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Understanding the Perceived Value of Incentives in Community Supervision
Abstract
The use of incentives to promote offender compliance is becoming increasingly common in community supervision. Although evidence suggests that incentives can improve offender outcomes, little is known about how they can best be implemented to achieve desired results. Research in other fields demonstrates that incentive quality plays an important role in promoting behavioral change. Unfortunately, little is known about the perceived value of incentives utilized in probation and parole settings. The current study addresses this gap in the literature by examining the results of a survey administered to 200 adult probationers. Results indicated that earned compliance credits were rated most favorably, followed by a 50 gift card. Recognition-based incentives received the weakest ratings. Multivariate analyses showed that individual level, as compared to offense- and supervision-level variables, had more consistent influences on perceptions of incentives.
... Cognitivebehavioral approaches that provide psychoeducation, teach social skills, and include various techniques such as modelling, role-playing, performance feedback and transfer training, are effective in addressing risk factors associated with adolescent dating violence (Armytage & Ogloff, 2017;Lipsey, 2009). The use of incentives or contingency management as part of treatment approaches has been found to enhance positive outcomes (Stewart et al., 2014;Wodahl et al., 2017). Finally, ongoing evaluation of programs has been found to improve effectiveness, due to adaptations from findings (Armytage & Ogloff, 2017;Pooley, 2020). ...
... As one participant noted, ''the facilitators were very respectful and understanding at all times, thank you.'' Consistent with the literature on incentive-based learning systems (Stewart et al., 2014;Wodahl et al., 2017), participants frequently commented on the positive benefits of incorporating incentives into the program. Program duration emerged as a theme as participants expressed a desire for the program to run over a longer duration of time. ...
Currently, there is limited empirically published Australian studies on effective rehabilitative programs in youth justice. This study used a mixed-methods approach to evaluate the Healthy Relationships program which was designed to challenge attitudes relating to intimate partner violence for male adolescents in detention in Western Australia. Paired group analyses compared pre and post measures of attitudes towards intimate partner violence and traditional gender roles and stereotypes for the total sample (N = 65). Given the significant overrepresentation of First Nations youth in detention, additional analyses were also run separately for this group (n = 51). Participation in the Healthy Relationships program was expected to reduce participant endorsement of attitudes supporting intimate partner violence and endorsement of attitudes supporting traditional gender roles and stereotypes. Results supported our expectations for the total sample and the First Nations youth sample, indicating significant improvements across all outcomes following program participation. Qualitative analysis of participant program feedback further supported the quantitative results and identified the importance of the therapeutic alliance and incentives-based learning approaches. The findings contribute to the “what works” literature and provide insights into factors that improve positive treatment outcomes for youth in detention. Suggestions for program improvements and future research directions are discussed.
... The most effective programmes are those that are multimodal, skills-oriented and behaviour-oriented; target higher-risk cases and target criminogenic needs; and involve a human service element Armytage and Ogloff, 2017;Craig et al., 2013;Lipsey, 2009). The use of contingency management and rewards as part of behavioural interventions has been found to enhance better outcomes (Stewart et al., 2014;Wodahl et al., 2017). Programmes that are most effective for addressing risk factors associated with difficulties in emotional regulation include cognitivebehavioural approaches that teach social skills, emotional regulation skills, alternatives to aggression and planning (goal setting and decision-making) skills through various techniques such as modelling, role-playing, performance feedback and transfer training (Armytage and Ogloff, 2017). ...
... Consistent with the literature on incentive-based learning systems (Stewart et al., 2014;Wodahl et al., 2017), participant feedback highlighted the benefits of incorporating incentives into the programme, with most participants commenting on the rewards and identifying this as a positive component on the programme. The importance of the group and relationship between participants was also highlighted as positive component of the programme, with several participants commenting on the support they received from each other and reporting that they were going to miss this connection with their peers once the group had ended. ...
This mixed-methods study examines the effectiveness of the emotional management (EM) programme for male juvenile offenders in custody. EM is a 10-session cognitive-behavioural, skills-based group programme designed to target a range of general criminogenic needs. Paired group analyses were completed to examine the differences in pre- and post-programme scores for the total sample (N = 110) and results were separated into programme completers (n = 96), non-completers (n = 14) and Indigenous youth (n = 75). Consistent with expectations, the results showed statistically significant improvements in emotional regulation and
statistically significant decreases in overall levels of aggressive thoughts and behaviours for programme completers and for Indigenous youth in our sample. Contrary to expectations, the results also indicated that programme non-completers showed improvements across the outcome measures, although these did not reach statistical significance. Qualitative analysis of participant programme feedback further supported the quantitative results and highlighted the importance of the therapeutic alliance, programme facilitation style and delivery. The findings contribute to the ‘what works’ research base on risk reduction approaches for youth offenders and provide insights into programme and process factors that improve the likelihood of positive treatment outcomes. Suggestions for programme improvements and future research directions are discussed.
The current study examined the role of sanctions and incentives in improving community supervision outcomes, utilizing data collected from 300 individuals under probation supervision by the Denver Adult Probation Department. The research expanded the current literature by addressing two important existing gaps. First, we included supervision failure due to absconding as a unique dependent variable. Second, we controlled for client behavior to enhance our confidence in study findings. Findings revealed no evidence in support of the use of sanctions to improve supervision outcomes. Incentives, however, were associated with both an increased likelihood of supervision completion and a lower incidence of criminal offending. Study findings suggest a need to prioritize efforts to integrate incentive use into everyday supervision practices, as well as a need to increase funding to support the research and development of incentive programs to guide agencies in creating and sustaining programs that will have the greatest impact.
Introduction: Emerging adults (EAs) in the criminal legal system are at high risk for substance use and related negative outcomes. EAs also have low levels of engagement in treatment services, a pattern exacerbated for those living in rural communities. This pilot study investigated implementation outcomes of task-shifting an evidence-based substance use intervention, via a developmentally targeted program, provided by probation officers (POs) to selected EA clients.
Methods: Ten POs recruited from two counties in Oregon who provide services to rural clients were trained and supported in delivering contingency management for EAs (CM-EA) to 17 EAs on their current caseloads. The pilot took place entirely during the COVID-19 pandemic. POs submitted session audiotapes and checklists from meetings with participating EA clients and participated in focus groups. EA clients completed baseline interviews and agreed to have their adult criminal records collected. Ten semi-structured interviews were completed with probation/parole administration and staff from four rural counties across three states highly impacted by the opioid epidemic about the barriers and facilitators for delivering a program like CM-EA in their offices.
Results: Based on self-reports and observational coding, POs demonstrated fidelity and adoption as they delivered all CM-EA components and engaged in CM-EA quality assurance protocols. Penetration was demonstrated by the selection of EAs reflecting the demographics of their local offices (i.e., White, non-Hispanic, balanced across sex), struggling with polysubstance use, and primarily holding felony convictions. Emerging themes from focus groups and interviews revealed feasibility, acceptability, and appropriateness of CM-EA, including use with clients not currently in the research program and reported intentions to continue CM-EA use. Barriers for future use include those found for the delivery of other programs in rural areas such as resource limitations.
Conclusions: There is initial support for the implementation outcomes related to task-shifting a program like CM-EA to POs, particularly those serving rural clients, to increase access to evidence-based substance use services for EAs. Future research with larger samples and multiple follow-ups will allow for effectiveness testing and further program refinement for this high-priority population.
Prior research has explored factors associated with probation outcomes, but few studies have examined pathways of noncompliance leading to probation failure. We conducted social sequence analysis to identify trajectories of compliance and noncompliance in a sample of 4,389 probationers in Monroe County, Indiana. Our findings showed full compliance was the most common probation trajectory and a single failure to appear (FTA) the most common pattern of noncompliance. In addition to a new offense during probation, repeated patterns of FTA and substance use noncompliance were associated with higher revocation rates. Recurrent patterns of technical violations, particularly for substance use, may function as an important pathway to revocation. Supervision strategies that intervene to address recurrent noncompliance may help agencies reduce revocation rates.
With more than 3.5 million people on probation in the U.S., it is imperative that policymakers consider ways to safely shrink the supervision population. This report includes results of calculations of the average length of probation by state in 2000 and 2018, and compares trends in this to population; using propensity score matching, concludes people in two states could have served shorter probation terms without increasing recidivism rates; and compiles state probation sentencing statutes to show that when it comes to length of supervision, it's a matter of "probation by location." The report includes with policy recommendations for shortening probation lengths.
https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2020/12/states-can-shorten-probation-and-protect-public-safety
Growing fiscal concerns for criminal justice agencies and punitive ideological shifts have increased the financial consequences of a conviction. The growth in legal financial obligations (LFOs), such as fees, fines, and restitution resultant from conviction has important implications for offender reentry, particularly offender reintegration and opportunities for social advancement. Utilizing data culled from in-depth qualitative interviews with a sample of persons under correctional supervision, the current research documents the nature and prevalence of LFOs for an offending population and explores how they affect post-conviction experiences. The results indicate a majority of ex-offenders experience some form of LFO including fines, supervision costs, and child-support-related fees. Overall, LFOs diminished positive opportunities for offenders by compounding precarious financial states, limiting opportunities for upward social movement, and weakening positive cognitive change. As research consistently identifies primarily adverse consequences from LFOs, policy implications are explored to mitigate negative individual and social outcomes for offenders.
We examined how 3 special education students allocated their responding across two concurrently available tasks associated with unequal rates and equal versus unequal qualities of reinforcement. The students completed math problems from two alternative sets on concurrent variable-interval (VI) 30-s VI 120-s schedules of reinforcement. During the equal-quality reinforcer condition, high-quality (nickels) and low-quality items (“program money” in the school's token economy) were alternated across sessions as the reinforcer for both sets of problems. During the unequal-quality reinforcer condition, the low-quality reinforcer was used for the set of problems on the VI 30-s schedule, and the high-quality reinforcer was used for the set of problems on the VI 120-s schedule. Equal- and unequal-quality reinforcer conditions were alternated using a reversal design. Results showed that sensitivity to the features of the VI reinforcement schedules developed only after the reinforcement intervals were signaled through countdown timers. Thereafter, when reinforcer quality was equal, the time allocated to concurrent response alternatives was approximately proportional to obtained reinforcement, as predicted by the matching law. However the matching relation was disrupted when, as occurs in most natural choice situations, the quality of the reinforcers differed across the response options.
The presence of outliers, which are data points that deviate markedly from others, is one of the most enduring and pervasive methodological challenges in organizational science research. We provide evidence that different ways of defining, identifying, and handling outliers alter substantive research conclusions. Then, we report results of a literature review of 46 methodological sources (i.e., journal articles, book chapters, and books) addressing the topic of outliers, as well as 232 organizational science journal articles mentioning issues about outliers. Our literature review uncovered (a) 14 unique and mutually exclusive outlier definitions, 39 outlier identification techniques, and 20 different ways of handling outliers; (b) inconsistencies in how outliers are defined, identified, and handled in various methodological sources; and (c) confusion and lack of transparency in how outliers are addressed by substantive researchers. We offer guidelines, including decision-making trees, that researchers can follow to define, identify, and handle error, interesting, and influential (i.e., model fit and prediction) outliers. Although our emphasis is on regression, structural equation modeling, and multilevel modeling, our general framework forms the basis for a research agenda regarding outliers in the context of other data-analytic approaches. Our recommendations can be used by authors as well as journal editors and reviewers to improve the consistency and transparency of practices regarding the treatment of outliers in organizational science research.
Variable selection in regression – identifying the best subset among many variables to include in a model – is arguably the hardest part of model building. Many variable selection methods exist. Many statisticians know them, but few know they produce poorly performing models. Some variable selection methods are a miscarriage of statistics because they are developed by, in effect, debasing sound statistical theory. The purpose of this article is two-fold: (1) to re-examine the scope of the literature addressing the weaknesses of variable selection methods and (2) to re-enliven a possible solution to defining a better-performing regression model. To achieve this goal in practice, the article has two objectives: (1) to review five widely used variable selection methods, itemize some of their weaknesses and consider why they are used; and (2) to present Tukey's Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) in the context of a natural seven-step cycle. Newcomers to Tukey's EDA should consider the seven-step cycle introduced in the narrative of Tukey's analytic philosophy. John W. Tukey (16 June 1915 – 26 July 2000) was a significant contributor to the field of statistics, but was a humble, unpretentious man, as he always considered himself a data analyst. Tukey's seminal book, Exploratory Data Analysis is known by the book's unique initialed title, EDA.
Proponents of the newer intermediate sanctions argue that there are “equivalencies” of punishment between community-based and prison sentences and that, at some level of intensity, community-based programs have roughly the same punitive “bite.” There is little research, however, on the relative severity of intensive supervision in comparison to other sanctions. This study was designed to examine how offenders and staff in Minnesota rank the severity of various criminal sanctions and which particular sanctions they judge equivalent in punitiveness. In addition, we explored how both groups rank the difficulty of commonly imposed probation conditions and which offender background characteristics are associated with perceptions of sanction severity. Our results suggest that there are intermediate sanctions that equate, in terms of punitiveness, with prison. For example, inmates viewed 1 year in prison as “equivalent” in severity to 3 years of intensive probation supervision or 1 year in jail, and they viewed 6 months in jail as equivalent to 1 year of intensive supervision. Although inmates and staff ranked most sanctions similarly, the staff ratings were higher for 3 and 6 months in jail and lower for 1 and 5 years probation. The two groups also differed on the difficulty of complying with individual probation conditions: Staff judged most probation conditions as harder for offenders to comply with than did inmates. Our results provide empirical evidence to support what many have suggested: It is no longer necessary to equate criminal punishment solely with prison. At some level of intensity and length, intensive probation is equally severe as prison and may actually be the more dreaded penalty. The results should give policymakers and justice officials pause, particularly those who suggest they are imprisoning such a large number of offenders—not to use prisons' ability to incapacitate and rehabilitate—but rather to get “tough on crime.”
This study assessed a 26-week voucher-based intervention to reinforce abstinence and participation in treatment-related activities among substance-abusing offenders court referred to outpatient treatment under drug diversion legislation (California’s Substance Abuse and Crime Prevention Act). Standard treatment consisted of criminal justice supervision and an evidence-based model for treating stimulant abuse. Participants were randomly assigned to four groups, standard treatment (ST) only, ST plus vouchers for testing negative, ST plus vouchers for performing treatment plan activities, and ST plus vouchers for testing negative and/or performing treatment plan activities. Results indicate that voucher-based reinforcement of negative urines and of treatment plan tasks (using a flat reinforcement schedule) showed no statistically significant effects on measures of retention or drug use relative to the standard treatment protocol. It is likely that punishment and reinforcement operating within the criminal justice context had a stronger impact on participants’ treatment retention and drug use than the relatively low-value vouchers awarded as part of the treatment protocol.
This study examined the temporal stability of employee preferences for rewards over seven monthly evaluations. Participants completed a ranking stimulus preference assessment monthly, and the latter six monthly assessments were compared to the initial assessment. Correlations of preferences from month to month ranged from r = .89 to .99. Contrary to the stationarity axiom of rational choice economic theory, but consistent with a behavioral economics perspective, preferences for rewards changed across time and even reversed for some. This temporal instability suggests that organizations implementing incentive programs using preference assessments should periodically re-evaluate employee reward preferences and not assume constancy of preferences.
In this paper we outline a model that integrates several issues that have been identified in the sexual offender literature but their relationships have not previously been specified. There is clear evidence that many sexual offenders suffer from low self-esteem, that most lack empathy for their victims, and that almost all have distorted perceptions and thoughts relevant to their offences. More recently shame and guilt have been identified in sexual offenders. Our model proposes that each of these issues is functionally related with each other, and may impede treatment progress, but the model suggests an approach based on evidence that should effectively overcome these obstacles to treatment.
ABSTRACTA meta-analytic review of all adequately designed field and laboratory research on the use of incentives to motivate performance is reported. Of approximately 600 studies, 45 qualified. The overall average effect of all incentive programs in all work settings and on all work tasks was a 22% gain in performance. Team-directed incentives had a markedly superior effect on performance compared to individually-directed incentives. This effect was not influenced by the location of the study (business, government, or school), the competitive structure of the incentive system (programs where only the highest performers get incentives versus programs where everyone who increased performance receives incentives), the type of study (whether the study was a laboratory experiment or a field study), or the performance outcome (quality, quantity, or both). In these studies, money was found to result in higher performance gains than non-monetary, tangible incentives (gifts, travel). More research is needed on the relative cost-benefit of cash and gift incentives, and the way different types of tangible incentives are selected. Long-term programs led to greater performance gains than shorter-term programs did, and somewhat greater performance gains were realized for manual than for cognitive work. Explanations based on cognitive psychological principles accompany each of the analyses.
A growing body of research suggests that high quality dual role relationships between community corrections officers and offenders reduce risk of recidivism. This study assesses whether this finding generalizes from offenders with mental illness to their relatively healthy counterparts. More importantly, this study tests the possibility that this finding is spurious, reflecting the influence of pre-existing offender characteristics more than a promising principle of practice. In this study of 109 parolees without mental illness, the authors found that (a) firm, fair, and caring relationships protect against rearrest, and (b) do so even after accounting for offenders' pre-existing personality traits and risk for recidivism. These findings are consistent with the theoretical notion that good dual role relationships are an essential element of core correctional practice, even (or particularly) for difficult or high risk offenders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Recent work suggests that offenders rate several alternatives as more severe than imprisonment. We build on this literature by comparing punishment exchange rates generated by criminal court judges with rates generated by offenders and their supervising officers. Findings reveal that none of the three groups rates prison as the most severe sanction and judges and officers rate alternatives as significantly less severe than offenders. Offenders are generally willing to serve less of each alternative to avoid imprisonment than judges or officers. Serving correctional sanctions thus appears to reduce the perceived severity of imprisonment and increase the perceived severity of alternatives.
The current study examined whether stimuli of different preference levels would be associated with different amounts of work maintained by the stimuli, as determined through progressive-ratio schedule break points. Using a paired-choice preference assessment, stimuli were classified as high, moderate, or low preference for 4 individuals with developmental disabilities. The stimuli were then tested three times each using a progressive-ratio schedule (step size of 1; the break-point criterion was 1 min). In 10 of 12 possible comparisons, higher preference stimuli produced larger break points than did lower preference stimuli.
This study evaluated a contingency management (CM) program in a drug court. Gift certificates for compliance were delivered at 4- to 6-week intervals (total value = 5.00 increments. Participants in a second condition began earning higher magnitude gift certificates, and the density of reinforcement was gradually decreased. No main effects of CM were detected, which appears to be attributable to a ceiling effect from the intensive contingencies already delivered in the drug court and the low density of reinforcement. Preplanned interaction analyses suggested that participants with more serious criminal backgrounds might have performed better in the CM conditions. This suggests that CM programs may be best suited for more incorrigible drug offenders.
To determine whether financial incentives increase patients' compliance with healthcare treatments.
Systematic literature review of computer databases--Medline, Embase, PsychLit, EconLit, and the Cochrane Database of Clinical Trials. In addition, the reference list of each retrieved article was reviewed and relevant citations retrieved.
Only randomised trials with quantitative data concerning the effect, of financial incentives (cash, vouchers, lottery tickets, or gifts) on compliance with medication, medical advice, or medical appointments were included in the review. Eleven papers were identified as meeting the selection criteria.
Data on study populations, interventions, and outcomes were extracted and analysed using odds ratios and the number of patients needed to be treated to improve compliance by one patient.
10 of the 11 studies showed improvements in patient compliance with the use of financial incentives.
Financial incentives can improve patient compliance.
We examined the effects of stimulus (reinforcer) variation in several different contexts. In Study 1, we identified high-quality (HQ) and low-quality (LQ) stimuli based on results of a paired-stimulus assessment and examined their effects when available under concurrent-reinforcement schedules for 8 participants. No participants showed preference for the LQ stimuli when compared singly or in a varied arrangement to the HQ stimulus. In Study 2, we identified nonpreferred (NP) stimuli based on results of a single-stimulus assessment and examined their effects when available under single-reinforcement schedules for 3 participants. Results of Study 2 were mixed. One participant's data indicated that the varied presentation of NP stimuli produced a modest improvement in performance over that observed when the stimuli were presented singly. By contrast, a second participant's data showed no facilitative effect for the varied delivery of NP stimuli and that the inclusion of an HQ stimulus in the varied arrangement obscured the reinforcing effects of the HQ stimulus. The 3rd participant's data showed no effect for the varied delivery of NP stimuli but an apparent facilitative effect when an HQ stimulus was included in the varied arrangement, which was attributable solely to the presence of the HQ stimulus.
Marijuana-dependent young adults (N = 136), all referred by the criminal justice system, were randomized to 1 of 4 treatment conditions: a motivational/skills-building intervention (motivational enhancement therapy/cognitive-behavioral therapy; MET/CBT) plus incentives contingent on session attendance or submission of marijuana-free urine specimens (contingency management; CM), MET/CBT without CM, individual drug counseling (DC) plus CM, and DC without CM. There was a significant main effect of CM on treatment retention and marijuana-free urine specimens. Moreover, the combination of MET/CBT plus CM was significantly more effective than MET/CBT without CM or DC plus CM, which were in turn more effective than DC without CM for treatment attendance and percentage of marijuana-free urine specimens. Participants assigned to MET/CBT continued to reduce the frequency of their marijuana use through a 6-month follow-up.
Research about the effectiveness of school-based psychosocial prevention programs for reducing aggressive and disruptive behavior was synthesized using meta-analysis. This work updated previous work by the authors and further investigated which program and student characteristics were associated with the most positive outcomes.
Two hundred forty-nine experimental and quasi-experimental studies of school-based programs with outcomes representing aggressive and/or disruptive behavior were obtained. Effect sizes and study characteristics were coded from these studies and analyzed.
Positive overall intervention effects were found on aggressive and disruptive behavior and other relevant outcomes. The most common and most effective approaches were universal programs and targeted programs for selected/indicated children. The mean effect sizes for these types of programs represent a decrease in aggressive/disruptive behavior that is likely to be of practical significance to schools. Multicomponent comprehensive programs did not show significant effects and those for special schools or classrooms were marginal. Different treatment modalities (e.g., behavioral, cognitive, social skills) produced largely similar effects. Effects were larger for better-implemented programs and those involving students at higher risk for aggressive behavior.
Schools seeking prevention programs may choose from a range of effective programs with some confidence that whatever they pick will be effective. Without the researcher involvement that characterizes the great majority of programs in this meta-analysis, schools might be well-advised to give priority to those that will be easiest to implement well in their settings.
This book offers criminologists and students an evidence-based discussion of the latest trends in corrections. Over the last several decades, research has clearly shown that rehabilitation efforts can be effective at reducing recidivism among criminal offenders. However, researchers also recognize that treatment is not a "one size fits all" approach. Offenders vary by gender, age, crime type, and/or addictions, to name but a few, and these individual needs must be addressed by providers. Finally, issues such as leadership, quality of staff, and evaluation efforts affect the quality and delivery of treatment services. This book synthesizes the vast research for the student interested in correctional rehabilitation as well as for the practitioner working with offenders. While other texts have addressed issues regarding treatment in corrections, this text is unique in that it not only discusses the research on "what works" but also addresses implementation issues as practitioners move from theory to practice, as well as the importance of staff, leadership and evaluation efforts.
This chapter presents the radical behavioral approaches of classical and operant conditioning. While classical conditioning is not widely used in corrections, except occasionally for special populations, for examples sex offenders, operant conditioning, in the form of token economies, is pervasive, especially in correctional settings for juveniles. Later key components of social learning and cognitive behavioral approaches grew out of the earliest behavioral models-classical and operant conditioning. One of the attractive features of behavior therapy is that it is less expensive to treat clients with this technique than with conventional counseling. The staff using the techniques needs less training, and many would argue that there are benefits to treating observable behaviors-especially in corrections. Also, the token economy systems can be used to treat a greater number of clients for a given financial outlay. Notwithstanding the efficiency of these programs, staff must be carefully trained and supervised. The programs will not work if rewards are dispensed inconsistently, inappropriately, or unethically. To prevent such abuses, it is imperative to have qualified professionals, even clinical directors, overseeing the treatment program and offering the staff adequate training in the principles of the behavioral therapy. © 2009 Matthew Bender & Company, Inc. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
This study is a randomized effectiveness trial of the use of incentives to improve treatment utilization among parolees in community treatment. In prison, Admission Phase parolees were randomized to either Admission Incentive (n = 31) or Education (n = 29). Attendance Phase parolees entering community treatment were randomized to Attendance Incentive (n = 104) or Education (n = 98). In the Attendance Phase, study participants received a monetary incentive for each day that they remained in treatment (up to 22 weeks). There was no main effect for incentives in either phase of the study (Admission to community treatment, Incentive 60% and Education 64%, p =.74; Intervention completion, Incentive 22% and Education 27%, p =.46). Using Cox regression, age, first arrest age, and type of parole status predicted time-in-treatment (p.05), but treatment group did not. Providing incentives did not increase the likelihood that parolees enrolled in or stayed in community treatment. In light of other studies with similar outcomes, criminal justice practitioners who are considering the use of incentives should be aware that they may not produce the desired outcomes. © 2015, © 2015 International Association for Correctional and Forensic Psychology.
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This study describes a behavior modification program designed specifically to deal with adult probationers. The program in volves a three-stage process in which successively more difficult behaviors are achieved and maintained on reinforcement while deviant and drug-related behaviors are gradually diminished through counterconditioning. The results of this program are compared against traditional probation on probation-relevant criteria such as new arrests, violations of probation, attendance, and months of employment. Significant effects were achieved on all criteria over traditional probationary contact. The behavior modification approach described is offered as a viable alternative to traditional probation methods.
The extent to which managers could accurately predict what items/activities their employees report as preferred was examined. First, managers were asked to rank order a list of items/activities they thought their employees would most prefer to be incorporated into a performance improvement plan. Next, employee preference for these same items was assessed directly using an employee-reinforcer survey. The results of the managers' predictions were then compared to the results of the employee-reinforcer survey using Kendall rank-order correlation coefficients. Correlations ranged from -1 to 1, with a mean of 0.11. The number of participants for whom managers correctly identified the most preferred item/activity was also assessed; managers correctly predicted the most preferred item/activity for 15 of 27 employees. The results suggest that some managers are good at predicting their employees' most preferred item/activity, but most managers are poor at predicting the preferences for less preferred items and activities. Implications of this finding for the assessment of preference among employees and the use of preferred items and activities in performance improvement plans are discussed.
The number of offenders supervised in the community has grown significantly over the past few decades, whereas successful completions of probation and parole terms have been declining during the same time period. The current study examines the impact of rewards and sanctions on offenders in an Intensive Supervision Program (ISP). Data were collected on a random sample of 283 offenders who participated in an ISP between 2000 and 2003. Agency records, including supervision notes, violation reports, and other offender-related correspondence, were used to track offenders’ sanction and reward histories during their participation in the program. Controlling for a number of variables, the study found that the use of both sanctions and rewards led to higher success rates. Administering rewards in proportionally higher numbers than sanctions produced the best results, especially when a ratio of four or more rewards for every sanction was achieved. Correctional administrators are encouraged to identify ideological obstacles that may impede the application of behavioral techniques and to carefully train and guide line staff in the use of sanctions and rewards.
This paper presents a model, drawn from research on stress and on self and identity, of the decision to change oneself. In this model, the impetus for intentional self-change can be provided by a stressor-chronic role strain, a life event, or both. Stressors can implicate the self by generating unfavorable reflected appraisals, threatening competent identity performance, and generating unfavorable social comparisons. Any of these effects con reduce self-efficacy, self-esteem, and sense of authenticity, thus leading to psychological distress. Whether this impetus will lead to a resolve to change oneself is hypothesized to depend on six conditioning factors: 1) the identity-relevance of the stressor, 2) whether one attributes responsibility for a stressor to oneself, 3) awareness of and access to structural supports for self-change, 4) the belief that one can effect self-change, 5) the extent to which the benefits of changing are perceived to outweigh the costs, and 6) social support for self-change. Finally, the decision to change oneself may be precipitated by a critical event that causes persons to view their circumstances differently, usually by influencing one or mone of the conditioning factors. Several types of critical events are described.
In the state of Texas, 128 recently convicted offenders used a modified magnitude estimation procedure to rate the severity of 26 felony punishments, ranging from 6 months regular probation through a variety of intermediate sanctions to 5 years in prison. Average ratings suggest that intermediate sanctions provide a true continuum of sanctions and that substantial scope exists for interchangeability among punishments. Also, 75% of offenders rated one or more intermediate sanctions as more severe than an incarcerative sanction; thus the current approach to sentencing, focusing on the distinction between prison and probation, is inappropriate from the viewpoint of desert and deterrence. Because all of the most cost-efficient sanctions were community based, increased use of intermediate sanctions would be an effective use of scarce resources. Different types of offenders rated sanctions differently, and proposals for exchange or sanction units will ultimately need to take these differences into account.
The purpose of this study was to determine if intelligence quotient mean test scores of middle school students of different races, sexes, and socioeconomic classes could be significantly increased through the use of tangible and intangible rewards of money and praise. One hundred and thirty-five students from lower and middle socioeconomic classes were randomly assigned to three groups. The stratified groups, two experimental and one control, contained approximately the same number of male and female students. The students were identified as lower and middle socioeconomic class whites and lower socioeconomic blacks. Ten hypothesis were tested and the results supported the following:). Significant increases in the intelligence quotient test scores of lower class blacks were dependent upon monetary reward. 2. Significant increases in the intelligence quotient test scores of middle and lower class whites occurred when spoken verbal praise was administered. 3. The sequencing of money first and praise second led to significant increases in the scores of lower and middle class white females and middle class males.
"Reinforcement may be contingent, not only on the occurrence of a response, but on special features of its topography, on the presence of prior stimuli, and on scheduling systems. Operant techniques are important in defining the behavioral effects of physiological variables—surgical, electrical, and chemical—in specifying what aspects of behavior are to be attributed to hereditary endowment, in tracing features of mature behavior to early environment, and so on. They are important in clarifying the nature of defective, retarded, or psychotic behavior." Within the field of human behavior "the contingencies of reinforcement which define operant behavior are widespread if not ubiquitous. In its very brief history, the study of operant behavior has clarified the nature of the relation between behavior and its consequences and has devised techniques which apply the methods of the natural science to its investigation." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This volume begins with a chapter that details the conceptual and empirical foundations of contingency management approaches illustrated in the remainder of the book. The diversity of settings, drug problems, and people whose lives have been positively affected by the use of contingency management procedures is demonstrated. The information in this text will provide guidance to practitioners interested in the application of specific contingency management interventions and will also be of value as a teaching tool for illustrating rigorous clinical research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Several states have reduced or eliminated a variety of amenities for prisoners. It is unclear, however, whether the general
public supports making prisons harsher and more austere. Using a sample of 200 citizens from central Florida, the present
study finds less support for prison austerity than commonly assumed. In addition, these preferences are linked to particular
correctional goals, especially concerns about utility and desert.
A general formula (α) of which a special case is the Kuder-Richardson coefficient of equivalence is shown to be the mean of
all split-half coefficients resulting from different splittings of a test. α is therefore an estimate of the correlation between
two random samples of items from a universe of items like those in the test. α is found to be an appropriate index of equivalence
and, except for very short tests, of the first-factor concentration in the test. Tests divisible into distinct subtests should
be so divided before using the formula. The index
[`(r)]ij\bar r_{ij}
, derived from α, is shown to be an index of inter-item homogeneity. Comparison is made to the Guttman and Loevinger approaches.
Parallel split coefficients are shown to be unnecessary for tests of common types. In designing tests, maximum interpretability
of scores is obtained by increasing the first-factor concentration in any separately-scored subtest and avoiding substantial
group-factor clusters within a subtest. Scalability is not a requisite.
Previous research revealed gender and racial differences in offender preferences for prison compared to alternative sanctions, in the amount of an alternative sanction offenders would serve to avoid prison, and in the severity ranking of criminal sanctions. Nevertheless, opinions of officers who supervised those clients have all but been ignored. In this study, this literature was extended by comparing perceptions of Kentucky probation and parole officers regarding the amount of alternative sanctions that offenders would serve to avoid one year of imprisonment to perceptions of the offenders whom they supervised regarding the same topic. Based on analysis of data from an electronic survey of approximately 230 probation and parole officers and approximately 600 probationers and parolees, results suggested that there were significant differences in “exchange rates” of officers when compared to those of offenders. Justifications for these findings and their implications for correctional policy and practice are discussed.
Most research on stimulus preference and reinforcer assessment involves a preference assessment that is followed by a reinforcer assessment. Typically, the most and least preferred stimuli are tested as reinforcers. In the current study, we first quantified the reinforcing efficacies of six food items and then assessed relative preference for each item. Relative preference ranking and reinforcer efficacies showed almost perfect concordance for 1 participant and partial concordance for the other. Discordance tended to occur with the weakest reinforcers.
We evaluated a systematic means of determining stimulus preferences among seven profoundly handicapped persons. Preferences were determined by observing student approach responses to individual stimuli. Results indicated that there were differential stimulus preferences across the multiply handicapped participants. However, results of the systematic assessment did not coincide with the results of a more traditional, caregiver-opinion method of assessing student preferences. A second experiment was then conducted with five participants to evaluate whether stimuli that were assessed to consistently represent preferences would function as reinforcers in skill training programs. Results indicated that stimuli that were systematically assessed to represent student preferences typically functioned as reinforcers when applied contingently. However, preferred stimuli as reflected by caregiver opinion did not function as reinforcers unless those stimuli were also preferred on the systematic assessment. Results are discussed in terms of assisting profoundly handicapped persons by (a) improving the effectiveness of training programs by increasing the likelihood of using stimuli that have reinforcing value and (b) increasing the overall quality of life by providing preferred stimuli in the routine living environment.
This paper presents evidence from three samples, two of college students and one of participants in a community smoking-cessation program, for the reliability and validity of a 14-item instrument, the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), designed to measure the degree to which situations in one's life are appraised as stressful. The PSS showed adequate reliability and, as predicted, was correlated with life-event scores, depressive and physical symptomatology, utilization of health services, social anxiety, and smoking-reduction maintenance. In all comparisons, the PSS was a better predictor of the outcome in question than were life-event scores. When compared to a depressive symptomatology scale, the PSS was found to measure a different and independently predictive construct. Additional data indicate adequate reliability and validity of a four-item version of the PSS for telephone interviews. The PSS is suggested for examining the role of nonspecific appraised stress in the etiology of disease and behavioral disorders and as an outcome measure of experienced levels of stress.
Several meta-analyses have rendered strong support for the clinically relevant and psychologically informed principles of human service, risk, need, and general responsivity. However, each of these reviews has focused on specific program components and not on the characteristics of the staff or the specific techniques used to deliver the program. This meta-analytic review examines the role of core correctional practices in reducing recidivism and provides strong preliminary evidence regarding their effectiveness. Staff characteristics and training in core skills must be addressed to ensure the maximum therapeutic impact of correctional treatment programs.
To systematically investigate the effectiveness of voucher-based reinforcement therapy for the treatment of substance use disorders.
Effect sizes and 95% confidence intervals were calculated for studies published between January 1991 and March 2004 that utilized voucher-based reinforcement therapy (VBRT) or related monetary-based incentives to treat substance use disorders (SUDs).
Thirty studies involved interventions targeting abstinence from drug use using experimental designs where effects on treatment outcome could be attributed to the VBRT intervention. The estimated average effect size (r) for those studies was 0.32 (95% CI 0.26-0.38). Analyses of variables thought to moderate VBRT effect sizes revealed that more immediate voucher delivery and greater monetary value of the voucher were associated with larger effect sizes. Additional studies were identified wherein VBRT was used to target clinic attendance (n = 6) or medication compliance (n = 4). VBRT studies targeting attendance produced average effect sizes of 0.15 (95% CI 0.02-0.28), while those that targeted medication compliance produced an average effect of 0.32 (95% CI 0.15-0.47). No significant moderators were identified for these 10 studies.
Overall, VBRT generated significantly better outcomes than did control treatments. These results further support the efficacy of VBRT, quantify the magnitude of its effects, identify significant moderators and suggest potential directions for future research.
To examine the effectiveness of contingency management (CM) techniques in treating substance use disorders (i.e. illicit drugs, alcohol, tobacco).
Meta-analysis was used to determine the average effect size and potential moderators in 47 comparisons of the effectiveness of CM from studies based on a treatment-control group design and published between 1970 and 2002.
The mean effect size (ES) of CM was positive, with a magnitude of d = 0.42 using a fixed effects model. The magnitude of the ES declined over time, following treatment. CM was more effective in treating opiate use (d = 0.65) and cocaine use (d = 0.66), compared with tobacco (d = 0.31) or multiple drugs (d = 0.42). Larger effect sizes were associated with higher researcher involvement, earlier studies and shorter treatment duration.
Study findings suggest that CM is among the more effective approaches to promoting abstinence during the treatment of substance use disorders. CM improves the ability of clients to remain abstinent, thereby allowing them to take fuller advantage of other clinical treatment components.
The aim of this study was to estimate the extent and organizational correlates of evidence-based practices (EBPs) in correctional facilities and community-based substance abuse treatment programs that manage drug-involved adult offenders.
Correctional administrators and treatment program directors affiliated with a national sample of 384 criminal justice and community-based programs providing substance abuse treatment to adult offenders in the United States were surveyed in 2004. Correctional administrators reported the availability of up to 13 specified EBPs, and treatment directors up to 15. The sum total of EBPs indicates their extent. Linear models regress the extent of EBPs on variables measuring structure and leadership, culture and climate, administrator attitudes, and network connectedness of the organization.
Most programs offer fewer than 60% of the specified EBPs to drug-involved offenders. In multiple regression models, offender treatment programs that provided more EBPs were community based, accredited, and network connected, with a performance-oriented, nonpunitive culture, more training resources, and leadership with a background in human services, a high regard for the value of substance abuse treatment, and an understanding of EBPs.
The use of EBPs among facility- and community-based programs that serve drug-involved adult offenders has room for improvement. Initiatives to disseminate EBPs might target these institutional and environmental domains, but further research is needed to determine whether such organization interventions can promote the uptake of EBPs.
In response to the growing number of drug offenders cycling in and out of the criminal justice system without treatment for underlying drug problems, the judicial system has increasingly adopted drug courts as a strategy to divert these offenders from incarceration to supervised drug treatment. Our aim was to determine if drug court treatment effectiveness could be improved using contingency management, in the form of twice-weekly vouchers, to reinforce abstinence and positive behaviors for 163 clients over 26 weeks. We found no significant differences in outcomes among the study groups, although the Treatment Plan Group that received reinforcement for positive behaviors showed a trend toward poorer performance. We suspect that the influence of the judge within the courtroom had a stronger impact on drug court clients' attitudes, drug use behaviors, and other outcomes than the relatively low-value vouchers awarded as part of the treatment protocol.
Consideration of reinforcer magnitude may be important for maximizing the efficacy of treatment for problem behavior. Nonetheless, relatively little is known about children's preferences for different magnitudes of social reinforcement or the extent to which preference is related to differences in reinforcer efficacy. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the relations among reinforcer magnitude, preference, and efficacy by drawing on the procedures and results of basic experimentation in this area. Three children who engaged in problem behavior that was maintained by social positive reinforcement (attention, access to tangible items) participated. Results indicated that preference for different magnitudes of social reinforcement may predict reinforcer efficacy and that magnitude effects may be mediated by the schedule requirement.
in New Orleans, . Retrieved from https://www.appa-net.org/eWeb
- Vera Institute
- Justice
The Level of Service Inventory-Revised
- D A Andrews
- J Bonta
Community supervision of the sex offender: An overview of current and promising practices
- Center For Sex Offender
- Management
Do we care what offenders think? Perspectives, Summer
- R Cherkos
- J Ferguson
- A Cook