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Attachment and Loss: Sadness and Depression
Journal of Marriage and Family
... Caregivers of securely attached children play a key role in their competence in coping with negative emotions (Cassidy, 1994;Cooke et al., 2019). They respond sensitively to emotional signals, offering a safe haven and a secure base (Ainsworth et al., 1978;Bowlby, 1979;Kerns et al., 2015), enabling children to seek help from caregivers or peers during distress Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2017). Caregivers also engage in emotionally rich conversations, enhancing children's emotional understanding and coping skills (Cooke et al., 2019;Dubois-Comtois et al., 2011), and model effective emotion regulation (Brumariu, 2015). ...
... Sadness is often studied alongside other negative emotions, such as anger and fear, despite having unique characteristics that distinguish it. Sadness arises from events like attachment disruptions due to illness, separation, or loss (Bowlby, 1979;Kobak et al., 2016), or goal failures, such as receiving poor grades (Deveney et al., 2013;Jeronimus & Laucelle, 2017;Shirai et al., 2021). In attachment dynamics, sadness often emerges when efforts to regain a caregiver's presence fail, while fear stems from the caregiver's absence, and anger is expressed as a protest for the absence or during active attempts to search for the caregiver. ...
... In attachment dynamics, sadness often emerges when efforts to regain a caregiver's presence fail, while fear stems from the caregiver's absence, and anger is expressed as a protest for the absence or during active attempts to search for the caregiver. Securely attached children seek help when sad and use problem-solving when angry or frightened, while insecurely attached children tend to maximize (anxious attachment) or minimize (avoidant attachment) emotions (Bowlby, 1979). A meta-analysis by Cooke et al. (2019) found securely attached children excel in regulating negative emotions, relying on cognitive coping and social support more than insecurely attached peers. ...
title>Abstract: Background:
This study aims to explore how children’s experiences of sadness are related to their coping strategies, attachment, and psychopathology.
Method:
A sample of 517 children described a sad event and related coping strategies. Events included bullying/quarrelling, frustration, accidents/illness, experienced/anticipated separation, and loss. Coping strategies included constructive coping, disengagement, and absence-of-coping.
Results:
Constructive coping was associated with secure attachment. Secure children used constructive and disengagement strategies for frustration, constructive coping particularly for bullying situations, and absence-of-coping for loss. Children reporting absence-of-coping during episodes of frustration exhibited more externalizing symptoms.
Conclusions:
The results highlight relationships between circumstancialdimensions and specific emotional experiences, and the importance of context-specific coping strategies in promoting emotional well-being.
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... The AAP belongs to a new generation of performance-based personality test that focus on the specific personality dimension of adult attachment. This test is a valid and time-effective assessment tool for examining the content and process of attachment representations, typically excluded from conscious awareness, through the narrative description of the individual's attachment experiences (Bowlby, 1973(Bowlby, , 1980Bretherton, 2005). ...
... Synchrony can also be expressed at a lower level when individuals can only limit themselves to "functional" behaviors useful to support attachment organization. Once the attachment system is activated, behaviors, thoughts, and emotional evaluations are filtered, selected, excluded, and transformed by defense processes before they gain access to conscious thought and to avoid unnecessary stress (Bowlby, 1980). Bowlby (1980) distinguishes three forms of defensive exclusion: deactivation, cognitive disconnection, and segregated systems. ...
... Once the attachment system is activated, behaviors, thoughts, and emotional evaluations are filtered, selected, excluded, and transformed by defense processes before they gain access to conscious thought and to avoid unnecessary stress (Bowlby, 1980). Bowlby (1980) distinguishes three forms of defensive exclusion: deactivation, cognitive disconnection, and segregated systems. ...
This paper aims to demonstrate how the principles of attachment theory as they emerge from the Adult Attachment Projective can be a powerful framework for structuring the psychological assessment and a meaningful lens for interpreting the results of the Rorschach Test. We review the Adult Attachment Projective Picture System (AAP), a new-generation performance-based personality test that describes clients’ attachment status. First, we introduce the AAP codes connected to an internalized secure base and attachment defenses, illustrating their origins and rationale. Second, we describe how to employ the AAP concepts to conduct a psychological assessment more attuned to clients’ emotional needs. Finally, this paper presents an overview of the correlations between attachment and Rorschach results and provides suggestions about how to interpret Rorschach results within an attachment-based theoretical framework.
... Bowlby (1973) and Bretherton (1985) have suggested that the attachment relationship between a child and parents has a core role in helping the child to learn many of the basic skills fundamental to survival, including cognitive functioning and learning abilities. Attachment theory, as conceived by Bowlby (1969Bowlby ( , 1973Bowlby ( , 1980Bowlby ( , 1988, posits that within the context of child-mother interaction, human beings develop internal representations, called internal working models of attachment, that are mental structures representing previous interactions with attachment fi gures (Bretherton & ...
... The latter category refers to disorganized functioning of the internal working model due to traumatic experiences: Disorganized for the child and Unresolved or Cannot Classify for the adult, circumscribed or generalized disorganization, respectively. Bowlby (1980) believed that internal working models allowed individuals to adapt to their social worlds and include the functions of storing knowledge and generating expectations (Main, Kaplan, & Cassidy, 1985;Busch & Lieberman, 2010). From these basic concepts, researchers have started to investigate the existence of possible connections between attachment and intelligence, generally to conceive the best way to adapt to the physical and social environment through interaction with the world (Piaget, 1954;Dykas & Cassidy, 2011). ...
... Little attention has been paid to the diff erence between Resolved and Unresolved attachment on adult intelligence. Bowlby (1980) posited that a set of defensive strategies, that is, a set of automatic, unconscious, and attentional processes, select, exclude, and transform behavior, thought and emotions. He identifi ed three types: Deactivation, Cognitive Disconnection, and Segregated Systems, representing diff erent types and levels of "protection" from dangerous or distressful events or memories. ...
Bowlby (1973) stated that the attachment relationship between a child and parents might help the child learn many skills important for survival, with a lifelong effect. However, there is a scarcity of research into attachment and intelligence in adulthood. This study examines the relationship between attachment status and cognitive skills in an Italian non-clinical sample of 101 young adults (M age = 22.6 yr.; SD = 1.8). The Adult Attachment Projective Picture Stimuli and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Revised were administered to participants and four-way attachment classifications were analyzed regarding participants' IQ. Statistically significant differences were found for Full Scale IQ and Verbal IQ, with Dismissing participants scoring higher than Unresolved participants. Similar results were obtained for two-way attachment patterns with Resolved participants scoring higher than Unresolved. Implications regarding different attachment patterns and the concept of trauma are discussed.
... between childhood trauma and hyper-independence, indicating that students with traumatic experiences tend to develop self-reliant behaviors. Attachment theory provides a strong conceptual framework for understanding this relationship; early trauma disrupts secure attachment formation, prompting individuals to develop coping mechanisms centered around self-reliance and emotional withdrawal to protect themselves from further harm (Bowlby, 1980). Empirical evidence reinforces this relationship. ...
... I often feel that I am the only one capable of doing things right. 8 I tend to avoid asking for favors from others. 9 ...
Childhood trauma has been identified as a significant factor influencing psychological and behavioral outcomes in adulthood. This study investigates the relationship between childhood trauma and hyper-independence among university students, focusing on how adverse experiences shape self-reliance. Hyper-independence, often characterized as an excessive need for autonomy, is hypothesized to emerge as a coping mechanism in response to early-life adversities (Tanasugarn, 2025). The research employs a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews, to explore the prevalence and psychological underpinnings of hyper-independence in a sample of 200 university students. Findings indicate that students with a history of childhood trauma, including emotional neglect and parentification, exhibit higher levels of hyper-independence compared to their peers (Bahar, 2023). These results suggest that hyper-independence may serve as both a protective strategy and a potential barrier to forming healthy interpersonal relationships. Implications for mental health interventions and support systems in academic settings are discussed, emphasizing the need for trauma-informed care to address the unique challenges faced by hyper-independent individuals (Perry & Szalavitz, 2017).
... Although the basic structure of attachment theory is assumed to be known in this paper, it is noteworthy that attachment theory can clearly demonstrate the active acquisition of intertwining feelings, thoughts, judgments, and actions in relation to the world, as shown by Bowlby (1969Bowlby ( , 1973Bowlby ( , 1980 and Ainsworth (1985;Ainsworth et al. 1978). ...
... Therefore, in a theory of care -without understanding the interplay of moments of thinking and feeling, words and concepts -successful learning processes cannot be theoretically grounded in a conscious and active manner. Bowlby 1969, 1973, 1980and Wiesner & Gebauer 2022b, 2023a ...
The ›Phenomenology of Care through Attachment Approaches‹ explores care within the contexts of inclusion, integration, separation, and exclusion. It traces the etymology of ›care‹, which includes concern, mindfulness, and educational care, among other meanings. Attachment theory is presented as a key framework for understanding relational patterns and the development of coherence within persons in communities and individuals in societies. This theory aligns with Bronfenbrenner’s structural model, illustrating transitions between structures and systems. Attachment patterns are balanced through multiple dimensions, shaping an internal working model. Phenomenologically, ‘care’ arises from the interplay between emotional and cognitive capacities, which, in turn, influence learning and development. The sketch offers a memorable configuration that makes care-relevant concepts visible while emphasizing the relational aspects of attachment.
... Relativamente ao vínculo mãe-filho, Bowlby (1980) discute como a perda de um dos pais pode influenciar o comportamento humano. O autor designa perda como o evento que pode ser desencadeado pelo luto, por morte ou ausência repentina, e como isso pode resultar em reações emocionais e comportamentais nas crianças e adultos, nomeadamente emoções mais intensas surgem durante a formação, manutenção, interrupção e renovação dos laços de apego. ...
... Da mesma forma, a ameaça de perda desperta ansiedade e a perda real desencadeia tristeza. Cada uma destas situações pode provocar raiva, como observado no caso do paciente em estudo (Bowlby, 1980 Na aplicação da teoria à enfermagem familiar, a família, uma unidade completa e central, é vista como cliente. Os seus membros são considerados como subsistemas do sistema, no qual a família, como um todo, é maior do que a soma das suas partes -os seus membros individuais. ...
The inclusion of both the family and the patient in the therapeutic project for the recovery
of individuals with Severe Mental Illness (SMI) is of paramount importance, spanning from
admission to post-discharge care, ensured by the intervention of the Community Mental Health
Team.
This report, developed within the scope of the VII Master's Degree Course in Nursing in
Association, in the area of Specialization in Mental Health and Psychiatric Nursing, reflects the
academic journey undertaken to acquire the common and specific competencies of the Nurse
Specialization in Mental Health and Psychiatric Nursing, and of a Master’s Degree in Nursing,
including two clinical internships carried out in a Mental Health Department in Alentejo,
Portugal.
To exemplify the experience, the theoretical frameworks of Betty Neuman's Systems Model
and John Bowlby's Attachment Theory were considered. The internship practice included the
implementation of a family intervention based The Recovery Model, through the action of the
Case Manager, whose results proved beneficial in application with individuals and caregivers in
need of intervention in the field of mental health.
... Previous research finds distress to be the most common emotional response to place threat or disruption (Abramson et al. 2008;Morgan 2010). Consistently with studies focusing on interpersonal attachment, distress is expected to be the emotional manifestation of the perceived threat to the place when there is a secure place attachment, that is, a history of people-place relationships based on responsiveness to needs such as safety and comfort (Bowlby 1980;Morgan 2010). Secure attachment should then bring people to seek support (i.e., positive coping) through Distress, and not engage in negative coping. ...
... Secure attachment should then bring people to seek support (i.e., positive coping) through Distress, and not engage in negative coping. When the attachment is insecure, instead, a threat to the place is expected to cause small distress, and this protective mechanism should not be activated (Bowlby 1980;Morgan 2010). Thus, we predict lower support seeking (i.e., positive coping) and higher negative coping. ...
This contribution aims to investigate how place attachment styles, conceptualised starting from interpersonal attachment styles, contribute to the activation of Positive (i.e., support seeking) or Negative and Avoidant (e.g., behavioural disengagement, substance abuse, making fun of the situation) behavioural coping through cognitive (i.e., Depletion of Self-Control) and emotional (i.e., Distress, Solastalgia) coping variables. For each Place Attachment Style (i.e., Secure, Preoccupied and Fearful-Avoidant) a mediation model was hypothesised. To test the assumptions, a study was conducted in Romanian high-risk areas (N = 237). Results show how both Secure and Preoccupied Place Attachment Styles were associated with higher Positive Coping through Solastalgia, while this mediating role of Solastalgia lowered Negative Coping only for Preoccupied Place Attachment Style. On the contrary, Fearful-Avoidant Place Attachment Style negatively predicted Positive Coping through a higher Depletion of Self-Control. Avoidant Coping was not associated with any of the variables in the study. Findings highlight the importance of designing policies, risk communication strategies and pre-and post-disaster interventions considering individual differences in place attachment styles. People with a Fearful-Avoidant Place Attachment Style are more vulnerable and should be prioritised in the support received before and after a disaster.
... According to Attachment theory childhood experiences have a greater impact on shaping of behaviour and thinking style of an individual (Bowlby, 1980). Attachment relationships are mainly important and have far reaching effects on developing social, emotional and cognitive skills. ...
... Expressive suppression helps in reducing the emotion but it is an unhealthy way of dealing with emotions than can contribute to emotional difficulties later in life. Attachment style of an individual is one of the most important factor which effects an individual's growth, interactions and decisions in the family (Bowlby, 1980;Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). Various kind of behavioural and emotional management is also predicted in an individual and it is evident from researches that secure attachment style positively correlates with problem solving skills, optimistic self-image and higher emotional awareness (Thompson & Gullone, 2008). ...
Objective: To investigate the predictive association of different attachment styles with emotional regulation strategies i.e., cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression among adolescents. Design: Correlational Research Design Place and Duration of Study: Different Public and Private sector educational institutes of Karachi-Pakistan, from 2016 to 2018. Subject and Method: 411 adolescents (Males=214, Females=197) age ranges between 13-19 years (M= 16 years, SD= 1.7) were recruited using purposive sampling technique. Self-developed Socio-Demographic Form, Attachment Style Questionnaire and Emotional Regulation Questionnaire were administered in group settings. The technique of counter balancing was also applied Results and Conclusion: The finding indicates that Secure Attachment Style significantly predicts Cognitive Reappraisal as an Emotional Regulation Strategy in adolescents causing 13.5 % variation. Whereas insecure Attachment Styles I.E., Fearful, Preoccupied And Dismissing Attachment Styles significantly predict the use of Expressive Suppression Explaining 4 %, 14.7 % and 10 % changes in Expressive Suppression scores, respectively. It is concluded that Secure Attachment Style has a role in promoting healthy Emotion Regulation Strategies in adolescents and preoccupied, Fearful and Dismissing Attachment Styles have a role in increasing Maladaptive Emotional Regulation Strategies in adolescents.
... These associations between parent and child symptoms may be understood as forms of relational trauma (Pat-Horenczyk & Schiff, 2019;Scheeringa & Zeanah, 2001), stemming from young children's profound physical and psychological dependence on their primary caregivers. However, beyond the mutual mental health effects, there remains a lack of comprehensive understanding regarding the impact of war-related trauma on the caregiverchild relationship, which is the foundation of healthy child development (Bowlby, 1980(Bowlby, , 1988. In addition, trauma may be associated with aversive, frightened, frightening, and withdrawn parental behavior in interaction with the child (Lyons-Ruth et al., 1999;Main & Hesse, 1990;Van Ee et al., 2016), which is further associated with the child's disorganized attachment behavior when needing comfort (Madigan et al., 2006), and with alterations in child stress regulation and neurobiological development (Khoury et al., 2023;Lyons-Ruth et al., 2013;Madigan et al., 2007). ...
... The findings of the reviewed articles align with the fundamental principles of attachment theory (Bowlby, 1980(Bowlby, , 1988, which posits that the child's primary biological and psychological need is the assurance of protection and close care from their attachment figure, particularly during stressful times. Similarly, the caregiver's fundamental biological and psychological urge appears to focus on ensuring the child's physical and emotional security (Bowlby, 1969(Bowlby, , 1988George & Solomon, 2008). ...
War-related trauma has detrimental effects on millions of individuals worldwide, including infants, toddlers, and their parents. Among various adverse outcomes, this trauma may significantly disrupt the essential sense of security crucial for fostering a healthy early parent–child relationship. Yet, research on the effects of war-related trauma on parent–child relationships remains limited. This study aimed to bridge this gap by synthesizing evidence from empirical studies focused on war-related trauma and early parent–child relationship outcomes from 0 to 3 years. Studies were identified by searching across multiple databases. The inclusion criteria encompassed studies examining the effects of exposure to war, armed conflict, or terrorism, focusing on the parent–young child relationship, published in English, peer-reviewed, and accessible. Eleven studies, published in 23 articles, met these criteria. The research findings revealed various impacts on the parent–child relationship due to exposure to war-related trauma. Notably, parents’ emotional distress and post-traumatic stress disorder, rather than their direct trauma exposure, were associated with adverse parent–child relational outcomes within the parent–child relationship, such as parents’ insensitive, inconsistent, hostile, and anxious behaviors toward their children, as well as children’s vigilance and unresponsive behaviors toward their parents. This research indicates various ways that war-related trauma may impact early parent–child relationships, highlighting directions for future research and offering insights that could assist in developing trauma-informed interventions focused on parent–child dyads experiencing war-related adversity.
... During pregnancy, maternal internal working models of attachment relationships become especially salient, as mothers anticipate and emotionally prepare for caregiving (George and Solomon, 2008). Mothers bring their internal working models of relationships, shaped by early attachment experiences (Bowlby, 1980), into their role as caregivers. Then, these models guide their expectations, emotions, and behaviors in their interactions with children . ...
... Mothers with coherent narratives of their attachment histories were more likely to exhibit caregiving patterns that fostered secure, responsive, and mutually satisfying interactions with their infants. This finding supports the central tenet of attachment theory, which posits that maternal internal working models shape the ways in which mothers interpret and respond to relational cues (Bowlby, 1980;George and Solomon, 2008). ...
Background
Pregnancy is a period of profound psychological reorganization, marked by increased vulnerability and the reactivation of past attachment experiences. During this transition, maternal attachment states of mind and the ability to regulate emotional distress through unconscious defenses play a crucial role in shaping early mother–infant relationships. Although the Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual, second edition (PDM-2) was not designed as a parenting manual, it provides a valuable framework for assessing how maternal attachment and defensive functioning influence the mother–infant relationship, since it emphasizes defensive functioning as a core component of mental functioning.
Aims
This longitudinal study examines the relationship between maternal attachment mental states during the third trimester and mother–infant relationship quality at 6 months postpartum, while also exploring the mediating role of maternal defensive functioning.
Methods
A community sample of 68 cisgender heterosexual pregnant women (Mage = 35.83 years; SD = 4.32) was recruited during the third trimester (Time 1 [T1]; Mgestational age = 36.30 weeks, SD = 1.80). At T1, maternal attachment coherence of mind was assessed using the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI), and defensive functioning was evaluated applying the Defense Mechanism Rating Scale–Q sort to AAI transcripts. At 6 months postpartum (Time 2 [T2]), the mother–infant relationship quality was assessed using the Infant–Caregiver Relationship Scale, as detailed in Section IV of the Psychodiagnostic Chart—Infancy and Early Childhood from the PDM-2. At T2, 58.82% of infants were assigned female at birth, with a mean age of 6.04 months (SD = 0.34). All participating mothers resided in Italy and were partnered with their infants’ fathers.
Results
Mediation analysis showed that greater prenatal attachment coherence of mind was directly associated with better mother–infant relationship quality. Furthermore, mother–infant dyads in which mothers exhibited lower AAI coherence of mind demonstrated poorer relationship quality via less adaptive maternal defensive functioning.
Conclusion
Maternal attachment mental states and defensive functioning during pregnancy play critical roles in the development of early caregiving relationships. The findings also highlight the PDM-2’s relevance in understanding maternal mental functioning and emphasize the need for targeted parenting interventions during pregnancy and early postpartum.
... Grief theorists who rely on the dimension of time include Bowlby (1982) who suggested that processes of mourning begin with yearning and searching for the lost person or object followed by disorganization and despair and ending with reorganization. Rando (1993) described six "Rs" of bereavement: first identifying (recognizing) the loss, reacting to it, collecting and reviewing memories, relinquishing attachment to the known world as it was, readjusting, and reinvesting in the world as it is. ...
... They also understood that losses could not be prioritized across people: sometimes a loss that looked small on the surface could be deeply impactful to the griever beyond the separation of death. Much insight about responses lies with the nature of the attachment or bonds one develops (Bowlby, 1982;Nelson-Becker, 2017). ...
Because loss and grief are multidimensional, they can affect individual cognition
(intrusive or perseverative thinking), social functioning (ability to engage with
others), somatic experiencing (tension, sleep, and other physical symptoms), spiritual sensibility (loss of core self-perceptions, change in how one identifies and relates to what is sacred), and existential reality (sense of place in the world), among other shifts in functioning. Much of the deepest learning goes beyond the ability of words to describe, and this is where the power of the arts became prevalent in helping students access deeper, sometimes fragmented, parts of themselves and return to a place of wholeness. The arts, because of the open and very personal associations they evoke, are often the means through which students can bring fragmented or closed-off parts of themselves together.
This is the context in which I developed and delivered a course called Loss, Grief,
and Dying Well: Coping With Life Transitions at Loyola University Chicago from spring 2011 through spring 2017, with faculty agreement. Over time, based on student feedback, the course became progressively more arts-based.
... Interpersonal attachment is typically formed during early childhood through emotional connections with primary caregivers (Bowlby, 1969(Bowlby, , 1973(Bowlby, , 1980Ainsworth et al., 1978) and continues to evolve with significant attachment figures as individuals mature (Fraley, 2002). Bowlby (1969) laid the groundwork for attachment theory as a framework to explain the intense emotional bond between infants and caregivers and the distress caused by separation. ...
In recent years, technologies such as social media, virtual reality, and games have become integral parts of our daily lives. While research has examined their impact on mental health, there is limited focus on factors that moderate this relationship. One factor that may help clarify this relationship is the strength and quality of our relationships with people and places in the physical world, as these real-world connections may influence whether the effects of technology use are beneficial or detrimental to our well-being. We aimed to test the hypothesis that the relationship between the use of virtual places and mental health is moderated by interpersonal and place attachment. The study was conducted on a sample of 1250 Polish citizens and was representative in terms of gender, age, and place of residence. The participants completed an online survey in which they answered questions about their psychological distress (PHQ-ADS), interpersonal attachment (ECR-R), place attachment and use of virtual places. A lack of place attachment intensifies the association between the use of virtual places and symptoms of depression and anxiety. The results also demonstrate that interpersonal attachment anxiety moderates the relationship between the use of virtual places and symptoms of depression and anxiety. This relationship is stronger among people with high levels of attachment anxiety. These findings suggest that strengthening attachments to both people and physical spaces may help mitigate the risks associated with excessive virtual engagement and its influence on mental health.
... Locally specific investigations exploring the bond between trauma exposure during childhood and its anxiety effects in the Pakistani socio-cultural setting and institutional framework lack sufficient research. This research adopts working premises from Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1980) which demonstrates how early parental interactions form internal mental models about oneself and others as well as Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) showing how individuals learn behaviors by watching others primarily in problem environments. The examined frameworks show how unfavorable early life experiences drive individuals to create harmful coping behaviors alongside shattered self-concept which creates favorable settings for anxiety disorders to develop. ...
The present investigation examined how self-esteem, childhood trauma, and the emergence of anxiety disorders in Pakistani young adults relate to one another. Its specific objectives were to investigate the connections among these factors and the predictive significance of self-esteem and childhood trauma in the emerging symptoms of anxiety. 132 individuals, ages 17 to 34, from different educational institutions and mental health organizations around Pakistan participated in this quantitative research. Sample was collected through convenience sampling technique. Cross-sectional research design based correlational study was conducted for survey. Childhood trauma, self-esteem and anxiety symptoms were measured by using standardized scales; Childhood Trauma Scale–Short Form (CTQ-SF), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Questionnaire (RSES), and Generalized Anxiety Disorder Questionnaire 7-items (GAD-7). Major associations among the variables were found in the results, demonstrating that lower self-esteem was connected to higher anxiety symptoms and more levels of childhood trauma were related to lower self-esteem. While childhood trauma did not considerably indicate anxiety levels in the model, analysis of regression also revealed that low self-esteem was a major determinant of anxiety disorders. These findings emphasize the long-lasting psychological effects of negative childhood events as well as the significance of self-esteem as a mitigating psychological component in the anxiety disorders. The study highlights the necessity for early interventions aimed at enhancing self-esteem and offers insightful information for mental health practitioners dealing with populations impacted by trauma and anxiety.
... Despite extensive empirical data on human responses to grief, consensus on the components of an adaptive grieving process for both death and non-death losses remains elusive (Darian, 2014). Over the past decades, a number of models of grief have been proposed, including psychoanalytic theory focused on grief work (Freud, 1953;Lindemann, 1944), stage models of grief (Kubler-Ross, 2005), categories of bereavement tasks (Bowlby, 1980;Stroebe & Schut, 1999, 2010, and continuing bonds theory (Klass et al., 1996). A significant advancement to this literature was the change in emphasis from relinquishing ties to continuing bonds with the deceased (Klass, 1993;Klass et al., 1996). ...
Bereaved dementia caregivers face unique challenges in navigating grief, yet research on dementia-specific adaptive grieving remains limited. Expanding on a prior scoping review, this concept analysis clarifies the theoretical construct of adaptive grief among bereaved dementia caregivers using Rodgers’ evolutionary approach, which views concepts as dynamic and evolving. A review of 11 data sources (2013–2024) across nursing, sociology, medicine, and psychology identified three key attributes of dementia-specific adaptive grief: (1) rebuilding purpose: reconnecting with interests and community on one’s own terms, (2) integrating change: blending past, present, and future experiences to regain direction, and (3) growing toward potential: pursuing self-defined goals and personal development. By defining dementia-specific adaptive grief, this concept analysis provides healthcare professionals with a clearer framework to recognize its evolving nature and distinguish it from maladaptive grief. It also emphasizes the need for longitudinal and culturally diverse research to inform tailored interventions that better support bereaved dementia caregivers.
... Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969(Bowlby, , 1973(Bowlby, , 1980 has extensively demonstrated the link between parenting style and healthy or maladaptive developmental paths. Attachment style, which is derived from the quality of parental care experienced during childhood, shapes the internal working models (IWMs) of self and others. ...
Complex traumas within significant relationships, such as maltreatment or neglect, can compromise the development of emotional skills. This is particularly evident in the structure of alexithymic traits and difficulties in regulating internal states which are associated with different psychopathologic disorders. The aim of the present study was to examine the mediating role of attachment between parental styles and the development of emotional skills. Specifically, it was hypothesized that dysfunctional caregiving may be the basis of insecure attachment styles, which expose to the risk for developing alexithymic traits and deficits in emotion regulation skills. The study involved 464 young adults (age range 19–27 years) who were administered the following tests: MOPS (Picardi et al., Journal of Psychopathology 19:54–59, 2013) for measuring parenting styles; ECR (Picardi et al., Italian Journal of Psychopathology 8:282–294, 2002) for measuring attachment styles; TAS-20 (Bressi et al., Journal of Psychosomatic Research 41:551–559, 1996) for alexithymia and DERS (Sighinolfi et al., Psicoterapia Cognitiva e Comportamentale 16:141–170, 2010) for emotional dysregulation. The results highlighted that maternal and paternal indifference, abuse and overcontrol has a direct effect on emotional dysregulation. These parental behaviors revealed also an indirect effect, mediated by attachment anxiety, but not avoidance, on emotional dysregulation. Furthermore, the results showed a significant indirect effect for anxiety and avoidance via alexithymia on emotional dysregulation. The data seem to support the hypothesis regarding the mediating role of attachment and alexithymia between parental styles and emotional dysregulation, as well as the importance of the roles played by both mother and father.
... Attachment theory, originally developed by psychiatrist John Bowlby in the 1960s and 1970s (Bowlby, 1969(Bowlby, , 1973(Bowlby, , 1980, is an approach to understanding interpersonal relationship behavior across the lifespan. According to Bowlby, a child's experiences of seeking proximity from a caregiver and the resulting caregiving behavior (or lack thereof) are sources of information that the child uses to generate working models of the interpersonal environment and the child's own capabilities. ...
... Strodl ve Noller (2003) ise araştırmasında güvensiz bağlananların, özyeterlik duygusunun düşük olması, onaylanma ihtiyaçlarının ise yüksek olmasından dolayı bu kişilerde depresyon görülme olasılığının yüksek olduğunu saptamıştır. Bowlby (1980) bağlanmayla depresyon arasında ilişki olduğunu belirterek, bağlanma figürünün davranışlarının depresif belirtilere sebep olabileceğini belirtmiştir. Güvensiz bağlanma stillerinin uyumsuz davranışlar, düşük özyeterlik, onaylanma ihtiyacı, stres algısının yüksek olmasıyla ilişkili olması, depresif belirtilerin gelişimini hızlandırabilirken; güvenli bağlananların bağımsız, özgüveni yüksek, çevresiyle uyum içerisinde yaşayabilmesi ilişkileri başlatma ve sürdürmede başarılı hareket etmesi depresyonla negatif ilişki içerisinde olunmasını açıklayabilir. ...
Bu çalışma, 1990’lar sonrası Türkiye’nin yakın çevresinde meydana gelen savaşlar, bu savaşların Türkiye’nin jeopolitik konumu üzerindeki etkisi ve bu savaşlarda Türkiye’nin üstlendiği rolü, ayrıca uluslararası örgütlerin, bu savaşların sonlandırılmasındaki müdahale gücünü incelemektedir.
... Il modello sviluppato da Bruno nell'ambito della psicoterapia cognitiva di matrice costruttivista e relazionale ha costantemente posto al centro della propria teorizzazione la relazione terapeutica, la cui qualità, come noto, è stata considerata da numerosi studi il fattore maggiormente predittivo dell'efficacia di una psicoterapia, indipendentemente dal tipo di psicoterapia praticata (Ardito e Rabellino, 2011). Proprio la centralità di questo costrutto e il progressivo affermarsi dei modelli teorici che hanno dimostrato l'importanza della dimensione relazionale nella costruzione della rappresentazione di sé e di sé-con-l'altro -a partire dalla teoria dell'attaccamento (Bowlby, 1969;1973;1980) che ha dimostrato di poter essere un validissimo ponte tra paradigmi (Ardito e Adenzato, 2024) -ha portato Bruno a sostenere la necessità che la formazione degli psicoterapeuti debba sempre prevedere, insieme all'acquisizione delle necessarie competenze teoriche, anche una conoscenza, da parte del terapeuta in formazione, dei propri schemi relazionali, delle emozioni che li caratterizzano, delle modalità con cui si attivano e della capacità di modularli. Ciò significa individuare nell'analisi personale del terapeuta in formazione un passaggio imprescindibile per la costruzione del sapere terapeutico. ...
In questo articolo viene ricordato il contributo di Bruno Bara allo sviluppo del paradigma costruttivista e relazionale in psicoterapia cognitiva. Nel modello da lui proposto la relazione terapeutica, basata su un atteggiamento non giudicante e benevolente di cooperazione e fiducia, è considerata il principale fattore capace di promuovere e sostenere i processi alla base di un cambiamento profondo e positivo nel paziente. Un concetto chiave nel modello teorico di Bruno Bara è quello di enactment, una dimensione esperienziale in cui il paziente agisce nello hic et nunc della seduta le sue modalità disfunzionali implicite e automatiche e in cui il terapeuta e il paziente fanno esperienza diretta e incarnata di queste modalità. La centralità della relazione terapeutica e del processo di enactment ha portato Bruno Bara a sostenere la necessità che la formazione degli psicoterapeuti preveda un’analisi personale che permetta di acquisire da parte del terapeuta un’adeguata conoscenza dei propri schemi relazionali, delle emozioni che li caratterizzano, delle modalità con cui si attivano e della capacità di modularli. In tutto il suo percorso clinico e di ricerca Bruno Bara ha costantemente sottolineato l’importanza che l’azione terapeutica si basi sulla ricerca scientifica e che, a sua volta, la ricerca scientifica riconosca nella dimensione clinica il più autorevole banco di prova per le proprie teorizzazioni.
... The loss of a parent can lead the adult to question their own identity and role. Especially if the individual has established a strong emotional bond with his parent, this loss can lead to identity issues and a sense of inadequacy of some kind (Bowlby, 1980). ...
In summary, for adults the loss of parents, siblings and
children, as well as all other losses, is not only an emotional loss, but
also a complex experience that can have lasting effects on identity,
trust, meaning of life, and social ties. While these losses deepen
emotional reactions, they can also lead to long-term psychological
problems in the individual. Psychological help is of great importance
for adults to experience this process in a healthy way and to adapt to
the loss. Professional help plays an important role in managing the
grieving process, regulating negative thoughts, and achieving
emotional healing. Psychological help in this process can help to
accept the loss and re-establish a life order.
... This feeling of unloved shaped his dependency on his friends as his primary source of connection and stability. Bowlby explained that individuals with this style often experience high The Healing Power of Friendship: A Qualitative Analysis of BTS Universe 13 levels of anxiety regarding their relationships, stemming from inconsistent caregiving, and they may become overly dependent on partners for emotional support, leading to heightened distress during conflicts (Bowlby, 1980;Simpson, 2007). Conversely, Yoongi experiences avoidance attachment style which makes him reluctant to lean towards someone emotionally, it is shown in most of the music videos where Yoongi tries not to express his love to others and keeps it within himself. ...
The BTS Universe (BU), a narrative crafted around the South Korean music group BTS, intricately wove psychological concepts into its storytelling, reflecting the emotional and psychological struggles of its characters. This paper hypothesized that friendship served as a critical factor, despite life challenges, in the healing process, aiding in recovery from trauma, the search for meaning in life, and the overall psychological development of the seven characters in the BTS Universe. The seven characters in the BTS Universe faced significant psychological challenges, such as trauma, identity crises, and existential angst. These struggles were not isolated; rather, they were deeply intertwined with the characters' relationships with each other. The character development was explained through psychological theories such as Carl Jung's Analytical Psychology, Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalysis, Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development, and John Bowlby's Attachment Theory. By analyzing the fictional lives of the BTS members as depicted in the BU, the study explored how these psychological frameworks contributed to the characters' actions, decisions, and growth throughout the series. A qualitative methodology was used to analyze the characters' experiences, aided by secondary data from BU-related content, including music videos, webtoons, and books, to dissect these characters' psychological dimensions. The paper aimed to demonstrate that the BU not only entertained but also educated its audience on complex psychological themes. The research further explored how these psychological portrayals resonated with the audience, potentially offering therapeutic insights and emotional support through the characters' narratives and songs.
... La teoría del apego surge en la segunda mitad del siglo XX (Bowlby, 1969(Bowlby, /1982(Bowlby, , 1973(Bowlby, , 1980 y supone un cambio de paradigma respecto al psicoanálisis tradicional (Cortina y Marrone, 2017). Se retoma la idea original del trauma real en la relación con los cuidadores, pero se aleja de la idea de traumas de naturaleza sexual, centrándose en el efecto traumático de la separación temprana de los cuidadores, estudiando de manera empírica su efecto en la constitución del psiquismo a lo largo del desarrollo. ...
La clínica de lo negativo, caracterizada por la ausencia de representación de los estados vivenciales, está compuesta por un espectro de distintos fenómenos difíciles de trabajar en psicoterapia, que han sido abordados principalmente desde el psicoanálisis. La terapia cognitiva, por su parte, carece por el momento de una base teórica y de una propuesta técnica para abordar este tipo de situaciones que escapan a lo cognitivo. Este trabajo propone utilizar el conocimiento empírico acerca de la desorganización del apego y la transmisión intergeneracional de los estados mentales no resueltos para paliar esta carencia y ampliar el mapa de la terapia cognitiva. Se describen en detalle la evolución de la terapia cognitiva, la clínica de lo negativo, las explicaciones tradicionales desde el psicoanálisis y los desarrollos aplicables desde el apego. Se ilustra la teoría con varias viñetas y un caso clínico, y, finalmente, se propone un tipo de intervención integradora con base cognitiva.
... Overly protective or neglectful parenting practices have been shown to increase the risk of social phobia in children (6,7). Consequently, negative attachment experiences during childhood may predispose individuals to social anxiety disorders later in life (8,9). ...
Purpose: This study aimed to explore the connection between attachment styles and social anxiety disorder (SAD) in patients receiving psychiatric outpatient treatment. Methods: The research included 85 participants, comprising 45 individuals diagnosed with SAD and 40 healthy controls. The participants completed assessments on social anxiety, parental bonding, and attachment styles. Results: Participants with SAD showed significantly lower maternal care scores (16.31 ± 2.30) compared to the healthy control group (28.77 ± 6.77, p < .001) and notably lower paternal care scores (16.84 ± 3.14 vs. 25.28 ± 9.28, p < .001). They also exhibited higher avoidant (25.88 ± 7.39 vs. 22.47 ± 6.23, p = .034) and anxious attachment scores (23.65 ± 7.66 vs. 16.80 ± 6.98, p < .001). The Liebowitz Social Phobia Scale scores were positively correlated with avoidant (r = .433, p < .001) and anxious attachment (r = .458, p < .001), while negatively correlated with maternal (r = -.566, p
... As mentioned above, child-caregiver interactions characterized by a sensitive caregiver response promote attachment security. Insecure attachment is distinguished by an unreliable and inappropriate caregiver response to children's attachment behavior in stressful situations [48,50,[79][80][81][82]. Based on a dimensional attachment approach, the assignment to the two different attachment dimensions, (1) attachment avoidance and (2) attachment anxiety, is the most appropriate way to depict attachment differences [83]. ...
The current study investigates the moderating role of parental overprotection and insecure mother–child attachment on the association between adaptive emotion regulation (ER) strategies and vegetative somatoform symptoms in children. A study sample of 221 primary (Grade 4) school children completed questionnaires assessing vegetative somatoform symptoms, ER strategies, and attachment. Their parents completed a questionnaire for parental overprotection. In contrast to our assumption, the relation between the use of adaptive ER strategies and vegetative somatoform symptoms is only moderated by parental overprotection. Insecure child–caregiver attachment plays no moderation role. The results support the assumption that the child–caregiver interaction factor “parental overprotection” plays an important role in explaining the occurrence and maintenance of vegetative somatoform symptoms in children. This underlines the importance for parents to undergo a process of adjustment to support children in an age-adequate way in regulating their emotions, which does not impair children’s own competences, for example, the autonomous use of adaptive ER strategies.
... Philosophers, psychoanalysts, and psychologists have long speculated that close relationships -starting with one's parentshelp to shield people from existential terror (Becker, 1962;Bowlby, 1980). Indeed, researchers have found that recalling close interpersonal bonds, whether with parents or romantic partners, helps to reduce defensive reactions to reminders of death (Cox et al., 2008;Florian et al., 2002). ...
Despite being temporally closer to their mortality, research indicates that older adults have less death anxiety and do not engage in the same defenses against death as younger adults. Previous investigations into this paradox have revealed that older adults do respond to mortality salience, but through different means, such as increased generativity (Maxfield et al., 2014). In this study, the Eriksonian concept of ego-integrity was explored as a moderating factor in how older adults respond to thoughts of death. To research this question, 293 participants, 145 older adults and 148 younger adults, were recruited from an online crowdsourcing platform and levels of ego integrity were assessed, before they were randomly assigned to a mortality salience or neutral prime. After the delay, participants completed worldview defense and generativity measures. It was hypothesized that higher ego integrity would moderate the effects of mortality salience in older adults, such that those with higher levels of ego integrity would engage in less worldview defensiveness and more generativity after being reminded of death. The results did not support this hypothesis, although supplementary analyses replicated past research demonstrating robust connections between ego integrity, generativity, and death anxiety.
... One of the most accepted and valid models of bereavement is the Dual Process Model of Coping with Bereavement (DPM, Stroebe & Schut, 1999; see Fiore, 2021 for a review of supporting research). Past models of bereavement, stemming from counseling and clinical psychology, have tended to focus on 'grief work' (e.g., Bowlby, 1980), which is a "cognitive process of confronting a loss, of going over the events before and at the time of death, of focusing on memories and working toward detachment [or 'relocation'] of the Group & Organization Management 0(0) deceased" (Stroebe & Schut, 1999, p. 1999, or on the human reactions to loss rather than how to cope with such loss. In addition, past models have tended to ignore the secondary losses and stressors that can result from bereavement. ...
The topic of bereavement (i.e., the death of someone significant) has long been a neglected area of study in the organizational sciences. The most common outcome of bereavement is grief. Currently, we have little knowledge about relationships among bereavement grief, bereavement leave, other organizational policies and practices, and work-related outcomes (job behaviors, work engagement, perceived organizational support). Using a survey with 388 bereaved employees, results showed that bereavement grief had a significant negative relationship to job behaviors, work engagement and perceived organizational support (POS). Bereavement leave was positively related to POS but unrelated to other work outcomes. Several organizational offerings and practices (e.g., the opportunity to talk about workplace accommodations) were positively related to certain work outcomes while other results were mixed. These findings are discussed, along with implications and future research directions, as well as practical guidance for organizational decision makers.
... These insights contribute to the broader discussion on how transpersonal experiences can be integrated into psychological treatments for bereavement (Neimeyer et al., 2006). Attachment theory posits that individuals form deep emotional bonds with significant others, and the loss of such bonds can lead to profound grief and suffering (Bowlby, 1980). The concept of continuing bonds refers to the ongoing emotional or symbolic connection with the deceased, which can facilitate adaptation to loss. ...
Abstract
Background: Induced after-death communication (IADC) therapy is an emerging approach for addressing grief-related distress, particularly in individuals experiencing complicated grief (CG). Developed from eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), IADC therapy aims to change the meanings with which loss is read and to transform acute grief into integrated grief. While spontaneous after-death communications (ADCs) have been widely reported across different cultures, IADC therapy provides a structured procedure for inducing a state of mind in which such experiences can spontaneously arise and develop. Methods: This study employed a prospective observational cohort design with a retrospective analysis, comparing the effectiveness of IADC therapy (experimental group, n = 42) to standard grief interventions combining talk therapy and EMDR (control group, n = 43). Participants completed standardized measures, including the Inventory of Complicated Grief (ICG) and the IADC Grief Questionnaire (IADC-GQ), at pre-treatment (T1), post-treatment (T2), and six-month follow-up (T3). Additional analyses explored the role of spirituality, religious affiliation, and therapist characteristics in grief processing. Results: IADC therapy led to a significantly greater reduction in grief intensity (ICG scores) immediately after the intervention and at the six-month follow-up compared to the control group. The experimental group also showed a more pronounced decrease in distress symptoms (CS scores) and higher ratings of therapeutic satisfaction. Furthermore, participants in the experimental group exhibited a significantly greater increase in their continuing bond (CB) scores, suggesting a more adaptive connection with the deceased. Additional analyses examined therapist characteristics, treatment-related factors, and the nature of ADC experiences, which are further explored in the discussion. Conclusions: These findings highlight the clinical utility of IADC therapy as a brief and cost-effective grief intervention, offering comparable or superior outcomes to traditional grief therapies. The results suggest that recognizing and integrating spontaneous ADC experiences into grief therapy may provide a valuable therapeutic pathway. Future research should further explore the long-term effects, cultural variations, and therapist characteristics to optimize the integration of IADC therapy into mainstream clinical practice.
... Boarding is a type of repeated short-period maternal deprivation (e.g., at least 5 days per week). Early maternal deprivation is stressful for young children, according to Attachment Theory (Ahnert et al. 2004), and such early adversity can make children more emotionally sensitive (Bowlby 1980). Changes in cortisol can capture the increase in stress induced by maternal separation (Gunnar and Donzella 2002). ...
In western China, many socioeconomically disadvantaged rural children remain at preschools for extremely long hours: they start to receive boarding services as young as 3 years old and remain at preschools for 4 to 5 consecutive days weekly. Although the quality of childcare is generally poor in these preschools, extremely long school hours and prolonged separation from primary caregivers may induce additional stress and lead to school maladjustment among boarding preschoolers. This study examines the impact of boarding experience on preschool beginners' social adjustment and stress responses, as indicated by their saliva alpha‐amylase (sAA) and cortisol. A total of over 900 saliva samples of 31 boarding and 30 non‐boarding preschoolers (mean age = 44.0 months, SD = 9.8 months) were collected over 12 weeks after they entered preschools. Primary caregivers reported children's behavioural problems and school refusal. Boarders experienced a larger mid‐morning to mid‐afternoon rise in cortisol than non‐boarders on the second‐to‐last weekdays but not on the first weekdays. Non‐boarders experienced an accelerated decrease in sAA during the 12 weeks, whereas boarders did not. Differences in cortisol and sAA patterns indicate potential increased stress for boarders, which might be associated with their more prevalent school‐refusal behaviour than non‐boarders. The findings underscore that entry into boarding preschool may cause stress and school refusal in rural Chinese children during their transition to preschool. Additional contacts with primary caregivers during this transition are needed to support boarders emotionally.
... Recent work on social exploration-exploitation also highlights several processes that influence people's decision to allocate their resources to different relationships, and these processes may vary by individuals [49]. Similarly, attachment theory research has long documented the importance of attachment styles in guiding how individuals interact with close others (e.g., [50,51]; see [52]). While securely attached individuals feel comfortable interacting with close others, avoidantly attached individuals sometimes prefer to stay distant from close others and anxiously attached individuals often report wanting to be more intimate to close others. ...
Past studies have investigated the variability in how people engage with their personal networks, yet less is known about how people perceive their energy allocation to different ties. Drawing on an online survey sample (N = 906), we tested whether subjective perceptions of energy allocation conform to so-called Dunbar’s Number(s). In addition, we evaluated the predictive roles of Big Five personality traits and self-esteem while controlling for differences in network structure. Results revealed significant heterogeneity in perceived energy allocation to different layers of personal networks (i.e., inner 5 vs. middle 15 vs. outer 150 relationships). In contrast to expectations, extraversion was not associated with perceived energy allocation, whereas self-esteem was associated with greater energy allocation to the middle (vs. inner) network layer. Our findings add to our knowledge of how people perceive relationship maintenance across their personal networks, along with the links to key psychological traits. More broadly, the findings suggest that more attention should be paid to psychological implications of the middle layer of personal networks. To conclude, we discuss the importance of studying individual differences in how people prioritize – and reflect on – different relationships in their networks.
... In relation to the first dimension, 'separation distress', its historical roots can be traced back to attachment theory (Bowlby 1980). This theory posits that loss results in disruptions to primary attachment relationships, giving rise to profound distress stemming from the separation. ...
In this article the author reflects on her experience of facilitating story enactment within an arts therapies group for bereaved siblings at Shooting Star Children’s Hospices, in London. The author is originally trained in the Sesame Approach and has practised as a dramatherapist in the field of bereavement for over ten years. Through a phenomenological approach, the article examines how the enactment of symbolic images from fairy tales supports children processing their grief following the death of a sibling due to a life-limiting condition. The clinical vignette, presented as a constructed case study, provides an illustrative example of using the framework of the hero’s journey to delve into symbolic expression, intersubjectivity and embodiment. In analysing the clinical material, the author combines the Sesame Approach in dramatherapy with the novel Multidimensional Grief Theory, developed by psychologist Christopher Layne. This integration serves to illustrate the fundamental role of story enactment in group therapy for bereaved siblings in paediatric palliative care.
... In his attachment theory, Bowlby stated that secure attachment occurs when infants' needs are met with a trust-based relationship [81]. A study showed that the caregiver's personality traits, commitment to the child, and care for the child's needs are highly likely to develop a secure attachment style [82]. ...
Background and Objectives: Societies are obliged to ensure that children in need of protection grow up psychologically, socially, and physically healthy. To achieve that, various practices have been developed. One of these practices is the use of children’s homes sites. Accordingly, this study examined the relationships between the life satisfaction, attachment styles, and self-compassion levels of children in need of protection staying in children’s homes sites. It aimed to determine to what extent variables such as attachment style and self-compassion predict life satisfaction. In addition, whether life satisfaction differs according to gender, age, and the status of having a visitor was examined. Methods: The study sample consisted of 121 children between the ages of 8 and 14 who were staying in children’s homes sites in Istanbul between March and May 2022. The Satisfaction with Life Scale, the short form of the Self-Compassion Scale, the Three-Dimensional Attachment Style Scale, and the Personal Information Form were used with the participants. The researchers used the independent samples t-test, multiple linear regression analysis, Pearson product moment coefficient, and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) during the analysis. Results: The findings showed that there was a significant positive relationship between secure attachment style and life satisfaction, anxious–ambivalent attachment, and self-compassion. Also, among the demographic variables, being visited by relatives was found to predict life satisfaction, while there was no relationship between life satisfaction and age and gender. Conclusions: The study findings were discussed within the framework of the literature, and suggestions based on the findings were presented.
... (28) Research shows that strong emotional bonds with parents in the early years of life can affect a child's long-term mental health, including the development of social and emotional skills. (29) The importance of social support from a partner or other family member also contributes to breastfeeding success as well as the quality of interaction between mother and child during the process. Thus, exclusive breastfeeding is not just an act of feeding; It is an integral process that supports physical health while also strengthening the emotional connection between mother and child. ...
Background: The support of health cadres plays an important role in the success of the exclusive breastfeeding program. Health cadres have been widely involved in various activities carried out in the village, especially for maternal and child health programs, but for lactation cadre assistance to postpartum mothers is still not active because there are no lactation cadre assistance guidelines that can be used. The purpose of this study is to develop guidelines for assisting lactation cadres and assess their effectiveness in increasing the success of exclusive breastfeeding. Methods: This research is a Research and Development (R&D) research, starting with a literature study by studying journals and books related to health cadres and Exclusive Breastfeeding. Compile guidelines for assisting lactation cadres from the results of development. Data was collected using a questionnaire through FGD together with 50 health cadres, 2 village midwives and 3 representatives from the Magetan Regency Health Office, expert consuls followed by the revision and finalization of lactation cadre assistance guidelines. Results: This research produced guidelines for assisting lactation cadres, the results of the evaluation of guidelines for assisting lactation cadres through the process of development, formulation of strategic issues, and FGD. Conclusions: The guidebook for lactation cadres is a strategic step in supporting the success of the Exclusive Breastfeeding program so that it can increase the success of Exclusive Breastfeeding in the community.
... First, Purdon observed that there is a robust relationship between OCD and insecure attachment. Attachment style develops, in part, from the relationship between an infant and their caregivers (Bowlby, 1963(Bowlby, , 1973(Bowlby, , 1980 and remains stable over time (Waters et al., 2000). In a comprehensive meta-analysis, van Leeuwen et al. (2020) found a moderate to large effect for the relationship between OCD and attachment anxiety and a moderate effect for the relationship between OCD and attachment avoidance. ...
Objectives
The most successful psychological treatment for obsessive‐compulsive disorder (OCD) is cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). However, treatment success remains around 50% when refusal and dropout are considered. Purdon ( Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental, Psychiatry , 2023, 78, 101773) argued that the CBT model is under‐specified, suggesting that there may be important treatment targets that are not directly addressed. Based on emerging research, she identified insecure attachment and fear of compassion (FOC) as potentially important targets. Insecure attachment and FOC are associated with OCD symptoms, and past research suggests that FOC may explain the relationship between attachment insecurity and emotional distress. We reasoned that FOC may also be an important predictor of OCD symptom severity.
Methods
We conducted two preliminary, pre‐registered online survey studies with undergraduate samples to explore potential theoretical relationships between attachment, FOC, and OCD.
Results
Study one ( N = 329) revealed that the indirect effect of attachment anxiety on OCD symptom severity through fear of self‐compassion was significant, even when controlling for trait self‐compassion. A significant indirect effect of attachment avoidance predicting OCD severity, through fear of receiving compassion, also emerged. Study two ( N = 340) replicated these findings and extended this research by controlling for depression.
Conclusions
Taken together, these findings suggest that FOC could be an important variable to consider when conceptualizing OCD. Further exploration is warranted to understand the directionality of these relationships and whether attachment and FOC could be valuable targets in OCD treatment.
Stresy środowiskowe, takie jak wojny, klęski żywiołowe, epidemie, wstrząsy gospodarcze i polityczne, pogarszają funkcjonowanie rodziny. Ponadto życie w środowisku rodzinnym dotkniętym na przykład śmiercią rodzica (głównie ojca) zwiększa poziom stresu wśród potomstwa. Zgodnie z teorią akceleracji psychospołecznej stresujące środowisko często przyspiesza przejście od okresu dojrzewania do etapu życia reprodukcyjnego. Z drugiej strony śmierć ojca może ograniczać wsparcie finansowe dzieci i przez to obniżyć ich poziom życia (brak środków rodzicielskich), co z kolei może opóźniać zawieranie małżeństw, szczególnie w sytuacji, kiedy ślub potomstwa wymagał wsparcia rodzicielskiego. W pracy zbadano związek między utratą ojca w dzieciństwie (dzieci < 15 lat) i w dorosłości (≥15 lat) a wiekiem zawierania małżeństw przez synów i córki. Uwzględniono indywidualne historie kobiet i mężczyzn z Poznania, a dane zaczerpnięto z kart meldunkowych mieszkańców tego miasta. W XIX i na początku XX wieku śmierć ojca przyspieszała ślub córki o ponad 3 lata, w przypadku synów utrata ojca nie wpływała natomiast na moment ślubu.
Mental illness remains a pressing public health issue in Uganda, especially in Bushenyi District, where survivors face limited access to mental healthcare, stigma, poverty, and cultural misconceptions. These factors significantly affect their quality of life (QoL), highlighting the importance of community-based support strategies. This study aimed to examine the influence of community support activities on the quality of life among mentally ill survivors in Bushenyi District, Uganda. A mixed-methods approach was adopted, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative techniques. Data were collected using structured questionnaires, interview guides, and observational checklists from a sample of 107 participants, including mentally ill survivors, caregivers, mental health professionals, and community leaders. Validity and reliability of instruments were confirmed with a CVI of 0.876 and a Cronbach's alpha of 0.842, respectively. Quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS v26.0, applying descriptive and inferential statistics, including multiple regression. Thematic analysis was used for qualitative data. The study revealed that while mentally ill survivors moderately participated in activities like savings groups and market days, their involvement in community gardening, clean-ups, and cooperative income-generating ventures was limited due to stigma and unequal community support. Regression analysis showed a weak and statistically insignificant relationship between community support activities and Quality of Life (QoL) (t = 1.273, p = 0.206), indicating that community support alone is not sufficient to improve QoL unless integrated with other strategies. Finally, Community support activities showed a moderate but non-significant contribution to the Quality of Life of mentally ill survivors. However, they remain essential components of holistic mental health interventions. The study recommends strengthening community support systems through partnerships, awareness campaigns, and inclusive programming. Integrated models combining peer mentoring and life skills training with community engagement should be prioritized to enhance mental health outcomes.
Mental illness remains a growing global public health challenge, affecting both developed and developing countries. In Uganda, particularly in Bushenyi District, individuals who have experienced mental illness face numerous challenges, including stigma, limited access to quality mental healthcare, poverty, and reliance on traditional healers. The COVID-19 pandemic has further worsened the mental health burden, increasing the incidence of depression, anxiety, and trauma-related conditions. This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of Life Skills Training on improving mental health outcomes and overall quality of life among mentally ill survivors in Bushenyi District, Uganda.A mixed-methods approach was used, combining quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews. The target population included mentally ill survivors aged 18 years and above who had received or were currently receiving care. Participants were selected through purposive sampling. Life Skills Training interventions focused on communication, decision-making, stress management, and emotional regulation. Pre and post-intervention assessments were conducted using standardized mental health evaluation tools. Findings revealed that participants who underwent Life Skills Training reported a significant reduction in symptoms of anxiety, depression, and social withdrawal. Many also showed improved self-esteem, better interpersonal relationships, and enhanced problem-solving abilities. The training facilitated reintegration into their communities and improved their ability to cope with daily stressors. However, systemic challenges like stigma, poverty, and insufficient mental health services persisted as barriers to full recovery. Life Skills Training has a positive impact on the mental health and quality of life of survivors in Bushenyi District. It enhances psychological resilience and promotes social reintegration. The study recommends scaling up Life Skills Training as part of community-based mental health interventions. It also urges policymakers to invest in mental health services, combat stigma, and integrate psychosocial support into primary healthcare systems.
Life Skills Training, Mental Health, Bushenyi District, Quality of Life
Background/Objectives: Early parent–child attachment interactions guided by right-to-right brain synchrony are the foundation of emotional development and the quality of attachment relationships. Interactive failures are the hallmark of not only insecurity and trauma but also the internalization of shame. The purpose of this study was to advance our understanding of the relation between attachment and shame. The study explored a range of shame experiences, from normal socialization to harsh treatment and abuse. Debilitating shame was expected for individuals who had not mourned attachment trauma. Methods: Attachment was assessed using The Adult Attachment Projective (AAP) system in a sample of 245 adults. The AAP identifies the traditional regulated attachment classifications (Secure, Dismissing, Preoccupied) and, in addition to Unresolved attachment, three forms of incomplete mourning—Failed Mourning, Preoccupied with Personal Suffering, and Traumatized Secure. The study used participants’ narratives regarding three AAP classifications when “alone” to examine individual differences in representations of the shamed self contexts portraying the self in Private, Exposed, and Threatening situations. Results: All study hypotheses were confirmed. Adults with regulated attachments (Secure, Dismissing, Preoccupied) were significantly less likely to ascribe shame to the AAP pictures than traumatized adults. The patterns of results were the same when comparing differences in shame intensity and outcomes. There were no differences in shame intensity in the regulated group. Shame intensity for the Traumatized Secures was somewhat greater. There was a significant increase observed in the traumatized groups, with the Unresolved group showing the highest ratings. Reparative outcomes were significantly related to attachment security, although not to the extent expected. Secure, regulated insecure (Dismissing, Preoccupied), and some traumatized individuals described reconciliation and functional restitution. Unresolved individuals left shame unremedied. Regression analysis demonstrated that attachment classification was a greater predictor of shame intensity than outcomes. Conculusions: Attachment and neurological development are intertwined. Childhood interactive failures are deeply traumatic. If not mourned, shame takes its place in the identity core. This study provides clinicians with an in-depth perspective on attachment and shame assessment for goal-setting in therapy, consonant with their patients’ attachment representations.
This study aims to examine the role of religion in the adaptation processes of immigrant
women to a new society. Cultural adaptation refers to the process by which individuals
and groups adjust to a new cultural environment, presenting specific challenges and
opportunities for immigrant women. The research investigates the experiences of
immigrant women from diverse cultural and religious backgrounds using qualitative
research methods. Data obtained through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions
indicate that religion plays a significant role in identity construction, social support
systems, and the creation of cultural bridges.
The study is based on in-depth interviews conducted between January and April 2024
with 11 women, aged 24 to 56, who voluntarily migrated to Turkey at least eight years
ago. During the interviews, questions prepared by the researcher were posed face-to-face
to the participants. The findings reveal that religion functions as an active agent in the
social adaptation processes of immigrant women, extending beyond mere individual
spiritual resources. Additionally, the social support networks provided by religious
communities help immigrant women overcome the socio-cultural barriers they encounter
in their new environments.
Religious beliefs were found to be effective in providing solace, strengthening the sense
of belonging, and facilitating psychological adaptation during cultural transitions. This
study contributes to understanding the intersection of religion and migration and
highlights significant implications for promoting culturally sensitive practices and mental
health interventions within immigrant communities. According to the results, participants
relied on religious coping mechanisms, such as belief in divine destiny, prayer and
worship, support from religious communities, and reading the Quran to navigate post-migration challenges.
Different models help to explain how bereaved persons cope with loss. Some models are descriptive, while others are prescriptive. All grief models however believe that a person’s emotion and cognition are both involved and that grieving is a process. Yet some individuals are never allowed that process. For some bereaved individuals, the grieving process never comes to an end and would require professional help. This is known as complicated grief or prolonged grief disorder. A bereavement counselor/healthcare professional could help monitor individuals with complicated grief or prolonged grief disorder by determining (a) the depth of their loss and (b) the progress made in coping with their loss. In this regard, a proposed “disruption in daily functioning scale in bereavement” could help.
У статті представлено теоретичний аналіз та обґрунтування еволюційних чинників становлення прив’язаності індивіда. Виділено окремий вплив епігенетичних, чинників безпеки та формування соціальних зв’язків на процес становлення прив’язаності індивіда. Згідно з еволюційною психологією, прихильність є адаптивною поведінкою, яка забезпечує виживання та репродуктивний успіх через зміцнення міжособистісних стосунків. У роботі визначено еволюційні чинники становлення прив’язаності, епігенетичні, відчуття безпеки та формування соціальних зв’язків. Проаналізовано епігенетичні чинники становлення прихильності – вплив материнського догляду і токсичного стресу на формування когнітивних структур мозку людини. Особливу увагу приділено епігенетичним модифікаціям та впливу стресу на прихильність. Виділено важливість інтеграції епігенетичних і соціальних чинників, зокрема на впливі раннього догляду, стресу і травм на генетичну експресію, яка формує моделі прив’язаності. Виділено зв’язок між генетичною регуляцією стресових реакцій і якістю раннього догляду. Встановлено, що епігенетичні механізми, як-от метилювання ДНК і модифікація гістонів, можуть впливати на стійкість до стресу та емоційне благополуччя, а також передаватися між поколіннями. Соціальний аспект дослідження розкриває роль прив’язаності у формуванні довіри, кооперації та емоційної підтримки в міжособистісних стосунках. Відчуття безпеки в дитинстві є базисом для розвитку здорових соціальних зв’язків у дорослому віці. Встановлено, що соціальна інтеграція і підтримка позитивно впливають на фізичне та психічне здоров’я.
Introduction : Online dating fraud, a callous act of deception, manipulation, and exploitation of unsuspecting victims online, continues to pose a significant risk to society. This study examined the role of online disinhibition (ODE), dissociative symptoms (DSS), the propensity to morally disengage (PMD), catfishing (CQ), and compliance (GCS) in online dating fraud. Methods : Using a web-based survey to collect anonymous data in Qualtrics, 345 respondents (47.1% males and 52.6% females with an average age of 50 years, SD = 17.5) completed the web-based survey. Results : Perpetrators of online dating fraud reported significantly more ODE, DSS, PMD, CQ and GCS than victims and nonvictims, and victims reported significantly more ODE, DSS, and PMD than nonvictims; however, above-average annual incomes, male sex, DSS, and ODE contributed to victimhood. Conclusion : Both victims and perpetrators of online dating fraud reported significantly more ODE, DSS, PMD, and catfishing than nonvictims with less inclination to social desirability. However, compliance did not contribute to victimhood. Future research should repeat this study with larger groups of victims and perpetrators and elucidate the phenomena of victims who become perpetrators, further enhancing our understanding of this complex issue.
This essay examines how the now-adult children of the disappeared in The Gambia express their grief through various art forms, focusing on the elegy. Peter Sacks, defines the elegy as “a poem of mortal loss and consolation” (Sacks 3). The traditional functions of the elegy—lament, praise, and consolation—respond to loss by expressing grief and honoring the deceased. The essay explores the mourning process of three young adults through songwriting, letter writing, and memorial tattoos dedicated to their fathers who disappeared during Yahya Jammeh’s dictatorship. In an Islamic context, where retaining objects of the deceased is discouraged, these children find ways to remember their lost parents without material objects. Cathy Caruth argues that “to be traumatized is precisely to be possessed by an image or event” (Caruth 4–5). Here, it is the absence of a clear image and event that haunts these children, leading to artistic creation through elegiac writing and embodied meaning-making.
Introduction
Non-hostile humour and laughter have been known for therapeutic benefits in an individual’s mental health and wellbeing. To this end, we evaluated the Self-Initiated Humour Protocol (SIHP), a new type of self-administrable laughter intervention that utilises spontaneous and self-induced laughter. Rooted in the core principles of the Self-Attachment Technique—in which an individual creates an affectional bond with their childhood self as represented by their childhood photo or personalised childhood avatar—SIHP provides an algorithmic framework for individuals to learn to laugh in a non-hostile manner and develop a sense of humour in all possible life contexts. This allows SIHP to be self-administered by interacting with an AI agent.
Methods
An 8-week intervention was conducted with N = 27 adult participants. Exclusion criteria: severe depression or anxiety (PHQ-9 and GAD-7 scores above 15). Participants’ measurements were collected in the areas of wellbeing, use of different humour styles, emotional self-regulation, self-compassion and psychological capital, and analysed to understand any changes over time. Measurements were taken immediately before, after the intervention, and at the 3-month follow-up. Throughout the intervention, participants were required to practise SIHP 20 min a day with the aid of an emotionally intelligent chatbot and their personalised child avatar in virtual reality (VR).
Results
Analysis of results at the 3-month follow-up showed significant improvements in the primary outcome of wellbeing with large effect size ( r = 0.92 ), as well as a range of secondary outcomes with large effect sizes, self-compassion ( r = 0.93 ), use of self-enhancing humour ( d = 0.80 ), and emotion regulation ( d = 0.87 ); the results also showed improvement to participant’s psychological capital with moderate effect size ( d = 0.56 ).
Discussion
This study shows the potential for the practice of SIHP as supported by an emotionally intelligent chatbot and personalised child avatar to have medium-term positive effects, which should be validated through future randomised trials.
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