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The Phenomenology of Anorexia Nervosa: The Intertwining Meaning of Gender and Embodiment
Abstract
Eating disorders affect 5-10 million females, triple the rates of people living with AIDS or schizophrenia. Traditional research acknowledged interconnecting factors in developing anorexia nervosa, yet few studies attempted to examine the meaning of gender and embodiment from the anorexic woman's unique perspective. Thus, this study attempts to describe and illuminate this rift in the literature regarding intertwining regions of gender, embodiment, and the presence of anorexia nervosa. Data were obtained from a mixed-methods approach, with interview reports of subjects' life experiences and the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). Female participants (N = 6) between 19 and 29 years old were interviewed in conformity with commonly accepted phenomenological data collection procedures. Results show the meaning of gender and embodiment in the experience of being a woman with anorexia is characterized by events that cause a downward spiral into hopelessness, depression, and negative self-esteem. The study identified no correlation between BSRI and the presence of anorexia, but revealed seven themes: Importance of others' perceptions Negative self-esteem
The Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) is a widelyused instrument in measuring gender role perceptions.Recent concerns regarding the validity of the adjectiveshave arisen as changes in the roles of men and women have occurred in American society sincethe 1970's. A partial replication of the method that Bem(1974) used to validate the masculine and feminineadjectives comprising the instrument was conducted. All but two of the adjectives were validatedusing Bem's criteria. These findings suggest that theBSRI may still be a valid instrument for assessing genderroles. However, evidence was revealed that traditional masculine and feminine gender role perceptionsmay be weakening. Future validation of the BSRI iswarranted in light of these patterns.
Factor-analyzed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI), which conceptualizes masculinity and femininity as 2 independent dimensions rather than using the traditional notion of a single bipolar dimension. BSRI scores from 253 male and female industrial workers, 36 police officers, and 36 nonworking housewives were analyzed. 4 factors were defined: Masculinity, Femininity, Sex of S, and "Mature" Neutral. Since a few "masculine" and "feminine" items from the original version of the BSRI did not load on either factor, a revision of the scale to exclude these items is recommended. However, the results support the contention that masculinity and femininity are more reasonably considered as independent traits rather than as a single bipolar dimension. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Argues that psychology can help to develop principles and procedures for prescriptive grammar. An experimental technique is reported for evaluating the prescription of
he to mean "he or she." 10 undergraduates who read textbook paragraphs containing prescriptive
he referring to neutral antecedents, such as
person, miscomprehended the antecedents as male 40% more often than did 30 Ss who read identical paragraphs with prescriptive
he replaced by a previously unencountered neologism. Programmatic implications of these results for the reformation of prescriptive grammar are discussed. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Despite recent efforts to eliminate sexist language from journal and other publications, controversy persists over whether sexist language contributes to the perpetuation of sex bias. Seventy-two female and 57 male undergraduates were exposed to three levels of sexist noun and pronoun usage in a description of Ethical Standards of Psychologists. All subjects then rated the attractiveness of a career in psychology for males and females, and their own willingness to refer a male or female friend to a psychologist. In several instances, ratings of career attractiveness and willingness to refer were found to vary in sex-role stereotypic directions as a function of degree of exposure to sexist language. Recent demands for nonsexist language may be supportable on the basis of a genuine relationship between sexist language and the maintenance of sex-biased perceptions.
The purpose of this study was to assess body esteem, eating attitudes, and gender-role orientation in three age groups (first,
third, and fifth graders). The first graders were interviewed individually; the third and fifth graders completed a questionnaire
in a group setting in which the questions were read aloud to set a pace and help those who may have had difficulty reading.
All children completed the Children’s Sex Stereotypes Measure, the children’s version of the Eating Attitudes Test, and the
Body Esteem Scale. It was hypothesized that children as young as six or seven do understand the connection between eating
and body weight, that a proportion of children do experience eating and weight concerns, and that feminine children are most
likely to experience such concerns. The results demonstrated that children, as early as first grade, were indeed engaging
in eating disordered behaviors and expressing dieting and weight concerns. The children appeared to understand the connection
between eating and weight, and body esteem was found to be significantly lower in the fifth than the third graders. However,
feminine children were not more likely to exhibit eating disordered behaviors.
03 Sandra Harding here develops further the themes first addressed in her widely influential book, The Science Question in Feminism, and conducts a compelling analysis of feminist theories on the philosophical problem of how we know what we know. Following a strong narrative line, Harding sets out her arguments in highly readable prose. In Part 1, she discusses issues that will interest anyone concerned with the social bases of scientific knowledge. In Part 2, she modifies some of her views and then pursues the many issues raised by the feminist position which holds that women's social experience provides a unique vantage point for discovering masculine bias and and questioning conventional claims about nature and social life. In Part 3, Harding looks at the insights that people of color, male feminists, lesbians, and others can bring to these controversies, and concludes by outlining a feminist approach to science in which these insights are central. "Women and men cannot understand or explain the world we live in or the real choices we have," she writes, "as long as the sciences describe and explain the world primarily from the perspectives of the lives of the dominant groups." Harding's is a richly informed, radical voice that boldly confronts issues of crucial importance to the future of many academic disciplines. Her book will amply reward readers looking to achieve a more fruitful understanding of the relations between feminism, science, and social life.
de Beauvoir writes that "humanity is male and man defines woman not in herself but as relative to him; she is not regarded as an autonomous human being" "He is the Subject, he is the Absolute--she is the Other" "When man makes of woman the Other, he may, then, expect her to manifest deep-seated tendancies toward complicity. Thus woman may fail to lay claim to the status of subject because she lacks definate resources, because she feels the necessary bond that ties her to man regardless of reciprocity, and because she is often very well pleased with her role as the Other"
"Christ was made a man; yes, but perhaps for his greater humility"
Merleau-Ponty in contemporary perspective: this was the theme of the conference at the Institute of Philosophy, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (K. U. L. ) from 29 November to 1 December 1991. Thirty years after Merleau Ponty's untimely death, it seemed appropriate to bring together scholars from Europe and from the United States of America to reappraise his philosophy. In fact, a significant body of scholarship has emerged which would seem to attest to the continuing importance of his thought for a variety of disciplines within the humanities, the social sciences, and the philosophy of nature. In the present volume, Gary Brent Madison addresses the issue whether Merleau-Ponty can be considered to be a classical philosopher. The fact that his work is one of the highlights of the phenomenological tradition and is of continuing inspiration for researchers in various domains seems to justify that claim. Yet, it is the feeling of many of the contributors to this volume that the so-called "second Merleau-Ponty" is still not really known. The unfinished state of The Visible and the Invisible and the cryptic condition of many of the "Working Notes" may be responsible for that. More research should be done, to uncover "the unsaid" of Merleau-Ponty. lowe to a remark of Paul Ricoeur in his introduction to the work of G. B. Madison, La Phenomenologie de Merleau-Ponty. Une recherche des limites de la conscience (Paris, Klincksieck, 1973, p.
The eating disorders of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa have been estimated to affect between .5% and 2% of young women in Western societies (Cooper, Charnock, & Taylor, 1987; Crisp, Palmer, & Kalucy, 1976) and are probably becoming more common. For anorexia nervosa, case register and hospital record studies as well as population surveys indicate that the increase in the number of patients is probably due to an increase in incidence rather than in case referral (Crisp et al., 1976; Jones, Fox, Babigan, & Hutton, 1980; Kendell, Hall, Hailey, & Babigan, 1973; Szmukler, McCance, McCrone, & Hunter, 1986; Theander, 1970; Willi & Grossman, 1983). This finding has clear implications for our search for the etiology of the eating disorders. Some have dismissed the search for causes as being irrelevant on the grounds that the disorders represent interactional and thus circular processes (e.g., Moley, 1983). This attitude is unfortunate because it may lead to premature foreclosure on further discussion and research. And it is misguided for the simple reason that, even if the process is interactive, self-reinforcing, and circular, the question remains why such processes, presumably present in all families, become pathological (i.e., correlated with the presence of an eating disorder) in some families and not in others.
The interpretation of messages is a mental process that necessarily accompanies communication. It is theoretically related to relational communication but includes both denotative and connotative meanings as well as speaker's intent. This study initiates a program of research on message interpretation by exploring the role ofgender, gender role, and values in interpreting messages. Of the subjects, 175 rated supportive and controlling interpretations of messages in four scenarios. Gender of subject, gender of the source of the message, communal gender role, and masculine values interact to influence message interpretation, but the type of interpretation depends on the scenario. Additionally, reported communication difficulty is greatest for opposite-sex communication for males, followed by opposite sex communication for females, same-sex communication for females, and same-sex communication for males. Gender processes are associated with the difficulty of same-sex communication; both gender and interpretive processes influence opposite-sex communication difficulty.
This study explored relationships among feminist identity, gender traits, and symptoms of disturbed eating. Seventy-one college women completed the following: weight-related questions, Feminist Identity Development Scale, Personal Attributes Questionnaire, Figure Rating Scale, and Eating Disorders Inventory. Identification with feminist values negatively correlated with body dissatisfaction, bulimic symptoms, and feelings of ineffectiveness. Identification with stereotypical masculine traits was inversely related to perfectionist tendencies and feelings of ineffectiveness, but was unrelated to body concerns. These results suggest factors promoting body dissatisfaction and disturbed eating may have less impact on college women identifying with feminist values, such as commitment to nonsexist roles and personal empowerment.
In this work, we contribute to the human science research paradigm now emerging internationally by describing four major human science research methods: the experiential, hermeneutical, perceptual psychological, and phenomenological. Each author has contributed to the development and utilization of one of these methodologies, while remaining conversant with the others. We recognize the unique value of each, but also are convinced that the human science approach has now attained the level of sophistication that makes a comparative examination of its various methodologies a timely endeavor. We have begun that task in this article by summarizing how each methodology addresses a common phenomenon, that of the experience of anxiety. Specifically, we summarize each method with regard to its research purpose, its formulation of a research question, its means of data collection, and its data analytic procedures.
Although differences are evident, shared values and procedures are also clarified. All methods underscore the significance of (a) focusing on understanding human experience, (b) practicing impartiality during observations, (c) grounding the research in the life-world, and 4) clarifying the meanings that are lived from the perspective of one's own experiencing. It is our hope that this work will add to an in-depth understanding of what human science research means as well as offer concrete guidelines to carry out its form of research.
In this article the phenomonelogical approach to qualitative research is compared with certain other qualitative approaches following other paradigms. The thesis is that a deepened understanding of phenomenological philosophy can provide the alternative framework that many of these authors have been seeking. The comparison with other approaches is made in terms of theoretical and methodical consistency. Theoretically, the argument is that the situation known as "mixed discourse" exists because practitioners have not sufficiently freed themselves from the criteria and practices of traditional paradigms in which most qualitative researchers have been trained. The shift from the collection of numerical data to linguistic data takes place without appropriate shift in theoretical context. This state of affairs should be overcome in order to strengthen qualitative research. On the other hand, many qualitative researchers carry on practices that seem to be analogous to phenomenological prescriptions which are explicitly usually misunderstood or resisted when stated directly and generically. Thus, greater theoretical clarity and consistency as well as deeper reflection or better utilization of imaginative possibilities still seem to be called for in order to bring better theoretical conceptualization and more consistent practices to qualitative research.
"Traditional experimental psychology has been criticized and an alternative mode of conducting research within the realm of the human sciences has been suggested. Both the critique of traditional experimental psychology and the construction of the alternative paradigm drew heavily upon phenomenological concepts and insights, demonstrating thereby the importance and significance of phenomenology for a psychology that wishes to do justice to human phenomena, whether the interest is primarily theoretical or experimental… . differences between the natural scientific approach and the human scientific approach… [are] stressed. This emphasis is necessary… because there is a strong tendency currently to identify research and experimentation per se with the natural scientific way of doing research and experimentation. Once the human scientific approach becomes established in its own right and achieves a certain degree of autonomy, the possibility of integrating the 2 approaches can be considered… ." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Discusses M. Merleau-Ponty's (1908–1961) philosophy of the body as it relates to gender. Contemporary culture can be seen as constituted by the opposition of men to women. Merleau-Ponty's analysis of the body ignores women's experiences of human embodiment. Although he presents his work as gender neutral, it is in fact androcentric. Women are invisible in Merleau-Ponty's philosophy. Phenomenology actually examines men as differentiated from 'things," and women are grouped with things. Phenomenological feminism requires the creation of new patterns of perception. An open-ended perspective is required for regarding the androcentric culture constituted by men as the essential "I." (0 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Discusses the confused understandings of phenomenology and its value for the interpretation and practice of psychological research within the psychological community. Ten differentiations of phenomenology from other methods or concepts with which it shares characteristics are delineated. Phenomenology is defined as the study of the phenomena of the world as experienced by conscious beings and as method for studying such phenomena. A phenomenological analysis of a research situation is performed to demonstrate what is essential to it regardless of the theoretical perspective that a psychologist may hold, and whether or not a correct understanding of phenomenology as applied to psychology can meet the essential features of a research situation is considered. It is concluded that if this can be demonstrated, then the phenomenological perspective should have its place within psychological research so that it can be judged by its fruits rather than dismissed a priori because it appears, on the surface, to be different. (65 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper reviews the incidence and prevalence studies of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. The incidence of anorexia nervosa has been estimated at 8.1 and of bulimia nervosa at 11.4 per 100,000 population per year. The registered incidence rates of anorexia nervosa have increased sharply, but it is still unclear whether the rates in the community have increased. It has been established, however, that the incidence rates of anorexia nervosa in females 15 to 24-years-old—the most vulnerable group—have increased during the past 50 years. The (point-)prevalence among young females is 0.28% for anorexia nervosa and 1% for bulimia nervosa. A model of the pathway to care is described to show the one-year prevalence rates at different levels of care. The role of social and cultural factors will be discussed.
Two studies are reported which indicate that both sex-biased wording in job advertisements and the placement of help-wanted ads in sex-segregated newspaper columns discourage men and women from applying for “opposite-sex” jobs for which they might well be qualified. Both studies were originally conducted and presented as part of legal testimony in actual sex discrimination cases.
The present study examined how modeling, grade in school, gender, and attitudes toward women relate to sexist or nonsexist language usage in high school students. Eighty-four female and 60 male high school students, including 77% white, 20% African-American, and 3% other participants, completed three questionnaires. The Sexist Language Detector (SLD), a 24 item questionnaire, assessed the use of sexist and nonsexist language by requiring written solutions to ethical dilemmas. Instructions on the SLD included either sexist examples, nonsexist examples, or no example (control). The nonsexist examples condition served as the modeling intervention. Participants completed the shortened versions of J. T. Spence and R. L. Helmreich's Personal Attributes Questionnaire of 1978 and Attitudes toward Women Scale of 1972. Multiple regression analysis indicated main effects for gender, year in school, and condition on nonsexist language use. Participants with nonsexist instructions used significantly more nonsexist language than the other two groups. No significant difference was found among the three groups on the use of sexist language. Freshpersons were more likely to use nonsexist language than seniors. Females used more nonsexist language than males.
This is the ninth ERIC/ECTJ Annual Review Paper, preparation of which was supported by the ERIC (Educational Resources Information
Center) Clearinghouse on Information Resources, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York. The material in this article was
prepared pursuant to a contract with the National Institute of Education, U.S. Department of Education. Contractors undertaking
such projects under government sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their judgment in professional and technical matters.
Points of view or opinions do not necessarily represent the official view or opinion of NIE. The author is grateful to David
Clark, Larry Havlicek, Robert Heinich, John McLaughlin, Cecil Miskel, and Robert Wolf for their careful critique of an earlier
version of 1his paper, and to his wife, Yvonna Lincoln, from whose joint work with the author in other contexts many of the
ideas expressed in this paper emanated.