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The aim of this study was to determine the relationships between various forms of physical activities and anthropometric parameters and motor abilities of female students. Measurements took place at the beginning and at the end of the summer semester. It involved 303 first-year full-time female students. The body height, body mass and BMI of participants were determined. Thirteen motor tests were administered to assess motor abilities. The tallest and slimmer students chose martial arts and jogging followed by sauna, whereas the shortest students opted for aerobics and swimming. Students with higher body mass and higher BMI scores were more likely to participate in golf, aerobics, general Physical Education (PE) and swimming classes. Students involved in martial arts, swimming and jogging scored highest in the majority of motor tests. The choice of physical activity (PA) correlated with body height, body mass, BMI and motor fitness. In most motor ability tests, a significant improvement in performance was observed in students who had opted for martial arts, swimming and jogging followed by sauna, which indicates that those activities had the most profound influence on the participants' motor fitness levels.
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South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Education and Recreation, 2017, 39(1): 111 -133.
Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Navorsing in Sport, Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde en Ontspanning, 2017, 39(1): 111 - 133.
ISBN: 0379-9069
111
EFFECTIVENESS OF MARTIAL ARTS TRAINING VS. OTHER TYPES OF
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: DIFFERENCES IN BODY HEIGHT, BODY MASS,
BMI AND MOTOR ABILITIES
Robert PODSTAWSKI1, Piotr MARKOWSKI2, Dariusz CHOSZCZ2,
Adam LIPIŃSKI2 & Krzysztof BORYSŁAWSKI3
1 Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of Warmia and Mazury,
Olsztyn, Poland
2Department of Heavy Duty Machines and Research Methodology, Faculty of Technical
Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland
3Department of Anthropology, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences,
Wrocław, Poland
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to determine the relationships between various forms of
physical activities and anthropometric parameters and motor abilities of female
students. Measurements took place at the beginning and at the end of the summer
semester. It involved 303 first-year full-time female students. The body height, body
mass and BMI of participants were determined. Thirteen motor tests were
administered to assess motor abilities. The tallest and slimmer students chose
martial arts and jogging followed by sauna, whereas the shortest students opted for
aerobics and swimming. Students with higher body mass and higher BMI scores
were more likely to participate in golf, aerobics, general Physical Education (PE)
and swimming classes. Students involved in martial arts, swimming and jogging
scored highest in the majority of motor tests. The choice of physical activity (PA)
correlated with body height, body mass, BMI and motor fitness. In most motor
ability tests, a significant improvement in performance was observed in students who
had opted for martial arts, swimming and jogging followed by sauna, which
indicates that those activities had the most profound influence on the participants'
motor fitness levels.
Key words: Women; Motor performance; Anthropometric features; Forms of
physical activity; Physical education.
INTRODUCTION
Scientific evidence clearly indicates that regular PA, exercise and physical fitness (PF) play a
key role in the maintenance of health. Regular activities, in doses appropriate for the
individual, benefit the physical and mental health of males and females of all ages, including
disabled persons, and enable them to build more satisfactory social relationships (WHO,
2003; Rind & Jones, 2014). The health benefits of PA have been discussed in numerous
studies into the prevention of metabolic diseases that lead to uncontrolled weight gain and
obesity (Kahn & Williamson, 1991; Owens et al., 1992). Obesity increases the risk of serious
medical problems, which contribute to poor health and premature death (Strenfeld et al.,
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski
112
2004; Choi et al., 2011). A balanced diet combined with an appropriate exercise regime seem
to be most effective for maintaining healthy weight and physical fitness. In young adults,
overweight and obesity is frequently associated with excessive weight in childhood (Lee et
al., 2010). The majority of overweight and obese individuals are significantly less physically
active than their peers with a healthy weight (Turconi et al., 2008; Simovska et al., 2012).
The levels of PA change with age (Van Tuyckom & Scheerder, 2010) and a significant
decrease is noted during the transition from secondary school to university (Douglas et al.,
1997; Smith et al., 2014) and during the first year at university (Bray & Born, 2004). In
Poland, most female university students lead highly sedentary lives and their PA is generally
limited to obligatory PE classes (Lisicki, 2006; Umiastowska, 2007; Podstawski et al., 2013a;
Podstawski et al., 2014b). University students with high body mass and high BMI tend to
select less intensive forms of PA than their peers with normal BMI (Podstawski et al., 2015).
Low levels of PA contribute to a drop in PF (Ekelund et al., 2007). Individuals with higher
PF are more inclined to be physically active than their peers with lower levels of motor
competence (Wrotniak et al., 2006). People who remain physically active into old age are
generally characterised by lower body weight, lower waist circumference and lower BMI
(Dunsky et al., 2014).
Body size and body composition are determined by means of anthropometric measurements.
There is evidence to suggest that basic anthropometric parameters (body mass and body
height) and anthropometric indicators (such as BMI) are correlated with PA levels and motor
abilities. Individuals with high body mass and high BMI are characterised by significantly
lower levels of cardiorespiratory fitness, endurance abilities (Creceliuset al., 2008;
Vanderburgh & Laubach, 2008), endurance-strength abilities (Podstawski et al., 2012;
Podstawski et al., 2014a), as well as relative strength and coordination abilities (Mermier et
al., 2000; Sands et al., 2000; Podstawski et al., 2016). High BMI compromises flexibility
(Bénéfice & Ndiaye, 2005), but it is positively correlated with absolute strength (Mondal et
al., 2011; Khalaf et al., 2013). The motor performance of tall individuals can also be
compromised during certain strength and endurance exercises that require constant changes in
body position (Podstawski et al., 2016).
PA programmes (aerobic and resistance training) involve various training methods (long
duration, interval, continuous, high-intensity) with a different impact on the body. The
influence of various training methods on the elements of PF is particularly visible in
professional athletes and health training regimes are often based on professional training
programmes. Health programmes are characterised by growing levels of specialisation and
individualisation and they are largely inspired by the methods used in professional sport
training.
Training programmes in various sport disciplines are developed to promote a particular set of
skills and abilities, including strength (resistance training), speed (sprinting), endurance
(marathon, triathlon) and flexibility (gymnastics). Strength training increases body mass
through hypertrophy, namely the increase in the mass of the existing muscle fibres (Franchini
et al., 2011). It also contributes to bone mineralisation and prevents osteoporosis (Mikesky et
al., 1991). Speed abilities are more genetically based than strength, and the two are highly
positively correlated (Vanderburgh & Laubach, 2008). For this reason, most sprinters have a
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Effectiveness of physical activity types
113
muscular physique, which can be compared to that of bodybuilders (Toriola et al., 1985).
Although endurance is determined mainly by maximal aerobic power (VO2max) and muscle
resistance to fatigue (Szopa, 1998), it should be noted that those parameters can be
considerably impaired in individuals with high body mass and high body fat levels (Crecelius
et al., 2008). The exercise regimes for sedentary individuals are generally referred to as
health training (personal training), and they are part of comprehensive health programmes
aiming to reduce body fat mass, increase lean body mass, improve body composition
(Heyward, 1997; Osiński, 2003) and general PF levels.
The minimum required level of PA for young people is 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous
exercise daily (USA Department of Health and Human Services, 1996; Brown &
Summerbell, 2009). Research studies have demonstrated that many universities fail to meet
this requirement (Douglas et al., 1997; Hilland et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2014). In Polish
universities, the PE curriculum covers 60 academic hours (of 45 minutes each) during the
entire study programme, and most PE classes take place in the first year in the form of 90-
minute sessions (Podstawski & Sławek, 2012). During one semester of approximately five
months, students have to attend 15 PE classes of 90 minutes each. Students choose their
preferred type of activity and a PE instructor. The cited statistics differ between sources, but
according to some researchers, Polish female university students are not engaged in sufficient
amounts of PA during obligatory PE classes to stimulate adaptive physiological changes at
socially expected levels (Grabowski, 2003). The contribution of PE classes in Polish
universities to the students' PF levels and BMI has not been studied to date. Attempts should
be made to determine the effectiveness of various types of PAs undertaken by female students
during obligatory PE classes.
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
In view of the above, the objective of this study was to determine the relationships between
various types of PA (martial arts, general PE, swimming, aerobics, golf, jogging followed by
sauna) undertaken by female students of the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn
(UWM), Poland, on their body mass, body height, BMI and motor abilities.
METHODOLOGY
Ethics
The research was carried out with the prior consent of the Ethical Committee of the UWM.
The study involved female student volunteers who signed a written statement of informed
consent.
Participants
The study involved 303 first-year full-time female students, who were randomly selected
from 260 groups of students attending obligatory PE classes at the UWM, Poland. Statistical
tables were used for that purpose (Zieliński & Zieliński, 2001). Randomly selected students
were asked whether they wished to participate in the study on a volunteer basis, and those
who did, signed a volunteer form. If the chosen student did not wish to participate in the
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski
114
study, another potential candidate was randomly drawn. A total of 27 PE groups were
randomly selected, and only those female students who were absent, for whatever reason, on
the day the tests and measurements were performed, were excluded from the study. More
than 95% of the students, aged 19 to 20 years, from the selected groups were examined. The
vast majority of the participants resided permanently in the Region of Warmia and Mazury,
Poland. The participants were selected from among volunteers who did not take any
medication or nutritional supplements, were in good health, had no history of blood diseases
or diseases affecting biochemical and biomechanical factors, and did not participate in any
PA programmes other than the obligatory PE classes.
PA levels were evaluated in female students with the use of the Polish short version of the
standardised and validated International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) (Biernat et
al., 2007). The participants declared the number of minutes dedicated to PA (minimum 10
minutes) during an average week preceding the study. The energy expenditure associated
with weekly PA levels was expressed in terms of Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET) units.
The MET is the ratio of the work metabolic rate to the resting metabolic rate. One MET
denotes the amount of oxygen consumed in 1 minute, which is estimated at 3.5mL/kg/min.
Based on the frequency, intensity and duration of PA declared by the surveyed students, the
respondents were classified into groups characterised by low (L=<600 METs-min/week),
moderate (M=<1,500 METs-min/week) and high (H=≥1,500 METs-min/week) levels of
activity.
Only female students with low levels of PA, a sedentary lifestyle and energy expenditure of
up to 600 METs per week were chosen for the study. IPAQ was used only to select a
homogenous sample of female students. These results are not presented in this article. The
resulting sample can be regarded as representative of first-year students of the UWM in
Olsztyn. Every student had to attend 15, 90-minute PE classes to receive credit. Students
selected a PE teacher and a preferred type of activity online in the University's USOS WEB
system. The evaluated students were presented with the following choice of PA: martial arts,
general PE, swimming, aerobics, golf, jogging followed by sauna.
Instruments and procedures
Body mass and body height were measured using the Radwag scale and the results were used
to calculate their BMI. Volunteers participated in 13 motor ability tests: standing long jump
[cm], 4×10m shuttle run [s], 8s skipping with hand clapping [number of claps], zig-zag run
[s], standing forward bend [cm], barbell overhead trunk rotation [cm], sit-ups in 30s [number
of sit-ups], medicine ball (4 kg) forward throw [cm], medicine ball (4kg) backward throw
[cm], flexed arm hang on bar [s], 1-minute and 3-minute Burpee tests [number of cycles], and
12-minute Cooper test on a rowing ergometer [m]. The accuracy and reliability of the applied
motor ability tests were confirmed by numerous studies (Szopa et al., 1998). In each group,
motor ability tests were conducted in the same order, beginning from coordination tests,
through speed, agility, flexibility and strength tests, and concluding with endurance and
strength tests. The instructions for each test were given during a PE class, and students were
given sufficient time to practise. The participants performed an active warm up for 10
minutes before the tests (Frandkin et al., 2010).
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Effectiveness of physical activity types
115
Statistical analysis
The results of every trial were averaged and standard deviation was computed using
descriptive statistics. Maximum and minimum values were also noted to classify the
participants into the applicable ranges for every test. The differences in the motor abilities of
students participating in different types of physical activities were determined by analysis of
variance (ANOVA). The mean values of the "physical activity factor" were compared by
Duncan's test. Mean values and significant variations between participants attending different
PE classes were shown in tables. Data were processed and the results were analysed in the
Statistica PL v. 10 software package (Rabiej, 2012).
Definition of the effectiveness of physical education classes
The effectiveness of PE classes for female university students is measured not only by the
extent to which PA contributes to an improvement in PF and body mass reduction to healthy
levels. The results scored by students are a reflection on their overall health, therefore, the
effectiveness of PE classes is also measured in terms of health-related fitness (H-RF) criteria.
In line with the H-RF approach, the goal of PF should be to improve physical health and
minimise the risk of disease. Individuals who have successfully improved their PF levels
have more energy, feel more motivated to accomplish daily tasks and derive a sense of
accomplishment from participating in sports (Howley & Franks, 1997).
RESULTS
The evaluated body mass, body height, BMI and variations in the analysed parameters across
different physical activity groups are presented in Tables 1 and 2. The significance of
differences between the results of motor ability tests within groups at the beginning and end
of the semester is shown in Table 3, and the significance of differences between the results of
motor ability tests between groups at the beginning and end of the semester is presented in
Table 6.
Differences in body mass, body height and BMI values between the beginning and end of the
semester are shown in Table 1. The body mass and BMI of all female students (regardless of
the type of chosen physical activity) increased significantly by 0.05kg (p=0.0010) and
0.02kg/m2 (p=0.0003), respectively. A significant decrease in body mass was found in
students performing martial arts (p=0.0000) and jogging followed by sauna (p=0.0000),
whereas a significant increase in body mass was observed in participants attending golf
(p=0.0000), general PE (p=0.0000), aerobics (p=0.0016) and swimming classes (p=0.0000).
Similar correlations were generally noted in BMI values of the entire population, regardless
of the type of PA. BMI increased significantly by 0.02kg/m2, but it remained within the
reference range at the beginning and end of the semester. A significant decrease in BMI was
noted in students performing martial arts (p=0.0000) and jogging followed by sauna
(p=0.0000), whereas a significant increase in BMI was observed in participants attending golf
(p=0.0000), general PE (p=0.0000), aerobics (p=0.0014) and swimming classes (p=0.0000).
Martial arts students were tallest (mean of 166.10cm) and students attending swimming
classes were shortest (156.69cm) (Table 1).
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski
116
The results presented in Table 2 indicate that at the end of the semester, the body mass of
martial arts students (1) was significantly lower than the body mass of students attending
general PE, swimming, aerobics and golf classes (2,3,4,5), whereas the body mass of joggers
(6) was significantly lower than the body mass of students attending general PE and
swimming classes (2,3).
Table 1. BODY MASS, BODY HEIGHT AND BMI AT BEGINNING AND END OF
SUMMER SEMESTER
Anthropometric
parameters
Begin semester
End semester
p-Value
(Sign.)
Activity
Mean±SD
Mean±SD
Min-Max
Martial arts
n=41
Body mass [kg]
57.10±4.81
56.90±4.80
49.20-69.70
0.0000
Body height [cm]
166.10±8.72
166.10±8.72
149-183
ns
BMI (kg/m2)
20.76±1.82
20.69±1.81
17.30-25.27
0.0000
PE classes
n=107
Body mass [kg]
63.37±6.91
63.48±6.89
54.20-89.50
0.0000
Body height [cm]
160.18±7.93
160.18±7.93
148-182
ns
BMI (kg/m2)
24.88±3.73
24.92±3.72
19.32-39.78
0.0000
Swimming
n=68
Body mass [kg]
62.93±6.36
63.07±6.35
53.30-82.50
0.0000
Body height [cm]
156.69±6.60
156.69±6.60
146-176
ns
BMI (kg/m2)
25.74±3.20
25.79±3.20
20.05-35.71
0.0000
Aerobics
n=63
Body mass [kg])
60.59±6.06
60.68±6.06
54.20-78.40
0.0016
Body height [cm]
157.92±7.24
157.92±7.24
149-178
ns
BMI (kg/m2)
24.47±3.57
24.50±3.58
19.51-34.28
0.0014
Golf
n=25
Body mass [kg]
59.44±4.22
59.86±4.15
56.60-73.00
0.0000
Body height [cm]
158.44±5.99
158.44±5.99
149-172
ns
BMI (kg/m2)
23.81±2.84
23.98±2.83
19.88-30.78
0.0000
Jogging
then sauna
n=23
Body mass [kg]
58.86±5.91
58.47±5.83
49.50-75.60
0.0000
Body height [cm]
162.30±9.53
162.30±9.53
148-182
ns
BMI (kg/m2)
22.41±2.09
22.27±2.08
17.96-26.64
0.0000
Total group
N=327
Body mass [kg]
61.28±6.49
61.33±6.51
49.20-89.50
0.0009
Body height [cm]
159.86±8.14
159.86±8.14
146-183
ns
BMI (kg/m2)
24.16±3.56
24.18±3.58
17.30-39.78
0.0003
ns = No significant difference p= Probability of exceeding calculated chi-square value
Table 2. ANTHROPOMETRIC PARAMETERS OF ACTIVITY GROUPS (END OF
SEMESTER)
Parameter
Activity group
Diffe-
rence
1
Mean±SD(
min-max)
2
Mean±SD(
min-max)
3
Mean±SD(
min-max)
4
Mean±SD(
min-max)
5
Mean±SD(
min-max)
6
Mean±SD(
min-max)
Body mass
[kg]
56.90±4.80
(49.2-69.7)
63.48±6.89
(54.2-89.5)
63.07±6.35
(53.3-82.5)
60.68±6.06
(54.2-78.0)
59.86±4.15
(56.6-73.0)
58.47±5.83
(49.5-75.6)
2.3.4.5>1
2.3>6
Body height
[cm]
166.10±8.7
(149-180)
160.18±7.9
(148-182)
156.69±6.6
(146-176)
157.92±7.2
(149-178)
158.44±6.0
(149-172)
162.30±9.5
(148-182)
1>2.5.4.3
2>3
BMI
[kg/m2]
20.69±1.81
(17.3-25.3)
24.92±3.72
(19.3-39.8)
25.79±3.20
(20.1-35.7)
24.50±3.58
(19.5-34.3)
23.98±2.83
(19.9-30.8)
22.27±2.08
(18.0-26.6)
3.2.4.5>1
3.2>6
1=Martial arts, 2=General PE, 3=Swimming, 4=Aerobics, 5=Golf, 6=Jogging then sauna BMI= Body Mass Index
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Effectiveness of physical activity types
117
Martial art students (1) were significantly taller than students attending general PE,
swimming, aerobics and golf classes (2,3,4,5), and students participating in general PE were
significantly taller than swimmers. An analysis of BMI values at the end of the semester
revealed that swimmers (3) were overweight, whereas the body mass of the remaining
students was within the norm, while participants attending golf and general PE classes (2,5)
occupied the upper limit of the normal range of values. The lowest BMI values were noted in
the martial arts group (1), and they were significantly lower than in groups of students
attending general PE, swimming, aerobics and golf classes (2,3,4,5). At the end of the
semester, the BMI of joggers (6) was significantly lower in comparison with students
involved in general PE classes and swimming (2,3) (Table 2).
Martial arts students significant improved their results in all motor ability tests at the end of
the semester. In the group of students attending general PE classes, a significant deterioration
in results at the end of the summer semester was noted in the standing long jump (p=0.0130),
skipping with hand clapping (p=0.0000), barbell overhead trunk rotation (p=0.0078) and 30s
sit-ups (p=0.0416). A significant improvement was observed only in the medicine ball
forward throw test (p=0.0073), whereas no significant differences were found in the
remaining motor ability tests (Table 3).
In the group of swimmers, a significant improvement in results was observed in the following
motor ability tests: 8s skipping with hand clapping (p=0.0001), 30s sit-ups (p=0.0000),
medicine ball forward and backward throw (p=0.0000 for both tests), flexed arm hang on bar
(p=0.0000), 1-minute and 3-minute Burpee tests (p=0.0000 for both tests) and the 12-minute
Cooper test on a rowing ergometer (p=0.0000). Their results deteriorated in the standing
downward bend (p=0.0122), whereas no significant differences were observed in the
remaining motor ability tests. The results scored by aerobics participants deteriorated in the
following tests: standing long jump (p=0.0000), 4×10m shuttle run (shorter time is a better
result, p=0.0000), 8s skipping with hand clapping (p=0.0193), zig-zag run (shorter time is a
better result, p=0.0038), 30s sit-ups (p=0.0242), medicine ball backward throw (p=0.0000), 1-
minute and 3-minute Burpee tests (p=0.0138 and p=0.0026, respectively) and the 12-minute
Cooper test on a rowing ergometer (p=0.0000). A significant improvement in results was
noted only in the standing downward bend test (p=0.0428), whereas the differences observed
in the remaining tests were not significant (Table 3).
In the group of golfers, a significant deterioration in test results was observed in the 4×10m
shuttle run (p=0.0280), zig-zag run (p=0.0000), medicine ball forward throw (p=0.0058) and
the 3-minute Burpee test (p=0.0084). No significant differences in the remaining tests were
noted in the group of golf players between the beginning and end of the summer semester.
Students who jogged and used a sauna significantly improved their results in the standing
long jump (p=0.0021), 4×10m shuttle run (p=0.0001), zig-zag run (p=0.0000), medicine ball
forward throw (p=0.0000), medicine ball backward throw (p=0.0114), 1-minute and 3-minute
Burpee test (p=0.0000 for both tests), and the 12-minute Cooper test on a rowing ergometer
(p=0.0000). No significant differences in results were noted in the remaining motor ability
tests: 8s skipping with hand clapping (p=0.8866), standing downward bend (p=0.5365),
barbell overhead trunk rotation (p=0.6760), 30s sit-ups (p=0.0566) and flexed arm hang on
bar (p=0.0779) (Table 3).
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski
118
Table 3. MOTOR ABILITY TESTS SCORED AT BEGINNING AND END OF
SEMESTER ACCORDING TO ACTIVITY
Activity
Motor ability tests
Beginning of semester
End of semester
Sign.
Differences
(p)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Martial arts
Standing long jump
[cm]
179.37±11.59
(165-211)
180.41±11.43
(165-211)
0.0032
4×10m shuttle run
[s]
12.41±0.62
(10.81-13.45)
11.97±0.60
(10.76-12.95)
0.0000
8s Skipping & hand claps
[no. claps]
22.59±1.86
(18-27)
25.93±1.52
(23-29)
0.0000
Zig-zag run
[s]
30.56±1.19
(28.14-32.78)
28.78±0.86
(27.00-30.91)
0.0000
Standing downward bend
[cm]
8.34±2.24
(4-14)
11.78±2.52
(8-17)
0.0000
Barbell overhead trunk
rotation [cm]
71.73±6.26
(60-85)
67.27±6.42
(54-80)
0.0000
30s Sit-ups
[no. sit-ups]
18.93±1.94
(16-23)
22.00±1.99
(18-27)
0.0000
Medicine ball backward
throw [cm]
744.63±105.79
(560-940)
815.00±105.79
(620-1050)
0.0000
Medicine ball forward
throw [cm]
600.24±77.18
(470-780)
657.68±81.30
(530-830)
0.0000
Flexed arm hang on bar
[s]
9.19±9.04
(2.00-45.23)
11.76±10.64
(3.46-51.34)
0.0000
1-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
16.80±2.22
(14-22)
19.37±2.50
(17-26)
0.0000
3-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
52.56±4.04
(44-61)
55.51±4.31
(47-64)
0.0000
12-min Cooper test,
rowing ergometer [m]
1838.85±165.48
(1549-2156)
1939.95±186.86
(1620-2340)
0.0000
Physical education
Standing long jump
[cm]
161.95±16.19
(119-205)
161.32±16.26
(120-207)
0.0130
4×10m shuttle run
[s]
12.52±3.68
(10.87-46.00)
12.39±0.82
(10.59-14.78)
ns
8s Skipping & hand claps
[no. claps]
23.19±2.61
(17-28)
21.99±2.59
(13-27)
0.0000
Zig-zag run
[s]
28.27±2.85
(22.53-34.99)
28.30±2.49
(23.98-34.40)
ns
Standing downward bend
[cm]
4.74±3.40
(-5-13)
4.54±3.90
(-6-13)
ns
Continued
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Effectiveness of physical activity types
119
Activity
Motor ability tests
Beginning of semester
End of semester
Sign.
Differences
(p)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Physical education
Barbell overhead trunk
rotation [cm]
69.80±6.06
(54-88)
70.30±5.81
(56-85)
0.0078
30s Sit-ups
[no. sit-ups]
19.80±3.73
(12-27)
19.41±3.59
(12-27)
0.0416
Medicine ball backward
throw [cm]
646.08±118.29
(420-1000)
647.47±125.90
(380-1060)
ns
Medicine ball forward
throw [cm]
547.53±88.78
(380-800)
552.52±90.21
(370-820)
0.0073
Flexed arm hang on bar
[s]
5.03±6.65
(0.00-38.03)
4,95±6.67
(0.00-45.99)
ns
1-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
18.02±7.86
(12-91)
17.44±2.39
(11-23)
ns
3-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
48.98±8.45
(18-62)
49.28±8.60
(16-62)
ns
12-min Cooper test,
rowing ergometer [m]
1644.34±309.15
(845-2359)
1649.46±313.57
(788-2340)
ns
Swimming
Standing long jump
[cm]
157.98±14.74
(126-188)
158.31±15.26
(127-190)
ns
4×10m shuttle run
[s]
12.97±0.85
(11.08-15.23)
12.94±0.80
(10.87-15.04)
ns
8s Skipping & hand claps
[no. claps]
24.59±2.65
(17-34)
25.55±2.91
(18-36)
0.0001
Zig-zag run
[s]
30.19±2.72
(24.58-35.46)
30.06±2.62
(25.69-34.87)
ns
Standing downward bend
[cm]
6.84±4.69
(-1- 18)
6.41±4.92
(-2- 20)
0.0122
Barbell overhead trunk
rotation [cm]
64.67±4.59
(55-74)
64.34±4.52
(55-74)
ns
30s Sit-ups
[no. sit-ups]
15.19±2.77
(11-23)
17.48±3.02
(11-25)
0.0000
Medicine ball backward
throw [cm]
720.63±126.68
(470-1000)
747.97±126.83
(500-1080)
0.0000
Medicine ball forward
throw [cm]
587.97±96.73
(400-820)
641.72±99.40
(450-890)
0.0000
Flexed arm hang on bar
[s]
4.34±2.49
(0.00-14.47)
5.71±2.78
(1.23-17.87)
0.0000
1-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
17.39±3.12
(11-24)
18.83± 3.59
(10-28)
0.0000
Continued
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski
120
Activity
Motor ability tests
Beginning of semester
End of semester
Sign.
Differences
(p)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Swimming
3-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
47.50±3.58
(39-54)
49.81±3.39
(42-55)
0.0000
12-min Cooper test,
rowing ergometer [m]
1488.67±245.35
(712-1997)
1630.31±251.63
(889-2147)
0.0000
Aerobics
Standing long jump
[cm]
155.06±16.19
(123-193)
153.06±16.21
(120-192)
0.0000
4×10m shuttle run
[s]
12.77±0.84
(11.00-15.12)
13.12±0.73
(11.72-15.47)
0.0000
8s Skipping & hand claps
[no. claps]
23.49±2.21
(19-29)
22.70±2.22
(17-27)
0.0193
Zig-zag run
[s]
30.66±2.52
(24.59-37.89)
30.95±2.55
(25.28-37.03)
0.0038
Standing downward bend
[cm]
6.94±4.78
(-6- 23)
7.81±5.20
(-9-21)
0.0428
Barbell overhead trunk
rotation [cm]
69.00±5.86
(58-81)
69.34±5.41
(57-80)
ns
30s Sit-ups
[no. sit-ups]
16.17±4.11
(6-24)
15.62±4.00
(7-22)
0.0242
Medicine ball backward
throw [cm]
628.87±97.24
(370-860)
612.60±97.69
(350-840)
0.0000
Medicine ball forward
throw [cm]
559.15±89.76
(350-800)
561.51±91.76
(340-790)
ns
Flexed arm hang on bar
[s]
4.81±7.03
(0.00-45.12)
4.64±7.21
(0.00-46.06)
ns
1-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
17.13±2.19
(13-22)
16.51±1.86
(11-21)
0.0138
3-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
45.77±5.97
(31-58)
44.85±5.73
(29-57)
0.0026
12-min Cooper test,
rowing ergometer [m]
1300.13±194.07
(923-1698)
1250.02±201.67
(823-1671)
0.0000
Golf
Standing long jump
[cm]
157.98±14.74
(126-188)
158.31±15.26
(127-190)
0.0032
4×10m shuttle run
[s]
12.97±0.85
(11.08-15.23)
12.94±0.80
(10.87-15.04)
0.0000
8s Skipping & hand claps
[no. claps]
24.59±2.65
(17-34)
25.55±2.91
(18-36)
0.0000
Continued
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Effectiveness of physical activity types
121
Activity
Motor ability tests
Beginning of semester
End of semester
Sign.
Differences
(p)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Golf
Zig-zag run
[s]
30.19±2.72
(24.58-35.46)
30.06±2.62
(25.69-34.87)
0.0000
Standing downward bend
[cm]
6.84±4.69
(-1- 18)
6.41±4.92
(-2- 20)
0.0000
Barbell overhead trunk
rotation [cm]
64.67±4.59
(55-74)
64.34±4.52
(55-74)
0.0000
30s Sit-ups
[no. sit-ups]
15.19±2.77
(11-23)
17.48±3.02
(11-25)
0.0000
Medicine ball backward
throw [cm]
720.63±126.68
(470.00-1000)
747.97±126.83
(500-1080)
0.0000
Medicine ball forward
throw [cm]
587.97±96.73
(400-820)
641.72±99.40
(450-890)
0.0000
Flexed arm hang on bar
[s]
4.34±2.49
(0.00-14.47)
5.71±2.78
(1.23-17.87)
0.0000
1-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
17.39±3.12
(11-24)
18.83±3.59
(10-28)
0.0000
3-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
47.50±3.58
(39-54)
49.81±3.39
(42-55)
0.0000
12-min Cooper test,
rowing ergometer [m]
1488.67±245.35
(712-1997)
1630.31±251.63
(889-2147)
0.0000
Jogging and sauna
Standing long jump
[cm]
176.22±11.48
(156-204)
177.39±11.30
(160-205)
0.0021
4×10m shuttle run
[s]
12.35±0.88
(10.15-13.56)
12.08±0.82
(10.28-13.52)
0.0001
8s Skipping & hand claps
[no. claps]
24.78±2.49
(19-28)
24.87±2.80
(17-30)
ns
Zig-zag run
[s]
29.39±3.17
(24.15-36.89)
28.68±3.31
(23.18-35.83)
0.0000
Standing downward bend
[cm]
3.43±2.39
(0-9)
3.74±2.97
(-2- 9)
ns
Barbell overhead trunk
rotation [cm]
69.26±5.20
(58-76)
69.43±4.05
(61-75)
ns
30s Sit-ups
[no. sit-ups]
19.83±3.46
(11-26)
19.00±3.57
(10-26)
ns
Medicine ball backward
throw [cm]
683.04±154.14
(500-1000)
702.43±154.40
(520-1030)
0.0000
Medicine ball forward
throw [cm]
546.96±89.35
(410-720)
556.09±85.37
(420-720)
0.0114
Continued
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski
122
Activity
Motor ability tests
Beginning of semester
End of semester
Sign.
Differences
(p)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Jogging and sauna
Medicine ball forward
throw [cm]
546.96±89.35
(410-720)
556.09±85.37
(420-720)
0.0114
1-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
16.96±2.31
(13-22)
19.48±1.86
(16-24)
0.0000
3-min Burpee test
[no. cycles]
51.83±5.22
(41-58)
55.13±4.80
(45-62)
0.0000
12-min Cooper test,
rowing ergometer [m]
1411.87±166.48
(1023-1717)
1529.61±171.38
(1158-1892)
0.0000
ns = No significant difference p= Probability of exceeding calculated chi-square value
In the standing long jump, women performing martial arts (1) and jogging followed by sauna
(6) scored significantly better results at the end of the semester than students attending
general PE, swimming, aerobics and golf classes (2,3,4,5) (Table 4). The results scored by
martial arts students (1) and joggers (6) in the 4×10m shuttle run test were significantly better
than those of swimming, aerobics and golf students (3,4,5). Women enrolled in general PE
classes (2) significantly outperformed swimming and aerobics students (3,4). In the 8s
skipping with hand clapping tests, martial arts students (1) also scored the best results which
were significantly higher than those reported in general PE, aerobics and golf groups (2,4,5).
Golfers (5) scored significantly below students from the remaining groups (2,3,4,6). The
results of students enrolled in general PE classes (2) were significantly below those noted in
the group of swimmers (3), and the results of aerobics students (4) were significantly below
those scored by swimmers and joggers (3,6). In the zig-zag run, martial arts students (1)
significantly outperformed aerobics students (4), and students attending general PE classes
scored significantly higher results than swimming, aerobics and golf students (3,4,5).
In the standing downward bend test, martial arts students (1) performed significantly better
than women from the remaining groups (2,3,4,5,6), whereas aerobics students (4)
significantly outperformed women enrolled in general PE, golf and jogging classes (2,5,6). In
the barbell overhead trunk rotation test, swimmers (3) scored significantly higher results
(achieved a greater degree of mobility at the glenohumeral joint) than women from the
remaining groups (2,4,5,6), excluding martial arts students (1) whose performance was
superior to that of general PE class students (2). In the 30s sit-ups, martial arts students (1)
scored significantly higher results than students from the remaining activity groups
(2,3,4,5,6). Students enrolled in general PE classes (2) scored significantly higher results than
swimming, aerobics and golf students (3,4,5). Joggers (6) significantly outperformed aerobics
students (4).
In medicine ball forward and backward throw tests, martial arts students (1) performed
significantly better than general PE, aerobics, golf and jogging students (2,4,5,6). In both
tests, swimmers (3) scored significantly higher results than women attending general PE and
aerobics (2,4) classes. Swimmers (3) significantly outperformed joggers (6) in the medicine
ball forward throw. In the flexed arm hang on bar, martial arts students (1) scored
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Effectiveness of physical activity types
123
significantly better results than general PE, swimming, aerobics and golf students (2,3,4,5).
Swimmers (3) and joggers (6) significantly outperformed students attending general PE,
aerobics and golf classes (2,4,5).
Table 4. DIFFERENCES AMONG DIFFERENT ACTIVITY GROUPS: MOTOR
ABILITY TESTS
Motor
ability
tests
Activity groups
Difference
1
Mean±SD
(min-max)
2
Mean±SD
(min-max)
3
Mean±SD
(min-max)
4
Mean±SD
(min-max)
5
Mean±SD
(min-max)
6
Mean±SD
(min-max)
Standing
long jump
[cm]
180.41±11.43
(165-211)
161.32±16.26
(120-207)
158.31±15.26
(127-190)
153.06±16.21
(120-192)
157.60±17.53
(111-188)
177.39±111.3
(160-205)
1.6>2.3.5.4
4×10m
shuttle run
[s]
11.97±0.60
(10.76-12.95)
12.39±0.82
(10.59-14.78)
12.94±0.80
(10.87-15.04)
13.12±0.73
(11.72-15.47)
13.12±1.16
(11.40-15.87)
12.08±0.82
(10.28-13.52)
5.4.3<1
5.4.3<6;
4.3<2
8s Skip &
hand claps
[no. claps]
25.93±1.52
(23-29)
23.19±2.61
(17-28)
25.55±2.91
(18-36)
22.70±2.22
(17-27)
19.16±1.37
(16-21)
24.87±2.80
(17-30)
1>2.4.5
3.6.2.4>5
3>2; 3.6>4
Zig-zag run
[s]
28.78±0.86
(27.00-30.91)
28.30±2.49
(23.98-34.40)
30.06±2.62
(25.69-34.87)
30.95±2.55
(25.28-37.03)
30.78±3.80
(22.23-37.92)
28.68±3.31
(23.18-35.83)
4<1;
4.5.3<2
4<6.2
Standing
downward
bend [cm]
11.78±2.52
(8-17)
4.54±3.90
(-6- 13)
6.41±4.92
(-2- 20)
7.81±5.20
(-9- 21)
4.52±3.14
(-2- 9)
3.74±2.97
(-2- 9)
1>4.3.2.5.6
4>2.5.6
Barbell overh.
trunk rotation
[cm]
67.27±6.42
(54-80)
70.30±5.81
(56-85)
64.34±4.52
(55-74)
69.34±5.41
(57-80)
68.60±5.02
(58-80)
69.43±4.05
(61-75
)
2.6.4.5<3
2<1
30s Sit-ups
[no. sit-ups]
22.00±1.99
(18-27)
19.41±3.50
(12-27)
17.48±3.02
(11-25)
15.62±4.00
(7-22)
16.64±1.89
(13-19)
19.00±3.57
(10-26)
1>2.6.3.5.4
2>3.5.4;
6>4
Med. ball
backward
throw [cm]
815.00±
105.79
(620-1050)
647.47±
125.90
(380-1060)
747.97±
126.83
(500-1080)
612.60±
97.69
(350-840)
681.52±
96.43
(463-860)
702.43±
154.40
(520-1030)
1>6.5.2.4
3>2.4
Med. ball
forward throw
[cm]
657.68±81.30
(530-830)
552.52±90.21
(370-820)
641.72±99.40
(450-890)
561.51±91.76
(340-790)
570.60±87.87
(330-670)
546.96±89.35
(410-720)
1>5.4.2.6
3>4.2.6
Flexed arm
hang on bar
[s]
11.76±10.64
(3.46-51.34)
4.95±6.67
(0.00-45.99)
5.71±2.78
(1.23-17.87)
4.64±7.21
(0.00-46.06)
2.23±2.00
(0.00-5.45)
7.76±5.10
(1.01-18.98)
1>3.2.4.5
6.3>2.4.5
1-min Burpee
test
[no. cycles]
19.37±2.50
(17-26)
17.44±2.39
(11-23)
18.83± 3.59
(10-28)
16.51±1.86
(11-21)
15.32±1.84
(12-18)
19.48±1.86
(16-24)
1>2.4.5;
6.3.2>5
6>2; 6.3>4
3-min Burpee
test
[no. cycles]
55.51±4.31
(47-64)
49.28±8.60
(16-62)
49.81±3.39
(42-55)
44.85±5.73
(29-57)
37.60±7.98
(22-49)
55.13±4.80
(45-62)
1>3.2.4.5
6.3.2>5;
6>2.4.3;
2>4; 3>4
12-min row
ergometer
[m]
1939.95±
186.86
(1620-2340)
1649.46±
313.57
(788-2340)
1630.31±
251.63
(889-2147)
1250.02±
201.67
(823-1671)
1409.40±
187.04
(980-1680)
1529.61±
171.38
(1158-1892)
1>2.3.6.5.4
2.3>5;
2.3.6>4
1=Martial arts, 2=General PE, 3=Swimming, 4=Aerobics, 5=Golf, 6=Jogging then sauna
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski
124
In 1- and 3-minute Burpee tests, significant differences in results were observed between the
evaluated activity groups. In the 1-minute Burpee test, martial arts students (1) significantly
outperformed women enrolled in general PE, aerobics and golf classes (2,4,5), whereas
golfers (5) scored significantly lower results than students participating in general PE,
swimming and jogging classes (2,3,6). Significant differences were also noted between
joggers (6), general PE students (2), between swimmers (3) and joggers (6), and aerobics
students (4). In the 3-minute Burpee test, martial arts students (1) significantly outperformed
women from the remaining activity groups (2,3,4,5), excluding joggers (6). Golfers (5) scored
significantly lower results than students attending general PE, swimming and jogging classes
(2,3,6). Other relationships between the analysed activity groups were also noted: jogging
followed by sauna (6), general PE, swimming and aerobics (2,3,4), general PE and swimming
(2,3) and aerobics (4). In the 12-minute Cooper test on a rowing ergometer, martial arts
students (1) significantly outperformed women from the remaining groups (2,3,4,5,6).
General PE students (2) and swimmers (3) scored significantly higher results than golfers (5)
and aerobics students (4) and joggers (6) significantly outperformed aerobics students (4)
(Table 4).
DISCUSSION
According to experts, an improvement in PF levels and a periodic reduction in body fat due to
physical training are relatively easier to accomplish than permanent changes in eating habits
combined with regular exercise. For this reason, many individuals participating in voluntary
PA programmes are able to improve their PF and reduce their body mass within a relatively
short time, but those who give up training after two to three months return to their baseline
weight or are even heavier (the yo-yo effect) (King, 2001). Not all individuals are able to
achieve the set goals with equal determination and their efforts are influenced by lifestyle,
habits, PA levels, gender, health status, overall fitness levels and traits of character, such as
motivation, willpower and temperament. Goal achievement is also influenced by
environmental factors and the type of undertaken PA (Podstawski et al., 2013b), but 30 to
50% of individuals who enrol in a health programme quit after two to three months, whereas
more than 50% of individuals quit after approximately six months (Neupert et al., 2009). The
highest quit rates are noted among people with a sedentary life style. The female students
investigated in the current study fell into this category. Nevertheless, a regular exercise
regimen as part of obligatory PE classes over a period of five months could be expected to
bring positive results. Studies of HR-F (Health Related Fitness) programmes revealed that
participants who do not quit in the first 6 months are more likely to continue their training
(Dishman & Salis, 1994; Neupert et al., 2009).
An analysis of the results scored in various groups indicated that body height, body mass and
BMI scores influenced the students' choice of PA. The slimmest and tallest women preferred
more intense PAs (martial arts, jogging followed by sauna), whereas students characterised
by lower body height and higher body mass opted for the least intense forms of PA (golf,
general PE and aerobics). Highly similar results were also reported in a study of male
university students where participants with significantly higher body mass and BMI were
more likely to choose strength exercises involving several repetitions with relatively long
breaks in between sets, Nordic walking and golf. Martial arts, team sports and jogging were
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Effectiveness of physical activity types
125
more frequently selected by leaner students with higher PF levels. Taller students were more
inclined to choose volleyball (Podstawski et al., 2015).
The observed correlations were validated by other authors who demonstrated that excessive
body mass and obesity have a negative influence of PA levels regardless of age and gender
(Janssen et al., 2005). Similar trends were noted among pre-school and early primary school
students (D’Hondt et al., 2009; Krombkolz, 2011). The only exception was reported in a
study of underweight female students from south-western Saudi Arabia whose PA levels
were significantly lower in comparison with their obese peers. The authors of the cited study
attributed those findings to socioeconomic and cultural factors (Khalaf et al., 2013). In the
current study, the only exception to the above rule were overweight students (BMI=25.74 to
25.79kg/m2) who were involved in swimming, a relatively intense form of PA. It should be
noted, however, that apparent body mass in water is quite low due to high water
displacement, therefore, resistance levels are low in high-intensity water exercises. The above
theory was confirmed by Gwinup (1987) and Jang et al. (1987), who investigated obesity in
athletes and regular swimmers. The cited authors noted that swimmers were characterised by
higher fat tissue levels (men=12%, women=20%) in comparison with runners (men=7%,
women=15%) who burned similar amounts of energy during training (Flynn et al., 1990).
According to Jang et al. (1987), swimmers were also sleepier and less active during daytime.
Various types of PA involve different forms of movement (Angyán et al., 2003; McGawley
& Bishop, 2006) and lead to different changes in anthropometric parameters and PF levels
(Almeida et al., 2013). A reduction in body mass and BMI and an improvement in PF (1-mile
run, trunk flexion test, curl-ups, grasping force (Rt), grasping force (Lr) and long-jump) was
observed among obese children performing aerobic training and combined
(aerobic/resistance) training as part of a 10-week PA programme (Lee et al., 2010). In a
group of male university students engaged in various types of PA, a significant increase in
body mass and BMI was reported only in bodybuilders, significant changes in the above
parameters were not noted in respondents who chose martial arts, jogging followed by sauna,
golf and general PE classes, whereas a significant decrease was observed in volleyball players
(Podstawski et al., 2015). Kayihan (2014) studied 236 volunteers, including 84 martial arts
athletes, 72 team sport athletes and 80 non-sport participants, and observed significant
differences in body mass, BMI, body height, body fat and skinfold thickness between the
analysed subjects. Martial arts athletes were significantly shorter than team sport athletes.
Martial arts athletes were also characterised by significantly lower body fat and skinfold
thickness than non-sport participants (Kayihan, 2014).
Changes in somatotype and motor fitness are most visible in professional athletes whose
somatic type and constitutional physiognomy are characteristic of a given discipline
(Thorland et al., 1981). Our study evaluated university students with a sedentary lifestyle, but
the noted anthropometric parameters, BMI values and the results of motor ability tests
validate the above assumption. Female students attending swimming, general PE, aerobics
and golf classes were characterised by the highest BMI values at the beginning of the
semester, their fat tissue levels increased significantly during the study and were highest at
the end of the semester. By contrast, body mass and BMI values decreased significantly in
martial arts students and joggers.
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126
A comparison of motor ability test results between the beginning and end of the semester
revealed that certain activities have a more pronounced and stimulating effect on PF levels
than other exercises. The vast majority of students performing high-intensity PAs
significantly improved their results at the end of the semester. The most striking improvement
was noted in the group of martial arts students who scored higher results in all motor ability
tests, swimmers who scored higher results in nine tests, and joggers who scored higher results
in eight tests. Female students attending martial arts, swimming and jogging classes
represented the most developed and well-rounded groups of participants in terms of the
assessed motor abilities at the end of the semester. At the end of the semester, martial arts
students outperformed the participants from the remaining activity groups in the highest
number of motor ability tests. In another study, male students practising martial arts were also
more physically fit than those attending bodybuilding/fitness, volleyball, jogging, golf and
general PE classes (Podstawski et al., 2013b; Podstawski et al., 2015). Kayihan (2014)
compared individuals engaged in various types of PA and demonstrated that although martial
arts performers were characterised by significantly higher muscular endurance and flexibility
than team sport and non-sport participants, martial arts athletes had significantly lower
aerobic capacity than team sports athletes. According to some researchers, martial arts deliver
a host of physiological benefits for young adults (Shaw & Deutsch, 1982, Douris et al.,
2004), medium-aged subjects (Heller et al., 1998; Fong & Ng, 2011) and the elderly (Lan et
al., 1998; Hong et al., 2000), including an improvement in health-related fitness indicators.
The improvement in the results of selected motor ability tests at the end of the semester could
also be attributed to the specific features of a given sports discipline relating to the frequency
of targeted exercises. Aerobics involves a significant number of flexibility exercises, which is
why aerobics students were able to improve their sagittal spinal flexibility (standing
downward bend). Swimmers significantly improved their performance in strength tests
(medicine ball forward and backward throw, 30s sit-ups, flexed arm hang), endurance-
strength tests (1- and 3-minute Burpee test), endurance tests (12-minute Cooper test on a
rowing ergometer) and coordination tests (8s skipping with hand clapping). Swimmers were
able to improve their results in the above tests, because the majority of swimming exercises
are high-intensity activities that engage nearly all locomotive muscles and promote strength,
endurance and coordination (Hall et al., 1996). There is evidence to suggest that the apparent
loss of body mass in water improves nerve and muscle coordination due to considerable
muscle relaxation (Westby, 2001; Bartles et al., 2007) and that regular activities in water
contribute to an overall improvement in cardiovascular efficiency (Chase et al., 2008). Other
authors have demonstrated that ball games and free play (soccer, basketball and football)
increase the heart rate more significantly than gymnastics (MacFarlane & Kwong, 2003).
Research studies indicate that students participating in team sport spend more time in the
high-intensity exercise zone (characterised by higher mean heart rate) than students
performing other sport (Klausen et al., 1986; Kulinna et al., 2003).
In the current study, female students who participated in less intense PAs improved their
results in selected motor ability tests, but in the remaining tests, their scores did not change or
even deteriorated significantly. The above was observed in the group of aerobics students
whose results deteriorated in nine motor ability tests, followed by golf and general PE
students whose results deteriorated in four tests. The observed deterioration in the results of
selected motor ability tests could result from negligence on behalf of the teachers who
SAJR SPER, 39(1), 2017 Effectiveness of physical activity types
127
focused on technical and tactical aspects of a given sports discipline, but disregarded general
health and development goals. The deterioration in sagittal spinal flexibility could have
resulted from the teachers' failure to incorporate flexibility exercises during swimming
classes (during warm-up or at the end of the class). Despite an absence of significant changes
in results, swimmers were characterised by the highest mobility in the region of the shoulder
girdle (barbell overhead trunk rotation), which could be attributed to dolphin and front crawl
strokes that improve shoulder joint mobility. The deterioration noted in the results of speed
tests (4×10m shuttle run, zig-zag run), strength tests (standing long jump, 30s sit-ups,
medicine ball backward throw), endurance-strength tests (1- and 3-minute Burpee test),
endurance tests (12-minute Cooper test on a rowing ergometer) and coordination tests (8s
skipping with hand clapping), and the lowest motor fitness levels in the aerobics group can be
undoubtedly attributed to teachers' negligence.
During the summer semester, female students attended only 15, 90-minute classes conducted
once a week, which suggests that their PA levels were low. The number of PE classes was
insufficient to promote a significant improvement in test results, but other research
demonstrated that rowing for 500m on an ergometer only once a week delivered numerous
benefits for sedentary students (Podstawski et al., 2009). Interestingly, the cited study
demonstrated that the participants were able to improve their rowing times only up to a
certain level (5 to 6 training sessions), after which their results ceased to improve.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION
This study revealed that despite a limited number of PE classes during the academic year,
female university students are presented with a wide variety of PA options. Certain types of
activities improve motor ability, others have weak or no effects, whereas some activities can
even lead to a deterioration in motor abilities. PE teachers can improve the students' fitness
levels by encouraging them to participate in high-intensity exercise routines. The results of
the current study can be used to design a new PE programme with emphasis on health
training. Despite the allocated number of class hours in the academic curriculum, the rigid
system of 15, 90-minute weekly classes can be replaced with more flexible options. Subject
to technical possibility, high-intensity activities could be divided into 30- to 60-minute
training sessions held more than once a week.
LIMITATIONS
International classification standards have not been developed for several tests in the applied
battery of 13 motor ability trials, therefore, the students' average fitness levels in all tests
(total T-score) or selected drills could not be evaluated. An extended number of tests was
designed for a more reliable assessment of specific motor abilities. The study was performed
on the assumption that 15, 90-minute PE classes per semester (five months) are not sufficient
to induce not only a significant improvement but any improvement in the students' fitness
levels. Coordination skills were evaluated in only one test, skipping with hand clapping
(Mynarski, 2000). Additional coordination trials could not be incorporated into the study due
to time constraints. The study was performed only in the UWM in Olsztyn, and the evaluated
population included only female students performing six types of PAs because the instructors
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128
teaching bodybuilding/fitness, Nordic walking and yoga classes refused to participate in the
study.
CONCLUSIONS
Body height, body mass and BMI scores influenced young and sedentary women's choices of
PA. The tallest women had a preference for martial arts and jogging followed by sauna,
whereas the shortest participants were more likely to choose aerobics and swimming.
Students characterised by higher body mass and higher BMI opted for less intense forms of
PA (golf, aerobics and general PE), whereas slimmer participants chose more intense
activities (martial arts, jogging followed by sauna). The only exception to the above rule was
swimming, a high-intensity activity, which was selected by overweight women. Disciplines,
such as martial arts and jogging, had the most profound and extensive influence on motor
fitness levels. Students involved in those types of activities improved their results in a greater
number of the motor ability tests.
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601652527, Email: podstawskirobert@gmail.com
(Subject Editor: Dr Paola Wood)
... It is recommended that national martial arts elites pay special attention to training process management, customized and personalized tools and modern progress testing systems, and provide relevant qualitative and quantitative benchmarks for progress management [4]. The purpose of Podstawski et al. [5] was to determine the relationship between various forms of physical activity and anthropometric parameters and athletic ability in female students. Measurements were taken at the beginning and end of the summer term. ...
... Students with higher body mass and higher BMI scores were more likely to participate in golf, aerobics, general physical education and swimming lessons. Students who chose martial arts, swimming, and jogging showed significant improvements in most athletic ability tests, followed by sauna, suggesting that these activities had the most profound effect on participants' athletic fitness levels [5]. The main problem of these studies is that the data collection rate of the current situation of martial arts fitness is slow. ...
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With the acceleration of the socialist modernization process, people’s living standards continue to improve, and the modernization of cities is also developing rapidly. In the process of urban construction, a series of problems such as how to deal with the relationship between citizens and the surrounding environment, how to carry out citizens' health activities, and how to organize citizens to exercise healthily are becoming more and more obvious. With the introduction of the National Sports Outline, as an important sports activity, Chinese martial arts has a long history and profound cultural heritage, and it still plays an irreplaceable role in promoting the national spirit and building a harmonious society today. Therefore, this paper introduced the LSTM recurrent neural network algorithm to collect and extract the current data on martial arts fitness in the pursuit of health. By constructing the LSTM neuron structure and building the LSTM recurrent neural network structure, a state estimation based on LSTM feature extraction was proposed. The algorithm used the memory ability of LSTM to extract the relevant features of the data stream, which significantly improved the accuracy of the data stream collection. The experimental results showed that the time required by the method in this paper were 12.7, 10.2, 12.4 s and 11.8 min respectively, and the accuracy rates were 98.78, 98.26, 99.03 and 97.89%, respectively, which were greatly improved compared with the existing methods.
... An overview of results is shown in Table 1. Sixteen studies included measures of a musculoskeletal nature, including strength and endurance measures [29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36], BMD or BMC [29,34,37,38], balance and stability measures [30,36,[39][40][41][42], muscle mass and thickness [35,37,43], flexibility and mobility [36], or physical competency measures [30,32,33,44]. Musculoskeletal strength and endurance results were mixed, particularly amongst cross-sectional studies, where Stockdale et al. [33] observed no statistically significant differences in grip (golfers: 0.33 ± 0.06 N/ kg; non-golfers: 0.29 ± 0.06 N/kg) or quadriceps strength between golfers and non-golfers (golfers: 2.78 ± 0.74 N/ kg; non-golfers: 2.69 ± 0.83 N/kg). ...
... Most cross-sectional [33,39,46,49,51] and intervention [45,47] studies indicated that playing golf or caddying [34,35] does not impact BMI. Some studies, however, have suggested the contrary, that BMI was lower in golfers than controls [43], reduced following a 20-week golf season [36], or increased by 0.7% following at least 15 × 90-min golf classes over a 5-month period [31]. Nevertheless, the true physiological significance of a 0.17 kg . ...
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Background No previous systematic review has examined the physical health benefits of playing golf or caddying. Objective To establish the influence of golf participation and physical health in golfers and caddies. More specifically, the review intended to explore the domains of cardiovascular, metabolic and musculoskeletal health, in addition to body composition. Design Systematic review. Data Sources Electronic literature searches were conducted using PubMed, SPORTDiscus and CINAHL databases in July 2021. Eligibility Criteria Experimental (randomised controlled trials, quasi-experiment, pre-post) and non-experimental (case–control, cross-sectional, cohort) articles relating to health and golf, written in English and published in peer-reviewed journals. Results Of the 572 articles initially identified, 109 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility with 23 meeting the inclusion criteria. Sixteen articles were rated ‘good 'and seven ‘fair’. The influence of golf on physical health was mixed, although various articles displayed improvements in balance, systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP), high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) and the ratio of HDL to total cholesterol within golfers. Caddies observed improvements in bone mineral density (BMD), stiffness index and strength. Most of the findings indicate that playing golf or caddying does not influence body mass index (BMI); however, playing golf can positively change other body composition markers such as lean and fat mass. Conclusion This review demonstrated that golf participation may be an effective method for improving musculoskeletal and cardiovascular health, although mixed findings were observed. Moreover, limited longitudinal evidence suggests that playing golf can positively impact metabolic health and the influence on body composition may be parameter dependent. Additionally, the initial evidence suggests that caddying may improve musculoskeletal health. However, the studies included were limited by their methodological inconsistencies such as: study design, participant demographics and intervention prescription. PROSPERO Registration CRD42021267664.
... Increasingly, K-F is being used in programming for young, middle, and older adults 14 because of its various positive biological outcomes such as improved flexibility, coordination, speed, and endurance. 18 Training in K-F can quickly facilitate physical benefits (within weeks) 19 regardless of the age at which a student begins their training. 14 Physical activity can combat a sedentary lifestyle that can lead to obesity in childhood, adolescence, or in later life, 18 and prevent diseases (e.g., cancer, diabetes) and premature, preventable death. ...
... 18 Training in K-F can quickly facilitate physical benefits (within weeks) 19 regardless of the age at which a student begins their training. 14 Physical activity can combat a sedentary lifestyle that can lead to obesity in childhood, adolescence, or in later life, 18 and prevent diseases (e.g., cancer, diabetes) and premature, preventable death. 14 Drawing upon this research, in the KFFC program, children, youth, middle aged, and older adults are encouraged to be physically active by engaging in weekly training sessions in order to improve their fitness (e.g., flexibility, coordination, endurance). ...
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As in other parts of the world, Canada’s citizens are confronted with biological, mental, and social crises. Despite the fact that these issues can be interrelated, they are regularly studied and addressed separately. The bio-psycho-social (BPS) framework was offered as an alternative approach for care because of its assumption that in order to produce a variety of interconnected outcomes relative to health and well-being, biological, mental, and social issues must all be considered. Some authors have argued, however, that without a spiritual component, the BPS framework is not holistic. As such, recent scholarship has explored the inclusion of a spiritual component in the framework, and social service professionals have been encouraged to consider designing interventions informed by the bio-psycho-social-spiritual (BPS-S) framework. Good examples of how to apply the framework in practice are limited. This case example describes how the BPS-S framework was applied to design a community-, sports-, and faith-based martial arts program in Ontario, Canada. The program draws upon a combination of sports-, community-, and Christian faith-based considerations to serve its participants, including vulnerable populations such as those with constrained access to social services due to mental health challenges, language barriers, or low levels of income. This article details some of the ways in which the operations of this program (e.g., activities, target audience, leadership) were informed by the BPS-S framework. This includes some of the advantages of drawing upon this framework to foster more nuanced and holistic well-being among participants. The article concludes with some limitations of the BPS-S framework, and implications for applying it to other social service interventions.
... Depending on the weight category, body type, body proportions, and limb length may influence the techniques used in the fight. An optimal level of muscle mass with minimal fat is also desirable (Mala et al., 2019;Podstawski et al., 2017;. ...
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Background: This study aimed to investigate the impact of body composition and physical fitness on the performance of athletes in the Polish National Ju-Jitsu Team and their effects on performance in competitive bouts. The focus was on understanding the relationship between physical and physiological parameters and the athletes' effectiveness during three phases of a ju-jitsu fight: standing, transition, and ground fighting. Methods: The study involved 10 national team athletes who were assessed for body composition, physical fitness, and technical-tactical skills. Various fitness tests, body composition measurements, and statistical analyses were employed to determine correlations between these factors and performance in each fight phase. Results: The findings indicated no significant correlations between body composition and performance in the first and second phases of the fight. However, significant correlations were observed in the third phase (ground fighting), where specific body composition parameters were linked to better performance. The study highlighted the importance of specialized training, particularly in endurance, speed, and strength maintenance, to prevent fatigue during fights. Conclusions: The results suggest that tailored training programs focused on the identified areas of improvement could enhance overall competition performance. While body composition did not correlate with performance in all fight phases, its impact in the third phase underscores the need for further research. These findings are crucial for optimizing training strategies for ju-jitsu athletes. Coaches should prioritize the development of special fitness, especially during the transition phase, and ensure comprehensive strength preparation to improve athletes' performance in competitions.
... On the other hand, in the female university students studied, in addition to an improvement in motor fitness, there was a significant (p<0.001) decrease in the values of body mass and BMI [53,54]. Later studies in this area showed that jogging followed by sauna is one of the forms of physical activity (along with martial arts and swimming) characterized by the highest intensity among both men [55] and women [56]. ...
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Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the effect of repeated alternative thermal stress on the physiological parameters of young women sporadically used sauna. Materials and method: Twenty young women (age: 24.2±2.1 years) were exposed to four sauna sessions of 12 minutes each (temperature: 90-91°C; humidity: 14-16 %) with four 6-minute cool-down breaks including 2-minute cold water immersion (temperature: 9-11 o C). Physiological characteristics were monitored before and after the 72-minute experiment. Systolic and diastolic blood pressures (systolic-SBP, diastolic-DBP), heart rate (HR), forehead temperature, and body composition were determined on each subject and dependent t-test were performed on each variable. Results: During the 72-minute experiment forehead temperature increased significantly (p<0.001). A significant decrease was observed in DBP (p=0.045), body mass (p<0.001), minerals (p=0.01), body fat mass (p=0.035), BMI (p<0.001), waist to hip ratio (p=0.042), visceral fat level (p=0.004) and obesity degree (p=0.044) during four successive 12-minute sauna sessions. Conclusions: Seventy-two minutes of alternating (hot and cold) repeated thermal stress has a significant effect on significant decrease in the values of DBP, and body composition (body mass, BMI, BFM and minerals) characteristics. Two-minute cold water immersions allow the body to cool down significantly and gives the opportunity to stay in the sauna for longer time. Long stays in the sauna can be used to reduce levels of body fat in the human body. Cite this article as: Podstawski R, Boryslawski K, Hinca B, Finn K, Dziełak A. Effect of repeated alternative thermal stress on the physiological and body composition characteristics of young women sporadically using sauna. Phys Act Rev 2023; 11(1): 49-59.
... Much research on the anthropometric and motor characteristics of students in higher education suggested that among students who practiced various types of PA (martial arts, bodybuilding/fitness, volleyball, jogging with sauna, golf, general PE classes), those who practiced martial arts had the highest fitness levels [54]. Sequential studies have revealed that students enrolled in general PE classes, martial arts, jogging with sauna, and volleyball scored higher in most motor ability tests than students enrolled in other PE classes, which suggests that these types of activities were most beneficial for improving students' motor abilities [55,56]. ...
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Aim: One of the problems of modern higher education is the so-called "New core curricula", which oblige PE teachers to make many changes in the way they work. PE teachers face several restrictions to provide PE programs that improve students' physical fitness, cognitive development, and overall health. The research aimed to investigate the working conditions of university PE teachers in selected European tertiary institutions. Materials and Methods: The quantitative research employed purposive sampling. Five academics volunteered to collect information on 66 European tertiary institutions located in and Kosovo. Quantitative data were collected using questionnaires with a set of questions concerning characteristics of tertiary institutions and various aspects of working conditions of university PE teachers. Results: Two thirds of the university PE teachers held master's degree in PE since in over 42% of surveyed institutions, a master's degree in physical education was required to conduct PE classes. The majority of PE teachers (84.4%) were employed full-time, and on average worked 38.6 days in an academic year. Significantly more PE teachers with masters and doctoral degrees (p = 0.012) were employed full-time, or fixed term in public, middle size HEIs (p <0.001). In HEIs in cities with less than 500,000 residents, PE teachers were more often encouraged for participation in CPD (p = 0.049). Significantly more public HEIs fully or partially covered the costs of CPD or conferences (p <0.001), whereas in non-public or small HEIs significantly more PE teachers had to finance the costs of CPD. Moreover, significantly more (p = 0.037) universities implemented specific PE teachers' evaluation criteria with a personal record of their achievements. Conclusion: There is a pressing need to improve qualifications of university PE teachers, as many European HEIs do not support PE teachers in CPD. Furthermore, lack of CPD opportunities, low salaries and lack of career promotion perspectives combined with lower psychological resilience, may result in professional burnout syndrome.
... In another study of university students, motor abilities were also correlated with the type of PA, and martial arts students scored significantly higher in this category than participants performing other activities (Podstawski, Honkanen, Choszcz & Boraczyński, 2013). Similar relationships were noted in female students (Podstawski, Markowski, Choszcz, Lipiński & Borysławski, 2017). The present study provides further evidence that both martial arts and jogging followed by sauna are characterized by the highest levels of physical exertion. ...
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The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of various forms of physical activity (PA) among male students in physical education (PE) programs offered by universities in Poland, Hungary and the United Kingdom. The study involved 200 full-time male university students (mean age: 19.86±0.82), enrolled in nine different PA programs. The participants' anthropometric traits and body composition parameters were determined with the InBody analyser. Based on the students' physiological parameters, the effectiveness of various types of PA was measured with Suunto. Ambit3 peak heart rate monitors during 60 minutes of physical exertion. The average values of body mass, body mass index (BMI), body fat mass (BFM), percent body fat (PBF), waist hip ratio (WHR), and visceral fat (VFL) were significantly (p<0.05) lower in students who performed jogging, followed by sauna (JFBS) and martial arts than in the remaining PA groups. Minutes of difficult and very difficult intensities were highest in martial art students, followed by jogging students, and they were significantly (p<0.05) higher than the values noted in the remaining PA groups (golf, bodybuilding/fitness, swimming, general PE classes, cycling and individual training). Physiological parameters were significantly (p<0.05) lowest in golf players and students who trained individually. Martial arts and JFBS are the most effective types of PA among male university students. Students performing martial arts and JFBS were characterized by the lowest relative, body fat, whereas students who practiced swimming had the highest body fat levels in the population sample.
... CV -coefficient of variation: 1.4-3.3%). These motor tests had been widely used to analyze the motor abilities of different age groups, including as separate trials to assess specific motor abilities and as part of batteries of tests to evaluate general motor fitness [20,21]. The validity and reliability of the applied tests had been confirmed by other researchers [22,23]. ...
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Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the relationships between socioeconomic factors (SES), anthropometric characteristics and motor abilities of female university students. Materials and Methods: The study was conducted in 2000-2018 on 3955 female university students aged 19.72 ± 0.75 years who were randomly selected from the population of students attending obligatory physical education (PE) classes. The participants' body mass and height were measured, and the students participated in 13 motor ability tests that assessed their speed/agility, flexibility, strength, endurance-strength, and endurance abilities. Multiple independent samples were compared using the Kruskal-Wallis test or the mean-ranks post-hoc test when significant differences were observed in the participants' motor abilities. Results: Statistically significant differences in the participants' body mass, body height, BMI and motor abilities (speed/agility, flexibility-partly, strength, and strength-endurance) were associated with differences in the students' SES. Greater mean differences in SES were associated with differences in the anthropometric and motor characteristics of students. Environmental factors such as the place of permanent residence, monthly budgets, mother's and father's educational background were least likely to be associated with female students' endurance abilities. Conclusions: Female students who had higher monthly budgets, resided in large cities, and had better educated parents were generally taller and had a higher level of motor abilities. An inverse relationship was noted between motor abilities vs. body mass and BMI. Cite this article as: Podstawski R, Marzec A. Relationships between socioeconomic factors versus the anthropometric and motor characteristics of Polish female university students (
... The value before conversion of the function is x, and the value after conversion is y, and the maximum value of the sample data is represented by MaxV, and the minimum value of the sample data is MinV [6]. ...
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The image acquisition system is the main part of acquiring image information, and its performance largely determines the accuracy and difficulty of subsequent planning. The main purpose of this article is to design an image acquisition system for aerobics training based on motion recognition technology. This article mainly introduces the teaching experiments based on the design of aerobics courses. Through the empirical investigation and analysis of the impact of relevant experimental data on aviation training courses, attempts to establish the connection between aerobics social adaptability and various dimensions The cultivation of student’s social adaptability. In this paper, the GMM algorithm is mainly used to distinguish the rest time when the action occurs, and the subsequent rest period is used as the basis for segmenting multiple events in the action sequence. Finally, the characteristics of the action coding mapping of each event are derived, and the support vector machine is used to complete the energy recognition process of the existence of a single energy. The experimental results of this paper show that the designed embedded image acquisition system has high integration and stability, the acquired image resolution is 640x480, and the wireless transmission rate is 5MbPs, which has wide application prospects.
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There is still a scarcity of literature on the specific mechanisms of the linkage between the built environment and obesity. As a result, this study investigated whether and how physical activities mediate the associations between the objective built environment and the BMI of elderly people. To investigate the effect of the duration and intensity of physical activity on the effect of the built environment, the study made use of the bootstrap method. In general, we discovered that physical activity duration has a huge mediating effect on the elderly people in Shanghai, especially with respect to the density and accessibility of facilities (gyms, parks, fast-food restaurants) that can greatly stimulate physical activity in elderly people to reduce their BMI. There were both direct and indirect effects on their BMI, which means that the health benefits of green spaces for older people may be more complicated than first thought.
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Background There are limited studies on the physical fitness of adolescent martial arts athletes. This study aimed to knowledge about the physical fitness levels of adolescents according to sports participation: martial arts, team sports and non-sports. Material & Methods: A total of 236 volunteers participated in this study: 84 martial arts athletes (16.57 years ± 1.06), 72 team sports athletes (16.61 years ± 1.16) and 80 non-sports participants (16.78 years ± 0.98) were investigated. According to AAHPERD and FITNESSGRAM batteries, valid and reliable tests were used to evaluate the physical fitness levels Results: Significant differences were found between the results of three sports groups for body weight, body mass index, body height, body fat, skinfold thicknesses, muscular endurance, flexibility and aerobic capacity (p<0.05). Although muscular endurance and flexibility in the martial arts group were significantly higher (p<0.05) than in the team sports and non-sports groups, body height and aerobic capacity in the martial arts group were significantly lower (p<0.05) than in the team sports group. The martial arts group had significantly lower body fat and skinfold thickness values (p<0.05) than the non-sports groups. Conclusions: The results of this study set forth the positive effects of martial art training on health-related physical fitness for adolescents. Compared to non-sports participation, martial arts has a more positive effect on muscular endurance and flexibility than team sports in adolescents. Therefore, these are important empirical evidence in order to martial arts in a wide range to promote the element of the physical education and the form of the physical activity in leisure time.
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Advanced age is associated with degenerative changes in body composition. There is evidence suggesting that changes may vary upon differences in lifestyle, environment, or gender. Physical activity engagement is considered an important component of lifestyle definition. There are suggestions that engaging in physical activity might alleviate degenerative body compositional changes. The objective is to assess the relationship between adherence to recommended guidelines of physical activity and anthropometric parameters in Israeli older adults. Anthropometric measures, including height, weight, and waist circumference, were taken, and BMI was calculated, from a random sample of 1,663 elderly adults (799 men and 864 women), aged 74.31 (+/- 6.05) years old. Participants reported their physical activity habits and, based on official guidelines recommendations, they were divided into sufficiently active, insufficiently active, and inactive groups. One-way ANOVA (level of physical activity) for both genders was conducted for each anthropometric variable. In both genders, an association between level of physical activity and weight, waist circumference, and BMI was found, with lower values among the sufficiently active. In addition, a relationship between level of physical activity and height was indicated among women, implying that the more active women were taller than the less active. In addition to the already known health benefits of physical activity in old age, it is possible that adherence to recommended guidelines of physical activity is associated with favorable anthropometric characteristics.
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Gymnastics coaches and administrators in the US are reluctant to include weight training with female gymnasts because they believe it produces detrimental increases in muscle mass. However, weight training based on high­intensity low­repetition sets is likely to improve the performance of most gymnasts by increasing strength with minimal muscle hypertrophy.
Article
Background: Osteoarthritis is a chronic disease characterized by joint pain, tenderness, and limitation of movement. At present, no cure is available. Thus only treatment of the person's symptoms and treatment to prevent further development of the disease are possible. Clinical trials indicate that aquatic exercise may have advantages for people with osteoarthritis. This is an update of a published Cochrane review. Objectives: To evaluate the effects of aquatic exercise for people with knee or hip osteoarthritis, or both, compared to no intervention. Search methods: We searched the following databases up to 28 April 2015: the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL; the Cochrane Library Issue 1, 2014), MEDLINE (from 1949), EMBASE (from 1980), CINAHL (from 1982), PEDro (Physiotherapy Evidence Database), and Web of Science (from 1945). There was no language restriction. Selection criteria: Randomized controlled clinical trials of aquatic exercise compared to a control group (e.g. usual care, education, social attention, telephone call, waiting list for surgery) of participants with knee or hip osteoarthritis. Data collection and analysis: Two review authors independently selected trials for inclusion, extracted data and assessed risk of bias of the included trials. We analysed the pooled results using standardized mean difference (SMD) values. Main results: Nine new trials met the inclusion criteria and we excluded two earlier included trials. Thus the number of participants increased from 800 to 1190 and the number of included trials increased from six to 13. Most participants were female (75%), with an average age of 68 years and a body mass index (BMI) of 29.4. Osteoarthritis duration was 6.7 years, with a great variation of the included participants. The mean aquatic exercise duration was 12 weeks. We found 12 trials at low to unclear risk of bias for all domains except blinding of participants and personnel. They showed that aquatic exercise caused a small short term improvement compared to control in pain (SMD -0.31, 95% CI -0.47 to -0.15; 12 trials, 1076 participants) and disability (SMD -0.32, 95% CI -0.47 to -0.17; 12 trials, 1059 participants). Ten trials showed a small effect on quality of life (QoL) (SMD -0.25, 95% CI -0.49 to -0.01; 10 trials, 971 participants). These effects on pain and disability correspond to a five point lower (95% CI three to eight points lower) score on mean pain and mean disability compared to the control group (scale 0 to 100), and a seven point higher (95% CI 0 to 13 points higher) score on mean QoL compared with control group (scale 0 to 100). No included trials performed a radiographic evaluation. No serious adverse events were reported in the included trials with relation to aquatic exercise. Authors' conclusions: There is moderate quality evidence that aquatic exercise may have small, short-term, and clinically relevant effects on patient-reported pain, disability, and QoL in people with knee and hip OA. The conclusions of this review update does not change those of the previous published version of this Cochrane review.
Article
Levels of activity and enjoyment were measured in 73 Hong Kong primary school children (39 girls and 34 boys), during regularly scheduled physical education (PE) classes. Classroom activities were classified into one of 4 types (ball games, athletics, gymnastics and free play). Activity levels were monitored by heart rate telemetry and by direct observation (CARS), whilst enjoyment was scored using a 5-point Likert scale. Results showed that the average PE class used 22 minutes of the scheduled 35 class time, whilst the students spent 3.7 min in moderate-to-vigorous (MVPA) activity (60-90%HRR), and nearly 50% of the children spent less than 2 minutes with their heart rate above 159 beats min-1. There were no significant differences in activity levels between genders. Ball games and free play generally produced statistically higher heart rates and CARS values than gymnastics. The levels of enjoyment were low (3.7 ± 1.0), but did not vary significantly between gender or activity type. A variety of social and environmental factors may contribute to these low activity and enjoyment levels.
Article
Abstract Background and Study Aim. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between various forms of physical activities undertaken by students of the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn and their body height, body mass, BMI scores and motor abilities. Materials and Methods. Anthropometric measurements and motor ability tests were performed twice in 2010, at the beginning and at the end of the summer semester, and they involved 337 first-year full-time male students. At the beginning of the academic year, students selected the type of activity they would be involved in during physical education classes. The participants’ body height, body mass and BMI were determined. Thirteen tests were carried out in the PE facilities of the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn to assess the students’ motor abilities. Results. Taller students opted for volleyball. Students with high body mass and high BMI scores chose less intensive forms of physical activity (golf) and strength-building workouts (bodybuilding, fitness). Slimmer students selected high-intensity activities, including general PE, martial arts, jogging followed by sauna, and volleyball. Conclusions: The choice of physical activity was correlated with body height, body mass, BMI and motor fitness. Differences in the students’ body mass, BMI and motor abilities at the beginning and at the end of the semester were influenced by the type of performed activity. In most motor ability tests, a significant improvement in results was observed in students who had opted for general PE, martial arts, jogging followed by sauna, and volleyball, which suggests that those activities had the most profound influence on the participants’ motor fitness.