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Chapter 3
The Revival of Quinoa: A Crop for Health
Mariane Lutz and Luisa Bascuñán‐Godoy
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65451
Provisional chapter
The Revival of Quinoa: A Crop for Health
Mariane Lutz and Luisa Bascuñán-Godoy
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter
Abstract
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a basic food in pre-hispanic Andean communi-
ties, used not only as a food but also for medicinal purposes. The interest in quinoa has
increased because of its plasticity to adapt to environmental conditions: it tolerates frost,
salinity and drought; it grows on marginal and arid soils and high altitudes. The
nutritional quality of quinoa is well recognized: protein content ranges 13–17 g/100 g,
with an amino acid score above 1.0 and it is gluten free. The grain contains starch and
free sugars, with a glycemic index ranging 35–53, depending on the cooking time. It also
contains bioactive phytochemicals such as dietary fiber, carotenoids, phytosterols, squa-
lene, fagopyritols, ecdysteroids and polyphenols. The composition of quinoa varies
among ecotypes and is affected by environmental factors: some amino acids and phyto-
chemicals augment under stress episodes. The rationale for the revival of quinoa and its
reintroduction into the diet is related with the epidemiological situation, which includes
diseases that exhibit risk factors that may be reduced with a balanced nutritious diet, in
which quinoa plays a major role, being considered as a “superfood.”Moreover, it is one
of the crops selected by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) to offer food security.
Keywords: quinoa, Chenopodium quinoa Willd., ancient crop, nutritional quality, chem-
ical composition, bioactives, health, crop plasticity
1. Introduction
Since 1998, the WHO has considered obesity as an epidemic affecting the globe, a condition
related to more deaths than undernutrition in the whole planet. Obesity is associated with
various noncommunicable diseases (NCD) such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer and diabe-
tes, among others. Globally, two out of three deaths each year are attributable to NCD. In this
context, it is very important to take into account some alimentary traditions and the social
value of food practices that have been lost with time. Most of the traditional culinary practices,
beliefs, attitudes and meanings of certain foods have been neglected and traditional crops have
been left aside, missing the food cultural practices of different regions.
© The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
An outstanding food crop that has been almost lost is quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willdenow),
a South American dicotyledonous primary crop (an indehiscent achene: a seed-like fruit with a
hard coat) that has become an extremely popular food product in the last decades. The seeds
(approximately 2.5 mm in length and 1.0 mm in diameter) are flat white, yellow, red, brown
and black, whereas the seed coats have a brown color and possess excellent nutritional prop-
erties (Figures 1 and 2).
1.1. Quinoa plant: origin and botanical properties
Chenopodium quinoa Willd. is an annual gynomonoecious plant with an erect stem, alternate
leaves and flowers clustered together to form the inflorescence in a panicle that measures from
15 to 70 cm long [1]. The basic chromosome number of quinoa is x= 9 and their somatic
chromosome number is 2n=4x=36, suggesting that it is an allotetraploid plant [2]. Measure-
ments of chromosome arm length ratios in quinoa indicate an allopolyploid, which is consis-
tent with it high degree of self-fertility and low levels of inbreeding depression seen in this
species [3].
Figure 1. Chilean quinoa plants.
Superfood and Functional Food - An Overview of Their Processing and Utilization38
Quinoa was one of the basic foods in pre-Hispanic communities of the Andean Region, grown
for over 7000 years mainly in the current locations of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, Argentina
and Colombia, from 2° North latitude (Colombia) to 47° South latitude (Chile) [4–6]. The
name refers to “the mother grain”by the Andean people and it was used not only as a food
but also for medicinal purposes. The colonists suppressed its cultivation and the remaining
crops that survived were cultivated practically hidden in small areas [7]. The locals have
preserved quinoa in its natural state, including its many varieties, as food for present and
future generations.
Quinoa represents a cultural heritage in many Latin-American countries. It has survived from
extinction in different agroecological zones, ranging from the extremely dry Altiplano high-
lands at 4000 m above sea level with average rainfall of 150 mm per year to coastal zones of
central and southern Chile, where soils are clayish and rainfall is above 1000 mm/year [8]. It
spread throughout the central and north-central Andean valleys and southwards into the
Araucanian coastal region and adjacent Patagonia, diversifying into its five principal ecotypes.
The crop is produced mainly in Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador, with efforts to cultivate it world-
wide and the diversity has been described by five major ecotypes linked to the geographical
region: Altiplano (Peru and Bolivia), Inter-Andean valleys (Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and
Peru), Salt lands (Bolivia, Chile and Argentina), Yunga (Peru, Bolivia and Argentina) and
Coastal (Chile) [9, 10].
Figure 2. Collected seeds of quinoa.
The Revival of Quinoa: A Crop for Health
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Miranda et al. [11] observed genetic differentiation among the geographic distribution of
quinoa genotypes, which were expressed in morphological, yield responses, chemical compo-
sition and functional properties in a common garden assay of six selected genotypes. Using
this model, the high capacity of adaptation of the seeds to different environments has been
demonstrated [12]. Moreover, these properties of quinoa seeds allow this crop to be used
under environmental extreme conditions in countries facing challenges such as drought and
salinity under very diverse agroclimatic conditions globally [1].
There are currently more than 6000 varieties of quinoa cultivated by farmers [13]. Due to the
wide range of genotypes (including 250 varieties), the possibilities of adaptation to many
abiotic stresses abroad have increased significantly the interest of quinoa cultivation [14]. The
plant exhibits an enormous adaptability to different environments, including the harsh condi-
tions that characterize much of the Andean zone. Therefore, the production has spread
through many different countries, including Japan, Australia, Spain, Germany, England, Swe-
den, Denmark, the Netherlands, Italy, France, Finland, Kenya, Ethiopia, India, the USA, Can-
ada, among others. Many reports indicate that quinoa is an interesting alternative crop for the
use of deteriorated and poor soils [5] and it has been successfully tested in various countries in
Asia, the Near East and North Africa [6]. In fact, the enormous plasticity of quinoa includes
tolerance to frost, salinity and drought, it has the ability to grow on marginal and arid soils and
is also adapted to high altitudes [15–18]. The strong tolerance to drought and salinity allows it
to resist the current and future challenges of the global climate change, including water
shortage [15]. The plant adapts well to climates ranging from desert dry weather to relative
humidity from 40 to 88%, with temperatures from −4°C to 38°C.
Several genotypes of quinoa are able to maintain a high photosynthetic efficiency under water-
deficit conditions [19, 20] and to quickly reestablish photosynthesis after a period of rehydra-
tion [21–24]. Quinoa shows an extraordinary physiology of adaptation to stress, particularly its
highly efficient use of water [8], that is, the quantity of grain obtained per liter of water used is
another useful criterion for comparing quinoa with cereals. Martinez [25] reported 500 L water
per kilogram quinoa, a significantly lower water-use footprint compared with rice (2497 L/kg)
or maize (1222 L/kg), figures that are even greater if one considers also quantity of protein per
kilogram. Crop production is acceptable with rain amounts of 100–200 mm [26]. The drought
tolerance of quinoa has been attributed to a reduction in leaf area [23, 24, 27], the presence of
calcium oxalate vesicles in leaves, which could reduce the transpiration rate [22, 28] and their
branched and dense root system, which is able to penetrate into 1.5 m sandy soil [22, 27].
Regarding the metabolism of quinoa during periods of drought stress, it has been suggested
that the induction of antioxidant molecules related with nitrogen metabolism is very important
[29]. In fact, drought increases the amount of glutamine in quinoa leaves, which is the main
form in which nitrogen is translocated to the grains [30]. Therefore, drought stress episodes
increase the content of various amino acids, including Phe, Val, Trp and Met. These changes in
quality could compensate the decline of the seed yield under stressful conditions. It has been
suggested that the ornithine cycle and induction of amino acids could play a key role in the
response to water scarcity and subsequent restoration under conditions of rehydration [29, 30].
Moreover, the aromatic amino acids Phe, Tyr and Trp are the main precursors of bioactive
Superfood and Functional Food - An Overview of Their Processing and Utilization40
secondary metabolites,including the biosynthesis of flavonoids and alkaloids [31], most of which
exhibit healthy properties [32]. The physiological relationship between the induction of amino
acid synthesis and the production of healthy secondary metabolites is under investigation.
2. Quinoa: a traditional crop and a “superfood”
2.1. Nutrients in quinoa
The proximate analysis of quinoa seeds is shown in Table 1.
Quinoa proteins are recognized for their high amount [18, 33–40] and good quality, which was
reported for the first time by White et al. in the 1950s [41], who described that the quality of
quinoa protein was equal to that of whole dried milk protein when fed to rats. Later, it was
reported that pigs fed cooked quinoa grewas well as those fed dried skimmed milk [42]. Proteins
exhibit a high content of Lys (4.8 g/100 g) and Thr (3.7 g/100 g), which are in general the limiting
amino acids in conventional cereals [43], along with a good albumin/globulin balance and an
amino acid score above 1.0 [38, 44–46]. The excellent quality of protein is maintained even taking
into account that the amino acid profile is affected by environmental factors [47].
Several methods to obtain protein isolates have been described [35, 48], consisting mainly of
11S globulins and 2S albumins, the main contributor of sulfur amino acids Cys and Met, which
are limiting in legumes and they also contain interesting amounts of Arg [49]. Also, various
high protein-rich fractions of interest can be obtained for the food industry [50]. An additional
nutritional advantage of quinoa is that it may be consumed by celiac patients, since it is
considered a gluten-free grain because it contains low concentrations of prolamins [51] and
has a distant phylogenetic link with gluten containing cereals such as gramineas (wheat,
barley and rye). In spite of this, the ability of quinoa cultivars to stimulate gliadin-specific T
cell lines and other immune responses is still under investigation [52].
Quinoa seeds have moderate lipid content (5–9 g/100 g), with an interesting fatty acids profile.
Compared with rice oil, quinoa oil contains over 20 times more unsaturated fatty acids. The
main saturated fatty acid is palmitic (16:0, around 10%), whereas the main unsaturated fatty
Component
References
[18] [34] [36] [37]
a
[37]
b
[38] [39] [40]
Protein 16.8 12.9 13.1 14.7 12.8 14.1 16.5 12.6
Carbohydrates 51.4 63.7 59.9 59.1 68.4 57.2 69.0 67.3
Lipids 5.9 6.5 5.7 6.4 6.2 6.1 6.4 5.7
Fiber 12.1 13.9 11.7 1.9* 1.5* 7.0 1.9* 3.0*
*Expressed as Crude Fiber.
[37]
a
var. Regalona.
[37]
b
var. Ancovinto.
Table 1. Proximate analysis of quinoa seeds (mean values, g/100 g DW).
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acids are oleic (18:1n-9; 20-30%), linoleic (18:2n-6; 49–57%) and α-linolenic (18:3n-3; 8.5–12%),
corresponding to 87–88% of the total [34, 37]. The oil also contains various tocopherols [39, 46]
and other minor lipid constituents.
Among carbohydrates (51–70 g/100 g), the grain contains starch and free sugars (glucose,
fructose, sucrose and maltose). Another healthy property of quinoa grains is their glycemic
index (GI), which represents a ranking of carbohydrates on a scale from 0 to 100 according to
their impact on blood sugar levels during the 2 h following consumption. For quinoa, the GI
ranges 35–53, depending on the cooking time, which are considered low values on the glucose
reference scale [53], whereas rice GI values range from 75 to 89 [14]. This property is related
with the dietary fiber content of quinoa (7–14 g/100 g), since the fiber contained in the grain
affects the digestibility of nutrients, including carbohydrates and the absorption of glucose
occurs at a lower rate through a longer area in the gut, lowering the postprandial peak of blood
insulin. Most fiber is insoluble, containing galacturonic acid, arabinose, galactose, xylose and
glucose, whereas the soluble fiber is composed mainly of glucose, galacturonic acid and
arabinose and arabinose-rich pectic polysaccharides [54]. Additionally, the intake of quinoa
has been associated with satiety and appetite control in animal models [55] and humans [56],
although further studies are required on this subject.
The grain is also a good source of minerals, exhibiting high amounts of potassium, calcium,
magnesium, copper, iron, manganese and zinc [57–59], which are higher than those of conven-
tional cereals [60] and the calcium-phosphorus ratio (1:0.7–3.9) is better than that of cereals (1:7.8–
54.0) [34]. Among vitamins, the B complex is outstanding [61], with a high level of folate [38].
2.2. Bioactives in quinoa
Quinoa is often considered a natural functional food, a property that represents a benefit for
health that is generally associated with the presence of bioactive phytochemicals. The crop is
recognized as a good source of multiple bioactives, including dietary fiber, carotenoids, phy-
tosterols, squalene, fagopyritols, phytoecdysteroids and phenolic compounds [40, 61–66].
Among phenolics, the seeds contain flavonoids such as quercetin and kaempferol glycosides,
ferulic acid, phytic acid (the main storage form of P in the plant) and tannins [67–69]. Most of
the phenolics in quinoa exhibit antioxidant activity [70–72] and the total antioxidant capacity is
further increased by non-phenolic compounds [73]. The interest on phenolics is not only due to
their antioxidant properties but also since they present antiallergic, anti-inflammatory,
anticarcinogenic, cardiovascular protective properties, among other beneficial effects for health
[74, 75]. In a comparative study, Gorinstein et al. [76] showed that pseudocereals have higher
antioxidant activity than some cereals (e.g. rice and buckwheat), whereas Laus et al. [77]
reported that antioxidants from quinoa seeds may be more readily accessible than those in
wheat species. Hirose et al. [78] observed that the amounts of phenolics such as quercetin and
kaempferol in quinoa grown in Japan are higher than those of conventionally used edible
plants. On the other hand, when cooking or dehydrating quinoa an increase in temperature
leads to a reduction in the total phenolics content [79].
Superfood and Functional Food - An Overview of Their Processing and Utilization42
Quinoa leaves also contain a high level of phenolics [80], which exhibit anticarcinogenic effects
in vitro, linked with inhibitory effects on the proliferation, motility and cellular competence of
cancer cells [81]. However, the effects depend on the technological processes and the food
matrix in which quinoa grains or leaves are included. For instance, Swieka et al. [82] formu-
lated supplemented bread with phenol-rich quinoa leaves and observed an improvement of
the antioxidant activity of the product obtained, although not as high as expected, probably
due to the blocking of reactive groups of phenolic compounds by bread components. Some
phenolic compounds in quinoa also inhibit α-amylase and α-glucosidase activities, enzymes
involved in the breakdown of starch and derivatives, which allows for better control of
intestinal glucose absorption and therefore of postprandial glycemia [68, 83]. Moreover, qui-
noa seeds are also a source of a different kind of phenolics: isoflavones, among which the main
are genistein and daidzein [66]. These molecules are usually named as “phytoestrogens,”due
to their structural similarity with β-estradiol (an estrogen) and exhibit a wide range of benefi-
cial effects [84].
Among the secondary metabolites, betalains are quantitatively important in several geno-
types of quinoa. In fact, quinoa belongs to one of the 13 families of betalain producers [32].
These chromoalkaloids are water-soluble pigments containing nitrogen and include the red-
violet betacyanins and the yellow betaxanthins. Studies performed with several genotypes of
quinoa indicate that contrastingly with the Amaranthus genus, where the principal betalains
are amaranthine and isoamaranthine, in quinoa, the main compounds are betanin and
isobetanin [85]. Recently, it has been proposed that betanin is a good scavenger of reactive
oxygen species and prevents low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation and DNA damage
[86].
Another type of secondary metabolites in quinoa is phytoecdysteroids (polyhydroxylated
steroids), structurally related to insect molting hormones, that have been implicated in plant
defense since they protect them against nonadapted insects and nematodes [87]. The seeds
contain ecdysteroids in amounts ranging from 450 to 1300 μg/g [88]. The main form is 20-
hydroxyecdysone (30 μg/g) and several minors have been reported in a range of 3–9μg/g,
including makisterone A, 24-epi-makisterone A, 24,28-dehydro-makisterone A and 20,26-
dihydroxyecdysone [89]. Dini et al. [43] showed that quinoa flour contains both 20-
hydroxyecdysone and kancollosterone and Nsimba et al. [73] described the presence of a
new set of ecdysteroids. The ecdysteroid content of quinoa seeds from different sources
shows significant variations. These molecules are rather stable during food processing,
representing an intake of 20-hydroxyecdysone that may have positive effects on human
health (Figure 3) [65].
A characteristic feature of quinoa grains is the presence of saponins (triterpenoid glycosides) in
the outer layer. These secondary metabolites are utilized by the plant as a predator repellent
and exhibit a series of pharmacological properties [90, 91] and impart a bitter taste. Conse-
quently, saponins are reduced for debittering by various methods that remove the hulls
(abrasive processes, washing). The amount in the grains depends on the cultivar and can be
classified into “sweet”(<0.11%) or “bitter”(>0.11%) [92].
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Although all the grains exhibit excellent nutritional properties, it is necessary to take into
consideration that the chemical composition of quinoa varies among ecotypes, that is,
according to groups of cultivars and/or landraces defined according to distributional, ecolog-
ical, agronomic and morphological criteria due to strong genetic variability in addition to
environmental differences in the Andean region [93]. Moreover, the nutritional composition
Figure 3. Bioactive molecules in quinoa.
Superfood and Functional Food - An Overview of Their Processing and Utilization44
varies in relation with the environmental stress factors and several research groups have
described changes in nutritional aspects of seeds as a result of environmental stress episodes.
For instance, Panuccio et al. [94] reported that under high salt conditions, phenolic content and
antioxidant capacity of quinoa seeds increased. Miranda et al. [11] compared two Chilean
genotypes grown under arid and cold-humid environments, showing that in cold rainy zones
the size and weight of the seeds increased, whereas under hot arid conditions, phenolic
compounds and components of proximate analysis (except proteins) increased.
The quality and amount of protein in the seed has also led to the search of bioactive peptides,
among which antihypertensive angiotensin I converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides
has been demonstrated [95–97]. On the other hand, protein ingredients not only provide
nutrition but also good technological properties to facilitate food processing. The technological
functional properties of quinoa proteins are well recognized, since they provide emulsifying
capacity and emulsion stability, which affect foods by acting on the membrane matrix that
surrounds the oil drop in an emulsion, preventing its coalescence [98]. Moreover, quinoa
proteins show a high foaming capacity and stability [99].
The nutritional properties of quinoa and specifically the high quantity and quality of protein,
allow the use of protein isolates in the formulation of various foods. A series of patents have
been described in relation with their production, processing and uses. Just to mention a couple
of examples, patent US 7563473 B2 relates to “quinoa protein concentrate”(QPC), which
contains at least about 50 wt% protein which is food grade and/or pharmaceutical grade and
methods of preparing such protein concentrates as well as starch, oil and fiber from quinoa
grain, whereas patent US 20100196569 A1 involves grain products having a reduced bitter
flavor with a sweet taste or crunchy texture, among many others. Another line of work is
related with the multiple industrial uses of the saponins obtained from quinoa grains, includ-
ing their processing, for example, in the pharmaceutical industry as immunological adjuvants,
to stimulate nonspecific immunity, as well as to enhance an immunological response to a
selected antigen and to enhance mucosal absorption of some drugs. As such given examples,
many other uses of quinoa seeds and coproducts have been described.
The grain shows a high versatility for culinary uses, but other parts may also be used in
cooking: the parts of the plant that have been used as food ingredients include the seed, leaves,
stems and roots. The mostly used form of quinoa is the cooked grain (soups, stews), followed
by various other forms such as toasted seeds, tender leaves (soups, crepes, pancakes, tortillas),
flour (bakery products such as breads, biscuits, cookies, muffins), as well as nutrition bars,
granolas, confections and various beverages, fermented or not. Quinoa grains and by-products
(e.g. hay) are also used for animal feed.
The nutritional quality of quinoa grains is well recognized, even by agencies such as the
National Research Council and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
[100], which included quinoa as part of the controlled ecological life support system (CELSS).
As described, this ancient crop is nutritious and healthy, with high adaptability that can
withstand food processing and can also be used as a replacement for allergenic nuts and seeds.
It can support sustainable production and FAO selected it as one of the crops destined to offer
food security, by promoting quinoa as part of a FAO strategy to encourage the cultivation of
traditional crops [101].
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3. Conclusion
The rationale for the reintroduction of quinoa into the diet is strongly related with the
epidemiological situation prevailing, which is similar in many nations around the world:
growing rates of child obesity, high prevalence of obesity during/after pregnancy in women,
high rates of NCD such as cardiovascular, diabetes, cancer, which are associated with the
major causes of death. From the nutritional point of view, quinoa represents an excellent
source of nutrients and bioactive phytochemicals that contribute to a healthy diet and, on
the other hand, supplies good quality protein to support children's healthy growth. The
chemical composition of different cultivars is outstanding, although it may be affected by
the environmental and climatic factors. Taking into account all its properties, quinoa is
currently promoted as an extremely healthy food (“superfood”), the so-called food of the
twenty-first century.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Research Office of the Universidad de Valparaíso (DIUV) for supporting
CIDAF (CID 04/06).
Author details
Mariane Lutz
1
* and Luisa Bascuñán-Godoy
2
*Address all correspondence to: mariane.lutz@uv.cl
1 CIDAF, Center for Research and Development of Functional Foods, School of Chemistryand
Pharmacy, University of Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
2 CEAZA, Center for Advanced Studies on Arid Zones, Chile and Multidicipilinary Studies
Center on Science and Technology, University of La Serena, La Serena, Chile
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