming, aerobics and golf students (2,3,4,5).
Swimmers (3) and joggers (6) significantly outperformed students attending general PE,
aerobics and golf classes (2,4,5).
Table 4. DIFFERENCES AMONG DIFFERENT ACTIVITY GROUPS: MOTOR
ABILITY TESTS
Motor
ability
tests
Activity groups
Difference
1
Mean±SD
(min-max)
2
Mean±SD
(min-max)
3
Mean±SD
(min-max)
4
Mean±SD
(min-max)
5
Mean±SD
(min-max)
6
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Standing
long jump
[cm]
180.41±11.43
(165-211)
161.32±16.26
(120-207)
158.31±15.26
(127-190)
153.06±16.21
(120-192)
157.60±17.53
(111-188)
177.39±111.3
(160-205)
1.6>2.3.5.4
4×10m
shuttle run
[s]
11.97±0.60
(10.76-12.95)
12.39±0.82
(10.59-14.78)
12.94±0.80
(10.87-15.04)
13.12±0.73
(11.72-15.47)
13.12±1.16
(11.40-15.87)
12.08±0.82
(10.28-13.52)
5.4.3<1
5.4.3<6;
4.3<2
8s Skip &
hand claps
[no. claps]
25.93±1.52
(23-29)
23.19±2.61
(17-28)
25.55±2.91
(18-36)
22.70±2.22
(17-27)
19.16±1.37
(16-21)
24.87±2.80
(17-30)
1>2.4.5
3.6.2.4>5
3>2; 3.6>4
Zig-zag run
[s]
28.78±0.86
(27.00-30.91)
28.30±2.49
(23.98-34.40)
30.06±2.62
(25.69-34.87)
30.95±2.55
(25.28-37.03)
30.78±3.80
(22.23-37.92)
28.68±3.31
(23.18-35.83)
4<1;
4.5.3<2
4<6.2
Standing
downward
bend [cm]
11.78±2.52
(8-17)
4.54±3.90
(-6- 13)
6.41±4.92
(-2- 20)
7.81±5.20
(-9- 21)
4.52±3.14
(-2- 9)
3.74±2.97
(-2- 9)
1>4.3.2.5.6
4>2.5.6
Barbell overh.
trunk rotation
[cm]
67.27±6.42
(54-80)
70.30±5.81
(56-85)
64.34±4.52
(55-74)
69.34±5.41
(57-80)
68.60±5.02
(58-80)
69.43±4.05
(61-75
)
2.6.4.5<3
2<1
30s Sit-ups
[no. sit-ups]
22.00±1.99
(18-27)
19.41±3.50
(12-27)
17.48±3.02
(11-25)
15.62±4.00
(7-22)
16.64±1.89
(13-19)
19.00±3.57
(10-26)
1>2.6.3.5.4
2>3.5.4;
6>4
Med. ball
backward
throw [cm]
815.00±
105.79
(620-1050)
647.47±
125.90
(380-1060)
747.97±
126.83
(500-1080)
612.60±
97.69
(350-840)
681.52±
96.43
(463-860)
702.43±
154.40
(520-1030)
1>6.5.2.4
3>2.4
Med. ball
forward throw
[cm]
657.68±81.30
(530-830)
552.52±90.21
(370-820)
641.72±99.40
(450-890)
561.51±91.76
(340-790)
570.60±87.87
(330-670)
546.96±89.35
(410-720)
1>5.4.2.6
3>4.2.6
Flexed arm
hang on bar
[s]
11.76±10.64
(3.46-51.34)
4.95±6.67
(0.00-45.99)
5.71±2.78
(1.23-17.87)
4.64±7.21
(0.00-46.06)
2.23±2.00
(0.00-5.45)
7.76±5.10
(1.01-18.98)
1>3.2.4.5
6.3>2.4.5
1-min Burpee
test
[no. cycles]
19.37±2.50
(17-26)
17.44±2.39
(11-23)
18.83± 3.59
(10-28)
16.51±1.86
(11-21)
15.32±1.84
(12-18)
19.48±1.86
(16-24)
1>2.4.5;
6.3.2>5
6>2; 6.3>4
3-min Burpee
test
[no. cycles]
55.51±4.31
(47-64)
49.28±8.60
(16-62)
49.81±3.39
(42-55)
44.85±5.73
(29-57)
37.60±7.98
(22-49)
55.13±4.80
(45-62)
1>3.2.4.5
6.3.2>5;
6>2.4.3;
2>4; 3>4
12-min row
ergometer
[m]
1939.95±
186.86
(1620-2340)
1649.46±
313.57
(788-2340)
1630.31±
251.63
(889-2147)
1250.02±
201.67
(823-1671)
1409.40±
187.04
(980-1680)
1529.61±
171.38
(1158-1892)
1>2.3.6.5.4
2.3>5;
2.3.6>4
1=Martial arts, 2=General PE, 3=Swimming, 4=Aerobics, 5=Golf, 6=Jogging then sauna
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski
124
In 1- and 3-minute Burpee tests, significant differences in results were observed between the
evaluated activity groups. In the 1-minute Burpee test, martial arts students (1) significantly
outperformed women enrolled in general PE, aerobics and golf classes (2,4,5), whereas
golfers (5) scored significantly lower results than students participating in general PE,
swimming and jogging classes (2,3,6). Significant differences were also noted between
joggers (6), general PE students (2), between swimmers (3) and joggers (6), and aerobics
students (4). In the 3-minute Burpee test, martial arts students (1) significantly outperformed
women from the remaining activity groups (2,3,4,5), excluding joggers (6). Golfers (5) scored
significantly lower results than students attending general PE, swimming and jogging classes
(2,3,6). Other relationships between the analysed activity groups were also noted: jogging
followed by sauna (6), general PE, swimming and aerobics (2,3,4), general PE and swimming
(2,3) and aerobics (4). In the 12-minute Cooper test on a rowing ergometer, martial arts
students (1) significantly outperformed women from the remaining groups (2,3,4,5,6).
General PE students (2) and swimmers (3) scored significantly higher results than golfers (5)
and aerobics students (4) and joggers (6) significantly outperformed aerobics students (4)
(Table 4).
DISCUSSION
According to experts, an improvement in PF levels and a periodic reduction in body fat due to
physical training are relatively easier to accomplish than permanent changes in eating habits
combined with regular exercise. For this reason, many individuals participating in voluntary
PA programmes are able to improve their PF and reduce their body mass within a relatively
short time, but those who give up training after two to three months return to their baseline
weight or are even heavier (the yo-yo effect) (King, 2001). Not all individuals are able to
achieve the set goals with equal determination and their efforts are influenced by lifestyle,
habits, PA levels, gender, health status, overall fitness levels and traits of character, such as
motivation, willpower and temperament. Goal achievement is also influenced by
environmental factors and the type of undertaken PA (Podstawski et al., 2013b), but 30 to
50% of individuals who enrol in a health programme quit after two to three months, whereas
more than 50% of individuals quit after approximately six months (Neupert et al., 2009). The
highest quit rates are noted among people with a sedentary life style. The female students
investigated in the current study fell into this category. Nevertheless, a regular exercise
regimen as part of obligatory PE classes over a period of five months could be expected to
bring positive results. Studies of HR-F (Health Related Fitness) programmes revealed that
participants who do not quit in the first 6 months are more likely to continue their training
(Dishman & Salis, 1994; Neupert et al., 2009).
An analysis of the results scored in various groups indicated that body height, body mass and
BMI scores influenced the students' choice of PA. The slimmest and tallest women preferred
more intense PAs (martial arts, jogging followed by sauna), whereas students characterised
by lower body height and higher body mass opted for the least intense forms of PA (golf,
general PE and aerobics). Highly similar results were also reported in a study of male
university students where participants with significantly higher body mass and BMI were
more likely to choose strength exercises involving several repetitions with relatively long
breaks in between sets, Nordic walking and golf. Martial arts, team sports and jogging were
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Effectiveness of physical activity types
125
more frequently selected by leaner students with higher PF levels. Taller students were more
inclined to choose volleyball (Podstawski et al., 2015).
The observed correlations were validated by other authors who demonstrated that excessive
body mass and obesity have a negative influence of PA levels regardless of age and gender
(Janssen et al., 2005). Similar trends were noted among pre-school and early primary school
students (D’Hondt et al., 2009; Krombkolz, 2011). The only exception was reported in a
study of underweight female students from south-western Saudi Arabia whose PA levels
were significantly lower in comparison with their obese peers. The authors of the cited study
attributed those findings to socioeconomic and cultural factors (Khalaf et al., 2013). In the
current study, the only exception to the above rule were overweight students (BMI=25.74 to
25.79kg/m2) who were involved in swimming, a relatively intense form of PA. It should be
noted, however, that apparent body mass in water is quite low due to high water
displacement, therefore, resistance levels are low in high-intensity water exercises. The above
theory was confirmed by Gwinup (1987) and Jang et al. (1987), who investigated obesity in
athletes and regular swimmers. The cited authors noted that swimmers were characterised by
higher fat tissue levels (men=12%, women=20%) in comparison with runners (men=7%,
women=15%) who burned similar amounts of energy during training (Flynn et al., 1990).
According to Jang et al. (1987), swimmers were also sleepier and less active during daytime.
Various types of PA involve different forms of movement (Angyán et al., 2003; McGawley
& Bishop, 2006) and lead to different changes in anthropometric parameters and PF levels
(Almeida et al., 2013). A reduction in body mass and BMI and an improvement in PF (1-mile
run, trunk flexion test, curl-ups, grasping force (Rt), grasping force (Lr) and long-jump) was
observed among obese children performing aerobic training and combined
(aerobic/resistance) training as part of a 10-week PA programme (Lee et al., 2010). In a
group of male university students engaged in various types of PA, a significant increase in
body mass and BMI was reported only in bodybuilders, significant changes in the above
parameters were not noted in respondents who chose martial arts, jogging followed by sauna,
golf and general PE classes, whereas a significant decrease was observed in volleyball players
(Podstawski et al., 2015). Kayihan (2014) studied 236 volunteers, including 84 martial arts
athletes, 72 team sport athletes and 80 non-sport participants, and observed significant
differences in body mass, BMI, body height, body fat and skinfold thickness between the
analysed subjects. Martial arts athletes were significantly shorter than team sport athletes.
Martial arts athletes were also characterised by significantly lower body fat and skinfold
thickness than non-sport participants (Kayihan, 2014).
Changes in somatotype and motor fitness are most visible in professional athletes whose
somatic type and constitutional physiognomy are characteristic of a given discipline
(Thorland et al., 1981). Our study evaluated university students with a sedentary lifestyle, but
the noted anthropometric parameters, BMI values and the results of motor ability tests
validate the above assumption. Female students attending swimming, general PE, aerobics
and golf classes were characterised by the highest BMI values at the beginning of the
semester, their fat tissue levels increased significantly during the study and were highest at
the end of the semester. By contrast, body mass and BMI values decreased significantly in
martial arts students and joggers.
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski
126
A comparison of motor ability test results between the beginning and end of the semester
revealed that certain activities have a more pronounced and stimulating effect on PF levels
than other exercises. The vast majority of students performing high-intensity PAs
significantly improved their results at the end of the semester. The most striking improvement
was noted in the group of martial arts students who scored higher results in all motor ability
tests, swimmers who scored higher results in nine tests, and joggers who scored higher results
in eight tests. Female students attending martial arts, swimming and jogging classes
represented the most developed and well-rounded groups of participants in terms of the
assessed motor abilities at the end of the semester. At the end of the semester, martial arts
students outperformed the participants from the remaining activity groups in the highest
number of motor ability tests. In another study, male students practising martial arts were also
more physically fit than those attending bodybuilding/fitness, volleyball, jogging, golf and
general PE classes (Podstawski et al., 2013b; Podstawski et al., 2015). Kayihan (2014)
compared individuals engaged in various types of PA and demonstrated that although martial
arts performers were characterised by significantly higher muscular endurance and flexibility
than team sport and non-sport participants, martial arts athletes had significantly lower
aerobic capacity than team sports athletes. According to some researchers, martial arts deliver
a host of physiological benefits for young adults (Shaw & Deutsch, 1982, Douris et al.,
2004), medium-aged subjects (Heller et al., 1998; Fong & Ng, 2011) and the elderly (Lan et
al., 1998; Hong et al., 2000), including an improvement in health-related fitness indicators.
The improvement in the results of selected motor ability tests at the end of the semester could
also be attributed to the specific features of a given sports discipline relating to the frequency
of targeted exercises. Aerobics involves a significant number of flexibility exercises, which is
why aerobics students were able to improve their sagittal spinal flexibility (standing
downward bend). Swimmers significantly improved their performance in strength tests
(medicine ball forward and backward throw, 30s sit-ups, flexed arm hang), endurance-
strength tests (1- and 3-minute Burpee test), endurance tests (12-minute Cooper test on a
rowing ergometer) and coordination tests (8s skipping with hand clapping). Swimmers were
able to improve their results in the above tests, because the majority of swimming exercises
are high-intensity activities that engage nearly all locomotive muscles and promote strength,
endurance and coordination (Hall et al., 1996). There is evidence to suggest that the apparent
loss of body mass in water improves nerve and muscle coordination due to considerable
muscle relaxation (Westby, 2001; Bartles et al., 2007) and that regular activities in water
contribute to an overall improvement in cardiovascular efficiency (Chase et al., 2008). Other
authors have demonstrated that ball games and free play (soccer, basketball and football)
increase the heart rate more significantly than gymnastics (MacFarlane & Kwong, 2003).
Research studies indicate that students participating in team sport spend more time in the
high-intensity exercise zone (characterised by higher mean heart rate) than students
performing other sport (Klausen et al., 1986; Kulinna et al., 2003).
In the current study, female students who participated in less intense PAs improved their
results in selected motor ability tests, but in the remaining tests, their scores did not change or
even deteriorated significantly. The above was observed in the group of aerobics students
whose results deteriorated in nine motor ability tests, followed by golf and general PE
students whose results deteriorated in four tests. The observed deterioration in the results of
selected motor ability tests could result from negligence on behalf of the teachers who
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Effectiveness of physical activity types
127
focused on technical and tactical aspects of a given sports discipline, but disregarded general
health and development goals. The deterioration in sagittal spinal flexibility could have
resulted from the teachers' failure to incorporate flexibility exercises during swimming
classes (during warm-up or at the end of the class). Despite an absence of significant changes
in results, swimmers were characterised by the highest mobility in the region of the shoulder
girdle (barbell overhead trunk rotation), which could be attributed to dolphin and front crawl
strokes that improve shoulder joint mobility. The deterioration noted in the results of speed
tests (4×10m shuttle run, zig-zag run), strength tests (standing long jump, 30s sit-ups,
medicine ball backward throw), endurance-strength tests (1- and 3-minute Burpee test),
endurance tests (12-minute Cooper test on a rowing ergometer) and coordination tests (8s
skipping with hand clapping), and the lowest motor fitness levels in the aerobics group can be
undoubtedly attributed to teachers' negligence.
During the summer semester, female students attended only 15, 90-minute classes conducted
once a week, which suggests that their PA levels were low. The number of PE classes was
insufficient to promote a significant improvement in test results, but other research
demonstrated that rowing for 500m on an ergometer only once a week delivered numerous
benefits for sedentary students (Podstawski et al., 2009). Interestingly, the cited study
demonstrated that the participants were able to improve their rowing times only up to a
certain level (5 to 6 training sessions), after which their results ceased to improve.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION
This study revealed that despite a limited number of PE classes during the academic year,
female university students are presented with a wide variety of PA options. Certain types of
activities improve motor ability, others have weak or no effects, whereas some activities can
even lead to a deterioration in motor abilities. PE teachers can improve the students' fitness
levels by encouraging them to participate in high-intensity exercise routines. The results of
the current study can be used to design a new PE programme with emphasis on health
training. Despite the allocated number of class hours in the academic curriculum, the rigid
system of 15, 90-minute weekly classes can be replaced with more flexible options. Subject
to technical possibility, high-intensity activities could be divided into 30- to 60-minute
training sessions held more than once a week.
LIMITATIONS
International classification standards have not been developed for several tests in the applied
battery of 13 motor ability trials, therefore, the students' average fitness levels in all tests
(total T-score) or selected drills could not be evaluated. An extended number of tests was
designed for a more reliable assessment of specific motor abilities. The study was performed
on the assumption that 15, 90-minute PE classes per semester (five months) are not sufficient
to induce not only a significant improvement but any improvement in the students' fitness
levels. Coordination skills were evaluated in only one test, skipping with hand clapping
(Mynarski, 2000). Additional coordination trials could not be incorporated into the study due
to time constraints. The study was performed only in the UWM in Olsztyn, and the evaluated
population included only female students performing six types of PAs because the instructors
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski
128
teaching bodybuilding/fitness, Nordic walking and yoga classes refused to participate in the
study.
CONCLUSIONS
Body height, body mass and BMI scores influenced young and sedentary women's choices of
PA. The tallest women had a preference for martial arts and jogging followed by sauna,
whereas the shortest participants were more likely to choose aerobics and swimming.
Students characterised by higher body mass and higher BMI opted for less intense forms of
PA (golf, aerobics and general PE), whereas slimmer participants chose more intense
activities (martial arts, jogging followed by sauna). The only exception to the above rule was
swimming, a high-intensity activity, which was selected by overweight women. Disciplines,
such as martial arts and jogging, had the most profound and extensive influence on motor
fitness levels. Students involved in those types of activities improved their results in a greater
number of the motor ability tests.
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Dr Robert PODSTAWSKI: Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of Warmia and
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(Subject Editor: Dr Paola Wood)