No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
English Language Education Policy in Timor-Leste
Abstract
In Timor-Leste four languages are recognised in the constitution and compete for space, both in education and in society generally. While the adoption of Portuguese as the co-official language (with Tetun) is understandable in light of the country’s recent troubled relations with Indonesia and with a wish to distinguish itself from English speaking Australia to the south, it also marks Timor-Leste as different in a region where an emphasis on English language learning is the norm. While education policy tends to favour the Portuguese language, arguably at the expense of Tetun, there is a feeling among students and parents that English and Bahasa Indonesia have more practical use. For this reason, and because many school teachers are not sufficiently fluent in Portuguese, English has remained the second language of choice and private English classes are common. In public spaces, too, English is the prevalent language. As a result, and also because of a feeling that current language policy is contributing to educational failure, there remain questions about the future of languages in education in Timor-Leste. A case can be made, for example, for moving to mother tongue based education leading to additive multilingualism. Consideration also needs to be given to the role of Portuguese in shaping a national identity for this relatively new state. Generational change may contribute to future changes in language policy, as a Portuguese-speaking elite retires from political life.
... Portuguese functioned as the language of Timor-Leste's national liberation struggle, as it was used by the Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (FRETILIN) as a deliberate policy, e.g., in clandestine communication, as it would not be understood by the occupying Indonesian forces. Macalister (2016) therefore highlights the role of Portuguese in shaping a national identity for this relatively new nation-state. As a result of the linguistic policy aimed at the country's socio-political development, the Timorese have learned and used Portuguese, understood as a language of international relevance, especially in official and academic contexts (Hajek, 2000). ...
... Since independence in 2002, Carneiro (2021) explicates that the reconstruction of the country involved diverse types of multilateral and bilateral cooperation, in particular with the Brazilian and Portuguese counterparts with regards to local language-in-education policies. Macalister (2016) claims that even as education policy tends to favour the Portuguese language, arguably at the expense of Tetum, there is a feeling among students and parents within the polity that English and Bahasa Indonesia have more practical use. However, since Timor-Leste first applied to join ASEAN in 2011, its national government has started introducing English language education policies, whilst retaining Tetum and Portuguese as mediums of instruction (Macalister, 2016;Taylor-Leech, 2012). ...
... Macalister (2016) claims that even as education policy tends to favour the Portuguese language, arguably at the expense of Tetum, there is a feeling among students and parents within the polity that English and Bahasa Indonesia have more practical use. However, since Timor-Leste first applied to join ASEAN in 2011, its national government has started introducing English language education policies, whilst retaining Tetum and Portuguese as mediums of instruction (Macalister, 2016;Taylor-Leech, 2012). Pitting English, Bahasa Indonesia and English together, we argue that narratives of English development as an additional language, is perhaps seen as less problematic than Bahasa Indonesia, and complementary to Portuguese, in the case of Timor-Leste. ...
... Further, English literacy provides students with pathways into vocational training and higher education around the world, including East Timor's closest neighbour, Australia. As a result, English is the de-facto language of choice for many Timorese people and educators alongside Portuguese, in which many teachers are poorly educated (Macalister, 2016). Furthermore, many Timorese students prefer English to Portuguese as they view it as a language of the future. ...
... Despite education policy focusing on Portuguese, English is prevalent in many public spaces, and private English courses are quite common. Among Timorese parents and students, there is a strong feeling that English has more practical use than Portuguese, which has only recently been declared an official language to reflect the preferences of political leadership educated during East Timor's time as a Portuguese colony (Macalister, 2016). Hence, despite current education policy favouring Portuguese, both English and Bahasa Indonesia have practical applications within the region. ...
East Timor's rich linguistic diversity demands a careful choice of instructional language when developing an educational curriculum. Both the cultural-historical importance of Tetum and Portuguese as the young nation's two official languages and the benefits of English language competence (such as improved employability, international connectivity, and access to educational material) need consideration. BETTER asserts that through embedding English to become the primary instructional language in its curriculum, provides Timorese students with a future proof education solution. Learning in a unified language will allow students to be more creative and critically think while also ensuring improved opportunities to prepare for the future, bridge cultural and regional boundaries, and open many doors. Hence, BETTER's approach to curriculum development emphasizes gradually increased use of English as an instructional language while preserving Tetum for cultural and religious subjects and Portuguese as a standalone subject. Introduction East Timor is a culturally diverse and multilingual society, with over sixteen languages in addition to two official ones-Portuguese and Tetum. Hence, when determining educational languages of instruction, it is essential to carefully consider how such diversity affects a student's learning experience. Generally, children should be taught in a language that they understand and provides them opportunities for a promising career and high quality of life (UNESCO, 2016). As such, the educational language of instruction must maximise the quality of education delivery, student potential, and opportunity, while also preserving Timorese students' cultural and linguistic diversity. Although estimates vary, the 2015 East Timor census indicated that about three quarters of the population are literate in Tetum, whereas Portuguese, English, and Bahasa Indonesian are each understood by one third of the population (UNFPA, 2018).
... Teachers, as well as education quality and development, are affected by their wellbeing [52,53]. Therefore, the social consensus is that professional welfare should be improved. ...
The mathematics teachers’ profession often has many challenges. It also occupies important positions at the K-12 education level, in which mathematics knowledge is the basis of all scientific fields. This tends to cause high-stress levels and a negative effect on well-being. Mathematics teachers’ well-being has been less examined, and therefore this study aims to determine the factors affecting mathematics teachers’ well-being and stress levels. The 210 data points collected from Chinese mathematics teachers using a web-based questionnaire were analyzed for reliability and validity, then model fit and SEM were applied for model validation after removing 3 invalid data points and incomplete responses. The results showed that behavioral and cognitive engagements significantly affect teachers’ well-being, while the affective engagement was insignificant. The TPMK was the strongest significant predictor that had a positive impact on improving well-being and reducing stress levels. In addition, the stress level of mathematics teachers was influenced by gender and age. Finally, it was proven that teachers’ well-being significantly reduced stress levels. This study’s implication was to provide information on how to reduce stress levels.
... A language education working group proposed initial teaching in the students' native languages, gradual introduction of Tetum and Portuguese, and later addition of Indonesian and English. Macalister (2016) notes that English remains a popular second choice of Timorese parents; private instruction is common, and English is widely used in the public domain. In East Timor and other former Portuguese colonies, internal strife and foreign intervention led to wars that had a major effect in preventing solution to language problems. ...
Earlier, I proposed that language policy could usefully be analyzed as consisting of three independent but interconnected components, language practices, language beliefs or ideologies, and language management. It was also argued that failure to recognize that language policy can exist in other domains and at other levels than the nation-state, ranging from the family to international organizations was one of the reasons for the ineffectiveness of state planning efforts. From looking at a number of cases, some modifications are now suggested. First, within management, is to note the distinction between advocates (without power) and managers. Second, is to add the level of the individual, noting the importance of self-management, attempts to expand personal repertoires to enhance communication and employability. Finally, it is pointed out that even when this leads to a workable language policy, it may be blocked or hampered by non-linguistic forces such as genocide, conquest, colonization, introduced diseases, slavery, corruption and natural disasters.
... A language education working group proposed initial teaching in the students' native languages, gradual introduction of Tetum and Portuguese, and later addition of Indonesian and English. (Macalister, 2016) notes that English remains a popular second choice of Timorese parents; private instruction is common, and English is widely used in the public domain. In East Timor and other former Portuguese colonies, internal strife and foreign intervention led to wars that had a major effect in preventing solution to language problems. ...
Earlier studies showed the value of seeing language policy as consisting of three independent but interconnected components, language practices, language beliefs, and language management. Failure to recognize that language policy can also exist at other levels than the nation-state, ranging from the family to international organizations, was one of the reasons for inadequacy of state planning efforts. After studying a number of cases, especially language policy in colonial and post-colonial states, it became clear that two additional components should be added. The first is self-management, the effort of individuals to expand their language repertoire to improve possibilities of communication and employment. The second are non-linguistic forces, such as conquest, colonization, genocide, introduced diseases, slavery, corruption, and natural disasters, which work to block or interfere with the development and implementation of management. An enriched model should help clarify the difficulties of state language policy. Abstract Earlier studies showed the value of seeing language policy as consisting of three
This chapter examines the current situation of English in ASEAN and the Southeast Asian region. This unfolding of English can be associated with the de-facto and de-jure adoption of English as the sole working language of ASEAN in the past six decades. Specifically, the chapter examines the dominant ideologies of English including English for development and the hegemony of English based on the participants’ views and perspectives. Theoretically, the chapter provides a critical analysis of the Diffusion-of-English paradigm and the key fallacies of English language education, linking the potential operation of linguistic imperialism. A key point of interest in the chapter is the relationship between the ASEAN English-only policy and the hegemony of English in the member-countries. The chapter also examines the ‘neutrality’ principle guiding ASEAN LPP as the member-states are subjected to inequalities of English.
The Oxford Handbook of Southeast Asian Englishes describes both the history and the contemporary forms, functions, and status of English in Southeast Asia (SEA). Since the arrival of English traders to Southeast Asia in the 17th century, the English language has had a profound impact on the linguistic ecologies and the development of societies throughout the region. Today, countries such as Singapore and the Philippines have adopted English as a national language, while in others, such as Indonesia and Cambodia, it is used as a foreign language of education. The chapters in this volume provide a comprehensive overview of current research on a wide range of topics, addressing the impact of English as a language of globalization and exploring new approaches to the spread of English in SEA. The volume is divided into six parts that investigate, respectively: historical and contemporary English contact in SEA; the structures of the Englishes spokes in different SEA nations; the English-language literatures of the region; approaches to English in education throughout the region; and resources for researching SEA Englishes. The handbook will be an invaluable reference work for students and researchers in areas as diverse as contact linguistics, English as a foreign language, world Englishes, and sociolinguistics.
The Oxford Handbook of Southeast Asian Englishes describes both the history and the contemporary forms, functions, and status of English in Southeast Asia (SEA). Since the arrival of English traders to Southeast Asia in the 17th century, the English language has had a profound impact on the linguistic ecologies and the development of societies throughout the region. Today, countries such as Singapore and the Philippines have adopted English as a national language, while in others, such as Indonesia and Cambodia, it is used as a foreign language of education. The chapters in this volume provide a comprehensive overview of current research on a wide range of topics, addressing the impact of English as a language of globalization and exploring new approaches to the spread of English in SEA. The volume is divided into six parts that investigate, respectively: historical and contemporary English contact in SEA; the structures of the Englishes spokes in different SEA nations; the English-language literatures of the region; approaches to English in education throughout the region; and resources for researching SEA Englishes. The handbook will be an invaluable reference work for students and researchers in areas as diverse as contact linguistics, English as a foreign language, world Englishes, and sociolinguistics.
Early childhood education (ECE) in Timor-Leste has made enormous progress since independence in 2001. The importance of ECE is reflected in the firm policy and legislative support for the sector. Improvement can be seen in the steady growth in enrollments, the existence of highly motivated and highly effective preschool inspectors, the development of preschool teacher competency standards, and the implementation of a holistic, child-centered curriculum and increased attention to teacher training. However, significant challenges remain, including under-resourcing of the sector, inadequate professionalization and training of teachers and facilitators, and a lack of focus on the first 1000 days, as well as systemic and management issues which prevent the sector from functioning at full capacity. The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4.2, which states that by 2030 all girls and boys should have access to quality early childhood development, care, and preprimary education so that they are ready for primary education, is unlikely to be met. However, several positive ways forward for the sector have emerged, including innovations in teacher training and in reaching young children through distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, the drafting of a new law dealing with preschool management which, if passed, will provide overall governance guidelines for the sector, and attempts to enhance teacher professionalization.
Between November 2018 and 2020, residents of New Caledonia will have three opportunities to vote on whether to become an independent state. Residents of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville will vote on the same issue in June 2019. Should the residents of either territory vote for independence, the issue of whether a language shall be designated the national and / or official language for the new state will arise. If the decision is to designate a language for the new state, the choice of which language will also surface. This chapter considers the language choices made by a number of countries across the linguistically diverse Asia Pacific region post-independence and in so doing, provides some models for the language configurations which may eventuate should either territory become independent. The linguistic configurations discussed here are divided into Category 1 - countries where a national and / or official language are legally specified or have de jure legal status. - and Category 2 – countries where no language is legally named but at least one language may be de facto national or official. Examples of Category 1 countries include Indonesia where Bahasa Indonesia is the only de jure national and official language and Vanuatu where Bislama is the de jure national language and is also a de jure co-official language with both English and French, the languages of the former colonial powers. Examples of Category 2 countries discussed here include Papua New Guinea where Tok Pisin is named as one of the possible languages needed for an applicant to become a Papua New Guinean citizen but does not have de jure national language status and the Solomon Islands where Pijin is the de facto national language and English is the de facto official language.
Whilst the results of either the Bougainville and New Caledonian referenda are not clear, the different configurations already in place serve as a pointer to what may eventuate should the residents of either territory vote for independence.
This chapter provides an overview of past and current language education policies in Vietnam. Our reviews and critical discussions centre on state rules and regulations regarding the teaching and learning of Vietnamese, ethnic minority languages, and foreign languages. Historically speaking, language education policy in Vietnam has been largely contingent on the country’s changing political, social, and economic circumstances. Notably, current language education policy reflects the predominant status of Vietnamese as the medium of instruction across school levels. Ethnic minority language education has also received substantial policy attention, although its enactment leaves considerable room for improvement. Foreign language education policy prioritises English given its status as an international language, while also encouraging the teaching and learning of other languages. The chapter concludes with predictions and implications for future development with regard to the role and status of these relevant languages.
In studying language policy, it is not enough to look at central government management, but also at the influence of managers at levels ranging from the family to international organizations. Actual cases reveal that there are also non-linguistic forces such as demography, war, civil strife, and economic breakdowns which have major effects. This paper summarizes a study of the Portuguese empire and its aftermath. The empire enforced the hegemony of Portuguese as the civilizing force that would remedy deficits in conquered peoples. Because settlers were usually males, intermarriage with local women or slaves was common. However, colonial policy and acceptance by the leaders of independence movements as a unifying language, recognizing the benefits of elite closure, meant that postcolonial successor states kept Portuguese as the language of instruction and government, and did not use indigenous languages. Civil strife, warfare, corruption, and economic breakdown after independence prevented the improvement of education in many cases. Thus, while Portuguese provided access to an international language and served as the unifying symbol for Lusophone organizations, it was at the cost of the stigmatization of indigenous languages and left a social gap between the urban elite and the rural citizens limited to local languages.
Policies concerning language use are increasingly tested in an age of frequent migration and cultural synthesis. With conflicting factors and changing political climates influencing the policy-makers, Elana Shohamy considers the effects that these policies have on the real people involved. Using examples from the US and UK, she shows how language policies are promoted and imposed, overtly and covertly, across different countries and in different contexts. Concluding with arguments for a more democratic and open approach to language policy and planning, the final note is one of optimism, suggesting strategies for resistance to language attrition and ways to protect the linguistic rights of groups and individuals.
In both multilingual and monolingual school settings, the manner in which teachers mediate classroom talk has a direct impact on the way that students are given access to curriculum content and the links established between thinking and learning. Classroom talk includes the ways in which teachers present content as well as the ways in which students interact with the subject matter that they are learning. However, in multilingual settings, the focus for educational language policy is commonly on which language rather than how to use the linguistic resources available in the classroom. This paper explores the case of Timor-Leste, a nation struggling to improve the poor learning outcomes for students within a multilingual setting, within a school system of poorly trained teachers and poorly resourced classrooms. It looks at oral language behaviours that teachers typically use in classrooms in order to suggest how teacher professional development priorities might be re-oriented around repertoires of classroom talk as a means of enhancing both curriculum content learning and language learning.
[Full access at: http://rre.sagepub.com/content/38/1/312.full.pdf+html]
The content of the present issue of "Review of Research in Education" (RRE) is timely and important, allowing considered, multiperspectival active reflection, what the author calls cerebration, on language diversity as well as a call for concerted action for linking better the findings of research to the imperatives of teaching. In conceiving this volume, the editors have designed four pedestals, serving as a kind of ontology, of the philosophical categories and their relations as the entities that constitute the domain of language pluralism: (1) Educational access, equity, and achievement; (2) Native-language literacy as an educational right; (3) The paradox of majority and minority languages; and (4) Emerging global demographic shifts. In this concluding chapter, the author argues that despite multilingualism being well established as the predictable condition of all human society, historically nation-states have absorbed and legitimized discourses and self-understanding as homogenous and unilingual states. The discrepancy between the historical condition and its contemporary ideological representation gives rise to politics of language and policies in and for language education. The four theme points establish an enduring remit for consideration of language policy from multiple perspectives. Demographically it is seen everywhere on-the-ground linguistic pluralism in all societies. This is a pluralism in which languages, dialects, and genres of expression are not bounded and compartmentalized but fused and combined. Yet this daily and ubiquitous linguistic pluralism clashes with the official declarations and preferences for monolingualism, a monolingualism that privileges dominant languages and pushes education systems to promote secure, bounded, hierarchically ranked languages with uncontested literary canons. These are immense challenges whose depth and importance will be present for decades into the future even as they are transformed further by migration, technology, and new understandings of communication. A new optimism that education language planning can be put to the service of multiliterate, multicultural, and multilingual future global citizens is needed. If there is to be a new culture war, it should be one in which pluralism is granted central consideration as an overarching human right for justice and productivity, a true cause of cerebration.
Motivations to reform curriculum in post-conflict, or post-colonial states are often driven by the need to (re) construct a cohesive and publicly legitimated national identity that is starkly different to that which existed prior. This paper explores the context behind such action in the Timor-Leste (East Timor) and some challenges which policy makers and citizens have wrestled with in developing and implementing the country's first post-independence primary curriculum. The author argues that specific aspects of this new curriculum have effectively alienated and/or divided large segments of its population, despite a desire for the reforms to result in a more inclusive, democratic and distinctly “Timorese” educational system. The assertion is that the desire to institute change rapidly after independence has in fact hampered the ability of the reforms to constructively serve the political and social project of nation building. The paper cautions that education's role in promoting human development, and reducing the triggers of conflict in this country hang in the balance as long as this new curriculum fails to deliver on its aspirations.
East Timor has in recent times generated significant public interest around the world, especially after the events of August–September 1999. It has an unusual colonial history: centuries of Portuguese contact and control (1500s–1975) were followed by a brief but very intense period of Indonesian occupation (1975–1999). From the language-planning perspective, it makes for a relatively unusual case study since it allows us to consider the impact of two very different colonising powers on the same linguistic territory. Portuguese attempts to modify the linguistic environment in East Timor were in most cases relatively slow to gather pace, only showing real potential to seriously impact on the local environment from the 1970s on. But political upheaval in Portugal and then in East Timor brought all of this to a sudden halt – especially after the arrival of the Indonesians who quickly moved to impose an Indonesian linguistic, social, military and economic model – in East Timor. But the situation in East Timor has once again unexpectedly undergone radical change with the end of Indonesian occupation and the arrival of international administration in September 1999. Since that time language planning issues have proved to be amongst the most contentious issues in East Timor.
Purpose
– Timor Leste was established as a country in 1999 when the Indonesians relinquished sovereignty and their departing military units and associated militias left most of the educational infrastructure in ruins. Civil disorder flared again in 2006 and the Government invited international military and reconstruction aid agencies in to restore order and reinvigorate development. The Inspectorate was established by law in 2008 to improve the quality and accountability of the school education system. The aim of this paper is to analyse the relationship between a national language policy that favours Portuguese and Tetun, and the establishment and administration of the Inspectorate of the Ministry of Education in Timor Leste.
Design/methodology/approach
– The author was embedded in the Inspectorate between January and June 2009. During this period he conducted ethnographic analysis of the administration of two of the largest regions prior to helping develop the School Inspector's Manual and a strategic plan for the Inspectorate. This report was derived from those experiences.
Findings
– The Inspectorate in the Ministry of Education, led by an Inspector General, has a symbiotic relationship with what is termed in this paper as the “Schools Directorate” led by a director general. Although the Inspectorate is required to improve the quality and accountability of all services provided by the Schools Directorate, a close symbiosis is encouraged between the sister bureaucracies by the Minister of Education, resulting in serious goal displacement in both organisations, degrees of confusion and paralysis in implementation. Four major reasons are identified. The Minister co‐manages the Schools Directorate and the Inspectorate has a chief executive officer. Formal communications in the Ministry are conducted in Portuguese, although very few are competent in this language. Regional directorates and regional inspectorates are required to collaborate closely in review and development planning, while the activities of the latter are funded and administered by the former. The cultural norms of conflict‐avoidance in a post‐conflict context are all pervasive in a setting of scarce resources, to the point where no one is ever fired, even for corruption.
Originality/value
– This paper reports baseline research into the development of the Inspectorate and the Ministry of Education.
This report discusses findings from a small-scale scoping study, which is part of a larger curriculum project—a collaborative venture between staff from the Universidade Nacional Timor Lorosa'e (UNTL) and a New Zealand university. The aim of the wider project is to develop a context-sensitive English language curriculum for students at UNTL who are undergoing pre-service training to be teachers of English as a foreign language in local secondary schools. (Details of the institutional and linguistic context are provided in the appendix.) According to Norton (2000), investment by learners is a key factor in the successful implementation of a new curriculum: "if learners invest in a second language, they do so with the understanding that they will acquire a wider range of symbolic and material resources, which will increase their value in the social world" (Norton, 2000, pp. 165-166). Thus, when designing the curriculum, it is important to ensure that the students will not only understand how to use the specific learning tasks but that it also expands their repertoire of skills and knowledge for application in their subsequent professional and social lives. The report begins by outlining the history and objectives of the project before explaining the specific research questions posed for the scoping study. The means of collecting data will be outlined and examples of the participants' attitudes will be presented based on open-ended questionnaire responses. These findings will be discussed in terms of how they might lead to the design of a curriculum which is internationally-framed and context-sensitive in terms both of its content and implementation. The report will conclude with the further steps that are being taken to move the project to its next phase. This article has been published in the journal: New Zealand Studies in Applied Linguistics. Used with permission.
Codeswitching between languages in English language classrooms has been disparaged by textbook writers, methodologists and educational policymakers in many countries. This paper reports an action research project which examined language use in English classes in Timor-Leste. The first aim was to identify the extent of codeswitching by audio-recording four lessons and the second to explore the teachers’ attitudes in follow-up interviews. Transcript examples of codeswitching show that while one teacher used only English throughout the lesson, the others used varying amounts of Tetum, Portuguese, and Bahasa Indonesia. Extracts from interviews will report the teachers’ views. The data suggests that plurilingualism rather than multilingualism is a more appropriate term for the use of different languages in the increasingly complex linguistic context in which English is taught in many Asian classrooms. The findings also support recent published arguments (e.g., Cook, 2010) for a more positive attitude towards plurilingual use in English language classrooms. The paper begins with an explanation of the difference between multilingualism and plurilingualism (Canagarajah, 2009), and the implications this distinction has for plurilingual use in language classes. This is followed by a brief review of recent literature outlining reasons for rejecting a monolingual approach to foreign language teaching, and outlining arguments and evidence in favour of the use of language alternation in language classes where plurilingual usage is a common social and educational phenomenon. The linguistic context ऀð ऀð ऀð ऀð ऀð ऀð ऀð ऀð ऀð
The voices of teachers, parents, and students create a compelling ethnographic study that examines the debate between traditional and progressive pedagogies in literacy education and the mismatch of cross-cultural discourses between mainstream schools and Asian families. This book focuses on a Vancouver suburb where the Chinese population has surpassed the white community numerically and socioeconomically, but not politically, and where the author uncovers disturbing cultural conflicts, educational dissensions, and "silent" power struggles between school and home. What Guofang Li reveals illustrates the challenges of teaching and learning in an increasingly complex educational landscape in which literacy, culture, race, and social class intertwine. Advocating for a greater cultural understanding of minority beliefs in literacy education and a more critical examination of mainstream instructional practices, Li offers a new theoretical framework and critical recommendations for teachers, schools, and parents.
Language choice in the newly independent Republic of East Timor can be usefully examined in the wider context of language policy in multilingual states. The present article reports on ethnographic research investigating official and popular discourses of language and identity in East Timor and the role of past and present language policies and practices in shaping national and social identity. It focuses on the discursive reconstruction of identity through five official instruments of language policy development. Hostile discourses in the Australian and Indonesian press towards the choice of Portuguese (the former colonial language) and Tetum (the endogenous lingua franca) as official languages provided the context for the investigation. A persistent theme in these discourses is that English and/or Indonesian would be preferable choices. The article puts these discourses into perspective by presenting findings from two data sets: (i) the 2004 National Census and (ii) analysis of the discourses of 78 participants in semi-structured interviews and student focus groups. The census shows clear signs of the revival of Portuguese and the reinvigoration of Tetum. It also shows how diverse linguistic identities have become in East Timor, The research findings show that there is less hostility to official language policy than claimed in the Australian and Indonesian press. However, the findings also emphasise the urgent need to reconstruct an inclusive, plurilingual national identity that can encompass diversity.
Timor-Leste is a nation where three exogenous languages (Portuguese, Bahasa Indonesia, English) and one of many endogenous languages (Tetun) compete to be heard in public spaces. The constitution names both Tetun and Portuguese as co-official languages, and English and Bahasa Indonesia as working languages in the civil service; but official and de facto language policy are not necessarily the same. One mechanism that can mediate between ideology and practice, both as a way of imposing and of resisting official policy, is language in the public space. This paper demonstrates the insights that examining language in the public space can provide on language policy debates. It reports on the investigation of a linguistic landscape in Dili, the capital of Timor-Leste, and finds considerable difference between official language policy and language practices.
Timor-Leste celebrated its formal political independence on 20th May 2002. The National Constitution of the new nation declared the endogenous lingua franca (Tetum) and the former colonial language (Portuguese) to be co-official. The remaining local languages were given the status of national languages. Indonesian and English were designated as working languages ‘for as long as is deemed necessary’. In this monograph, I consider the origins and implications of these constitutional provisions. The paper consists of five parts. 1. A social and economic profile of the polity. This section also discusses migration, communications and the media in relation to language policy and practice.2. A language profile of the country, followed by a discussion of diglossia, multilingualism, literacy and official language choice.3. An account of the sociolinguistic consequences of language contact and an historical analysis of social policies and practices that have shaped the habitus.4. A discussion and analysis of current language policy development in terms of goals, motives and orientations.5. An assessment of the prospects for language maintenance with special reference to policy outcomes and options. I advocate a rights-oriented approach to language management, arguing that in the absence of such an approach, ad hoc power relationships between languages will continue to dominate social discourse and language politics.
This article presents an overview of language-in-education policy development between 1999 and 2010 in the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste. In the decade since independence language-in-education policy in this newly independent country has been dominated by debates about the medium of instruction. Over time, policy has shifted from an authoritarian stance that insisted on monolingual, submersion schooling in a former colonial language to one that accepts the need to accommodate linguistic diversity in order to promote social inclusion. Recent policy documents allow for instruction in the vernacular languages, designated in the 2002 Constitution as national languages. The article identifies some key drivers that have provided impetus for this change in orientation, a change which offers opportunities for localised language planning from below. The paper therefore suggests that the acceptance of agency at both macro- and micro-levels will play a critical role in sustaining and maintaining the national languages in East Timorese education.
Primary school second/foreign language (SL/FL) programmes in Asia, as well as in other parts of the world, are becoming more common, with many targeting English as the SL or FL. The pressures for such English language programmes come from top-down notions that in a globalised world English is required for societies to be competitive, especially with Asian neighbours, and bottom-up pressures from parents who see English as the key to educational success for their children. In many polities, these forces have resulted in support for policies that introduce early primary school English teaching curricula for all students and have led to parents spending large sums of money on private tutoring or out-of-school tuition. This study reviews the results of nine language planning studies from the Asian region that set out to examine questions such as ‘Is this trend towards early primary SL or FL education (mainly English) realistic or is it unattainable and a waste of resources? Do children really benefit from these programmes? What needs to be done to foster learners' success?’ These issues are viewed from a language planning and policy perspective through an examination of the language-in-education policy types required for the development of successful programmes. The policies of a number of Asian countries are used as case studies to illustrate this issue.
Cambodia offers an intriguing case study for the international spread of English. As a result of the multiple transitions the country is currently undergoing, English has increased dramatically in status in the last decade, essentially displacing French as the international language of choice. At the descriptive level, this article charts the spread of English into Cambodia, along side French efforts to contest this spread in favor of French. At the theoretical level, this article extrapolates from the case study to make a comment in the on going debate among scholars about English language spread. The Cambodian case contributes to this debate in several ways, notably in affirming or challenging the multinational attachments of English, the communicative inequality that English use may create, the economic exploitation that may result from the establishment of English in developing countries, and the resistance to English that may emerge in settings into which the language is spreading.
Language policy and national identity An introduction to language policy: Theory and method
- J Blommaert
An English language curriculum project in Timor-Leste
- R Barnard
- J Field
- J Mclellan
Barnard, R., Field, J., & McLellan, J. (2011). An English language curriculum project in Timor-Leste. Modern English Teacher, 20 (3), 59-62.
The development of language policy in a global age: The case of East-Timor
- E Cabral
Cabral, E. (2013). The development of language policy in a global age: The case of East-Timor. In
J. A. Shioba & F. Chimbutane (Eds.), Bilingual education and language policy in the global
South (pp. 83-103). New York/London: Routledge.
Lusophonization returns? The condition of language policy and planning in a post
- J D S Sarmento
Sarmento, J. d. S. (2013). Lusophonization returns? The condition of language policy and planning in a post-colonial plurilingual Timor-Leste. Hamilton: University of Waikato.
Support for Timor-Leste’s bid for ASEAN membership. Retrieved from Scoop website: http:// www. scoop. co. nz/ stories
- Government Of Timor-Leste
Timor-Leste’s language policy: The boulder on the shoe - analysis
- V R Savage
Savage, V. R. (2012). Timor-Leste's language policy: The boulder on the shoe -analysis. Eurasia
Review. Retrieved from http://www.eurasiareview.com/14042012-timor-lestes-languagepolicy-the-boulder-on-the-shoe-analysis/
Language policy in Asia and the Pacific The Cambridge handbook of language policy
- R B Baldauf
- H T M Nguyen
Language policy and medium of instruction in formal education
- S L Walter
- C Benson
- SL Walter
Walter, S. L., & Benson, C. (2012). Language policy and medium of instruction in formal education. In B. Spolsky (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of language policy (pp. 278-300).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
The Cambridge handbook of language policy
- R B Baldauf
- H T M Nguyen
- RB Baldauf
Baldauf, R. B., & Nguyen, H. T. M. (2012). Language policy in Asia and the Pacifi c. In B. Spolsky
(Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of language policy (pp. 617-638). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Mother tongue-based multilingual education for
Comisaun Nasional Edukasaun & Ministry of Education. (2011). Mother tongue-based multilingual education for Timor-Leste: National policy. Dili: RDTL.
English is indispensable to ASEAN community
- Asean
ASEAN. (2013). English is indispensable to ASEAN community. Retrieved from ASEAN website:
http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-news/item/asean-sg-english-is-indispensable-toasean-community
World declaration on education for all and framework for action to meet basic learning needs
- Unesco
UNESCO. (1990). World declaration on education for all and framework for action to meet basic
learning needs. Paris: UNESCO.
The use of vernacular languages in education
- UNESCO
UNESCO. (1953). The use of vernacular languages in education. Paris: UNESCO.