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The global rare earth element exploration boom: An analysis of resources outside of China and discussion of development perspectives
Abstract
This paper analyzes the mineral resource definitions from the exploration boom that followed the rare earth element (REE) price peak of 2011, and finds that 1. the delineated REE mineral resources outside of China reached a total of 98 Mt contained total rare earth oxides in 2015 with the majority located in Canada (38 Mt), Greenland (39 Mt) and Africa (10.3 Mt), representing a fivefold increase between 2010 (16.5 Mt combined) and 2015 (87.3 Mt combined).2. a large portion of these resources contain REE bearing silicates as dominant ore mineral which have a higher heavy REE to light REE ratio than conventional carbonate-mineral REE resources.The results highlight effective, stock market-financed exploration by junior companies and demonstrate REE resource availability outside of China. However, at current low prices, challenges to transform these resources from exploration to mining projects remain. These are tied to the up-scaling of beneficiation technologies for unconventional REE ore minerals and to raising investment for project implementation. In this context, we contend that the successful delineation of these REE resources provide abundant options for expansion and investment in the REE industry which are most likely harnessed by the dominant REE market player, China. Concerns about China's dominant role are therefore likely to persist.
... The IUPAC has classified REE into light rare earth elements (LREEs) and heavy rare earth elements (HREEs) based on atomic weight. REEs, having unique magnetic, spectroscopic, catalytic, and hydrophobic properties, were widely used in high-tech products such as portable electronics, aeronautical components, and renewable energy, which make them moved into the raw material policy spotlight and are characterized as "critical" and "irreplaceable" in modern industrial applications [2][3][4]. The annual global production of rare earth oxides (REOs) increased from 60,000 t in 1994 to 350,000 t in 2023, and it is predicted that the global REE demand might reach over 600,000 t by 2030 with an annual growth rate of 8% [4,5]. ...
... REEs, having unique magnetic, spectroscopic, catalytic, and hydrophobic properties, were widely used in high-tech products such as portable electronics, aeronautical components, and renewable energy, which make them moved into the raw material policy spotlight and are characterized as "critical" and "irreplaceable" in modern industrial applications [2][3][4]. The annual global production of rare earth oxides (REOs) increased from 60,000 t in 1994 to 350,000 t in 2023, and it is predicted that the global REE demand might reach over 600,000 t by 2030 with an annual growth rate of 8% [4,5]. In the international scenario, the deposits of natural REEs are limited except for countries such as China, where the supply of REEs (particularly HREE faces considerable uncertainties) indicates that natural resource requirements will continue to increase and that secondary resource processing will be necessary [6][7][8]. ...
... Secondly, as described in Fig. 4, under the erosion of H 2 SO 4 , dihydrate gypsum crystals develop surface cracks that facilitate the diffusion of REE 3+ into the solution through isomorphic substitution [44]. However, Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of the mechanism of H 2 SO 4 leaching REE from PG [44,60] when the H 2 SO 4 concentration is high, the presence of SO 4 2− ions causes a common ion effect [41], reducing the solubility of CaSO 4 ·2H 2 O and promoting the precipitation of more stable double sulfate salts of REEs, which consequently decreases the leaching efficiency. In addition, due to strong chemical bonds between REE ions and the calcium sulfate dihydrate lattice, direct H 2 SO 4 leaching of PG often results in incomplete reactions, longer reaction times, and the residual presence of calcium sulfate dihydrate crystals. ...
The extraction of rare earth elements (REEs) might become a vital way to reuse phosphogypsum (PG), which might be a meaningful method to solve the problems of REE resource shortage and PG environmental pollution. REEs in PG primarily exist within the gypsum lattice through isostructural substitution, followed by independent REE minerals (i.e., monazite), and reside a little in compounds (such as sulfates, phosphates, and silicates). Currently, there are advantages and disadvantages to the REE extraction methods (including direct acid leaching, enhanced acid leaching, organic acid leaching, organic solvent extraction, salt solution leaching, and bioleaching) of PG. Employing microwave or ultrasonic technologies, promising applications, to enhance REE extraction could significantly improve efficiency. Bioleaching is more environmentally friendly and demonstrates better selectivity and extraction efficiency for low-concentration REEs, making it a promising approach for the REE extracting of PG. The recovery of REEs from PG should not only focus on the efficiency of the single leaching stage but also consider the subsequent separation and purification of REEs and the value of by-products. Achieving a comprehensive and fully integrated solution that is technically feasible, economically efficient, and environmentally friendly for the REE extracting of PG should be the direction for future efforts.
... There are three main types of permanent magnet: neodymium iron boride (NdFeB), samarium cobalt (SmCo), and ferrites (Paulick andMachacek, 2017, Narasimhan, 2022). NdFeB magnets currently account for over 90 % of the rare earth permanent magnet market (Kaya, 2024, Ormerod, 2022. ...
... The largest share of the permanent magnet market by mass is accounted for by ferrites which have lower material cost. Sintered NdFeB permanent magnets have a broad scope of applications within electronics, such as in hard disk drives (HDD), speakers, wind turbine generators and electric vehicle motors (Trench and Sykes, 2020, Paulick and Machacek, 2017, Kaya, 2024, Lixandru et al., 2017, Zante et al., 2024, while polymer bonded NdFeB magnets are used in smaller brushless DC motors as they can be net-shape formed into ring-shaped magnets with high electrical resistivity (reducing eddy current losses) (Croat, 2022, Harris andJewell, 2012). Samarium cobalt magnets are better suited to high-temperature applications in the aerospace and defence industry . ...
... Additionally, there are social risks associated with human rights and the mining of rare earth metals, as well as physical effects of mining on the environment, such as water table and ground contamination that affects wildlife (Trench andSykes, 2020, Paulick andMachacek, 2017). To mitigate these impacts and improve supply security with rising REE demand, it is necessary to recover, reuse and recycle the materials already in use in magnet-containing devices in Western countries. ...
... Much has been said and written about the strategic importance of rare earth elements, the Chinese monopolistic control, the REE crisis and the price spike of 2011 [5,6]. A remarkable outcome of the crisis was the initiation of an exploration boom that yielded outstanding results regarding newly defined resources around the globe [7,8]. Many potential REE producers, some of which in Australia, insisted on believing they would produce significant amounts of rare earth elements, solve the global supply issue and break China's monopoly. ...
... Two mining companies, Molycorp in the US and Lynas in Australia entered the market immediately after the crisis in 2011, but without gaining a significant market share, at least at the beginning. On the contrary, the situation turned bad, especially for Molycorp, which filed for bankruptcy mid-2015 and ceased all mining activities [8,10]. In addition to that, Lynas faced similar problems and would have gone bust if it was not for the company's recapitalisation in 2014 [11]. ...
... Of the stages described above, the chemical separation process is the one that adds the highest value to the products, especially with the formulation of the oxides, metals, hydroxides, and other compounds to end-user requirements [17]. Consequently, REE mined and partially processed outside of China are shipped there for the final chemical processing, thus giving the impression that the world is working for China [8,18]. ...
In recent years, several mining companies worldwide have made efforts
towards establishing sustainable value-adding rare earth element (REE)
supply chains to compete with China. Lynas and Iluka are two Australian
mining companies that recently announced their plans to construct REE
refinery plants to process and separate REE oxides in Western Australia
and Texas, US. Though promising, such investments entail high risks. This work discusses the status of the Australian REE industry and uses SWOT and risk analyses to identify and evaluate the challenges and opportunities with respect to building an integrated rare earth supply chain outside of China.
... Although rare earth elements (REEs: lanthanides, yttrium and scandium) are scarce in the Earth's crust, their presence in surface water may have ecotoxicological impacts, such as reduction of plant growth, genotoxicity, neurotoxicity and bioaccumulation in fishes that could enter in the trophic chain (Chakhmouradian and Wall, 2012;Haque et al., 2014;Gwenzi et al., 2018). REEs can contaminate the environment because of disposal of solid waste in landfills, wastewater and atmospheric emission from electronical industrial processes (Tan et al., 2015;Işıldar et al., 2018), urban wastes (Lawrence et al., 2009;Klaver et al., 2014), fertilizers (He et al., 2010;Pagano et al., 2015) or mining activity (Ayora et al., 2016;Paulick and Machacek, 2017). From the different sources, mining activity is the most relevant in terms of intensity and extensity (Paulick and Machacek, 2017). ...
... REEs can contaminate the environment because of disposal of solid waste in landfills, wastewater and atmospheric emission from electronical industrial processes (Tan et al., 2015;Işıldar et al., 2018), urban wastes (Lawrence et al., 2009;Klaver et al., 2014), fertilizers (He et al., 2010;Pagano et al., 2015) or mining activity (Ayora et al., 2016;Paulick and Machacek, 2017). From the different sources, mining activity is the most relevant in terms of intensity and extensity (Paulick and Machacek, 2017). Li et al. (2010) indicated that soils within a 7 km radius of a REE-processing plant were contaminated with concentrations at least 100 times higher than the regional background. ...
... Following the 2010-2011 China-Japan trade dispute and its ripple effects on the pricing of rareearth metals, several studies dedicated to the supply and demand of rare-earth metals were published (Du and Graedel 2011;Paulick and Machacek 2017;Tse 2011). Riddle et al. (2021) highlighted that out of the 10 rare-earth metals included in the analysis, dysprosium is the most vulnerable to supply disruption, showing the highest increases in prices. ...
... Riddle et al. (2021) highlighted that out of the 10 rare-earth metals included in the analysis, dysprosium is the most vulnerable to supply disruption, showing the highest increases in prices. The study also shows that supply disruptions may foster more-and earlier-development of new mining projects outside China, which is in line with the rare-earth metal deposits exploration boom that followed the 2010-2011 trade dispute (Paulick and Machacek 2017). Due to supply restrictions, higher prices of rare-earth metals may trigger reductions in demand for neodymium magnets, threatening wind energy development (especially offshore projects). ...
... Besides, there is a high demand for these elements. Therefore, the strategies to extract and recover these REEs from secondary sources are highly desired because they can dramatically reduce their environmental impacts [5,7]. ...
... REEs can be found in secondary products such as ashes and slags from coal combustion, red mud, electronic wastes, and phosphogypsum [5,8]. Many of these sources are currently discarded in landfills where REEs can leach into the environment [7,8]. Among the aforementioned secondary REEs resources, phosphogypsum is one of the most common and promising sources of REEs [9,10]. ...
This study aimed to synthesize a green powdered layered double hydroxide (LDH)
based on nickel-aluminum (Ni–Al-LDH) to evaluate its efficiency in the removal of rare
earth elements (REEs), Praseodymium (Pr3+) and Samarium (Sm3+), from synthetic
effluents and real leachate using phosphogypsum as a secondary source of REEs.
Several characterization techniques were employed to evaluate the physicochemical
properties of Ni-Al-LDH adsorbent, such as specific surface area and porosity,
functional surface groups and phases, and point of zero charge. The characterization
results indicated that Ni-Al-LDH exhibited a typical layered structure confirming the
successful synthesis. The effect of key adsorption variables, such as pH, contact time,
initial concentration, and temperature, on the REEs adsorption, was extensively
studied in single-factor experiments separately. The kinetic and equilibrium adsorption
data agreeably fitted the Avrami and Sips models, respectively. The maximum
adsorption capacities for Pr3+ and Sm3+ adsorption were 18.13 and 15.68 mg g-1 at
298 K, respectively. The thermodynamic parameters (ΔH0, ΔS0, ΔG0) indicated that
the adsorption was spontaneous, favorable, and exothermic for both Pr3+ and Sm3+.
The interactions between Pr3+ and Sm3+ onto Ni-Al-LDH suggest that multiple
adsorption mechanisms are involved, such as ion exchange, precipitation, chelation,
and pore filling. Finally, the Ni-Al-LDH could selectively recover REEs, specially Pr3+
and Sm3+, from the real phosphogypsum leachate. It has been demonstrated that NiAl-LDH is a promising adsorbent material that could be used as an adsorbent for the
recovery of REEs from synthetic and real effluents.
... Processing technologies for REE-bearing silicates require additional research and development (R&D) investment to make them commercially viable [56,57]. The main problems to be solved are related with fine-grain liberation size and interference of impurities in the metallurgical concentration process. ...
... In general, comminution to low grain size is an energy-and material-consuming step, belonging to the most expensive positions in processing operations. Low liberation grain sizes also constrain processing activities, mainly leaving flotation as the most possible suitable technique enhancing operation costs, and water and supplies consumption [4,56,58,59]. Recent developments in individual REE separation technologies in both metallurgical and recycling operations have been highlighted by [57]. ...
In this case study, 2D micro energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (µ-EDXRF) surveys were performed in the nepheline syenite (NS) of “Serra de Monchique” located in the southwest region of Portugal (Algarve, Iberian Peninsula). The results allow the identification in the mineral matrix of certain elements classified as critical raw materials (CRMs). Due to substitution effects, some scarce transition elements, such as Zn and Ni, are present and camouflaged in alkali silicate minerals, while others, such as Co, are included in ferromagnesian mineral phases. As expected, incompatible elements are preferably distributed on the surface of aluminosilicate mineral phases such as Rb and Ga, or exclusively in K-bearing feldspar phases, as it is the case of Sr. Interesting CRMs such as Ti, Zr, and Nb are well individualized in oxides, as well as in sphene and apatite. The detected antagonistic chemical distribution between Ti and Fe, and the good spatial relation between Ti and Ca confirms that Ti is present as sphene and, in areas with absent Si, probably occurs as rutile. Nb has a distribution pattern quite similar to Zr and occurs due to substitution effects. It was possible to conclude that there is probable co-existence of Zr-REE-Nb in specific mineral phases such as apatite, zircon, and other Zr-oxides. These results evidence and confirm NS as a potential source of multiple industrial minerals and distinct scarce elements which are incorporated in oxide or phosphate phases that can be more effectively separated in the beneficiation process.
... The dynamics of RM consumption growth are driven by their application in both traditional sectors (metallurgy, composite materials, electrical engineering and electronics, and nuclear energy) and in new high-tech industries [1][2][3][4][5]. The REE market represents an economic and geopolitical system based on the interaction of various entities (companies, corporations, countries, and governments) at different stages of the technological chain: exploration and extraction-processing-high-tech production-management of the global supply chain [6][7][8]. ...
N,O-donor hybrid heterocyclic extractants have great potential for separation of actinides from lanthanides in spent nuclear fuel reprocessing processes. We demonstrate that this type of reagents can be used for primary concentration of actinides contained in eudialyte, a promising mineral containing a heavy group of lanthanides. With respect to lanthanide ions, the efficiency of their extraction decreases in the series L3 >> L1 > L2, and the extraction of actinides decreases in the series L1 ≈ L3 >> L2. For the extractant L2 based on 2,2′-bipyridine-6,6′-dicarboxylic acid diamide, the efficiency of lanthanide purification from U, Th exceeds 50. The structure and stereochemical features of the ligands do not have a significant effect on the composition of the formed complexes. The solvation numbers are close to 1 for all range f-elements studied, except for thorium, which indicates the predominant formation of complexes with the composition ratio of 1:1. The solvation numbers 1.4–1.5 are observed for thorium(IV), and the established values indicate the formation of a mixture of complexes with the composition ratios of 1:1 and 2:1.
... Rare earth elements have become a significant topic of discussion among researchers, entrepreneurs, and politicians in recent years due to their crucial role in current technological advancements. Rare earths are utilized in a broad range of applications [8][9][10], including wind turbines, electric vehicles [11], mobile phones, hard disk drives, fluorescent and LED lamps, defense applications, catalysts, pharmaceuticals, and medicine [12]. Of In this study, the priority of each factor on Sm precipitation efficiency was analyzed through factor effect analysis using results from orthogonal table experiments. ...
As more countries emphasize the importance of the circular economy, recycling resources from waste has become increasingly crucial. This study proposes a novel separation process for SmCo magnets, which can separate and recover metals by precipitation, thus reducing the amount of solvent used. The precipitation process involved the use of Na2SO4, NH4OH, and H2C2O4 to separate Sm, Fe, Cu, and Co, resulting in high precipitation efficiencies of 96.11%, 99.97%, 93.81%, and 98.15%, respectively. Moreover, the recovered metals can be directly used to create magnets after calcination, making this process a step towards achieving a circular economy.
... The opening of new mines could satisfy the REE's market demand, although it is associated with significant economic investments and environmental costs. Paulick and Machacek [11] estimated an operational cost for new REE mines of 6000-50000 USDÁton -1 of rare earth oxide produced. Moreover, the manufacturing of each ton of final product is coupled with the discharge of 1000 tons of wastewaters and 2000 tons of toxic waste [9]. ...
Conventional mining of economically and strategically important critical rare earth elements (REEs) (such as neodymium, lanthanum and dysprosium), and chalcogens (such as selenium and tellurium) are associated with a huge economic and environmental cost. Therefore, the need to recover REEs as well as chalcogens from different waste streams including wastewaters is becoming urgent. Batch assays on synthetic chalcogen/REE-laden wastewater showed that the presence of REEs significantly improved the tellurite removal rate (> 80%) and enhanced selenate removal by 66% ± 10%. Three 3.9 L continuous upflow anaerobic granular sludge bed (UASB) reactors were operated at a hydraulic retention time of 24 h and 30 °C. Selenate reduction was achieved with a removal efficiency of ~ 98% with an influent pH of 4.0 for more than 28 days. The effect of REEs on tellurite removal in the UASB bioreactor could not be clearly established since a soluble tellurium removal efficiency of more than 98% was observed already before the addition of REEs at elevated tellurite concentrations. The complete REE removal in both batch assays and UASB reactors at higher pH (7.0 ± 0.5) was attributed to precipitation, whereas chalcogen oxyanions removal was due to microbial reduction. However, at acidic pH, biosorption was responsible for REE’s removal, and the Se-enriched sludge exhibited a superior REE’s removal efficiency than the non-enriched and Te-enriched sludge.
... However, the majority of projects launched as a reaction to the EQS and elevated prices focused on research and development activities downstream whereas efforts concerning stages earlier along the value chain such as exploration and mining have been limited (He, 2018). In those cases were successful exploration projects were undertaken, the question remains whether progression to actual mining is viable given the low prices generally observed after 2012 (Paulick and Machacek, 2017;and Riesgo García, Krzemién, Manzanedo del Campo, Menéndez Á lvarez, & Gent, 2017). The Chapter 11 bankruptcy of Molycorp in 2015 provides a case in point (McCarty andCasey, 2015, andReuters, 2015). ...
... In recent decades, city councils have played an important role in promoting and sharing an entrepreneurial spirit [1,2]. They have not only become a fundamental engine behind the activities that take place in a territory, they have also contributed to promoting the interests of both companies and the general public to understand where business and entrepreneurial dynamics are within a given territory [3]. ...
In recent decades, city councils have become a powerful tool used to “motivate” entrepreneurship. Through a content analysis of the webpages of 50 Spanish city councils corresponding to the period 2015–2019, the evolution of the degree of disclosure of information on entrepreneurship has been analysed. A series of population, economic and political explanatory factors have researched the disclosure of this type of information in two ways. First, a cluster analysis was carried out based on a previously calculated disclosure index. Second, an analysis of variance was performed to verify the existence of an association between the proposed determining factors. The results show that the information disclosed on entrepreneurship by municipalities is related to the size of the population, municipal debt, institutional capacity, the unemployed population and political competition.
... As a consequence of their wide use, REEs enter into aquatic and terrestrial environments through the disposal of consumer and industrial products (e.g. landfills), discharges from mining and mineral processing, and effluents/wastewaters from industrial processes (Paulick and Machacek, 2017). Several potential adverse effects in human health associated with REE exposure have been reported, however, most of the available studies investigated the nephrogenic systemic fibrosis associated with gadolinium (Gd), in Gd-based contrast agents (Thomsen, 2017). ...
... The demand for rare earth elements (REEs) is increasing due to their vital role in clean energy solutions like hybrid and electric vehicles, and wind turbines [1]. Primary industrial sources of REEs include bastnäsite, monazite, loparite, xenotime, and ion-absorption clay minerals [2,3]. Recently, attention has turned to extracting REEs from alternative raw materials, including silicate minerals, posing unique processing challenges [3,4]. ...
Allanite is a common REE-bearing silicate mineral, which is found in potentially mineable abundances in many areas but has not been economically exploited for the REEs in an industrial scale. Conventional methods, such as sulfuric acid baking at high temperatures (200 to 650 °C) followed by extended water leaching near boiling temperature, have proven effective in decomposing allanite but come with substantial economic and environmental drawbacks. This study presents an alternative approach, investigating the dissolution behavior of allanite at low temperatures through direct treatment of an allanite concentrate with sulfuric acid. Through parametric optimization, the study reveals the practical and selective dissolution of allanite from a relatively coarse concentrate sample (particle size distribution D50 = 327 µm) after a 3-h leaching period with a mild dilute (2 M) H 2 SO 4 solution at 22 °C, yielding overall recoveries of approximately 80% for light REEs and 60% for heavy REEs. The dissolved gangue elements, predominantly derived from allanite (e.g., Th, Fe, Al, Si, and Ca), exhibit contents in the leach solution comparable to or slightly higher than those reported in other studies utilizing acid bake–water leach processes. The notable efficiency of low-temperature sulfuric acid extraction is likely attributed to the heightened chemical reactivity of metamict allanite-(Ce) within the investigated concentrate. While these results are encouraging and demonstrate the potential of low-temperature leaching for allanite concentrates, additional research is necessary before testing the procedure on a larger scale.
Graphical Abstract
... Studies have found Ce and La may display toxicity in mice or cause plant growth issues only at high doses [5,6]. According to studies, nearly 30% of the REEs contained in ore can end up in processing side streams such as tailings and slag [7]. Thus, developing methods to recover these elements from secondary sources would help reduce their environmental impact and the overall economy of the ore refining process. ...
In this study, we aimed to produce a sustainable and efficient powdered activated carbon (SP-AC) and evaluate its adsorptive abilities to uptake and recover rare earth elements (REEs) from synthetic solutions containing lanthanum (La(III)) and cerium (Ce(III)), and real leachate, from phosphogypsum, containing several REEs. The adsorbent material was subjected to several characterization techniques to understand its physicochemical and adsorptive properties. The characterization results indicated that the activated carbon prepared in this work possesses a specific surface area, pore volume, and average pore diameter of 614 m2g-1, 0.121 cm3g-1, and 3.65 nm, respectively. Interestingly, the adsorbent material exhibited a highly negatively charged surface which was extremely beneficial for La(III) and Ce(III), which are positively charged and therefore were easily attracted to each other. The kinetic data were well fitted by pseudo-second-order, while the Liu model agreeably fitted equilibrium data. The maximum adsorption capacities for Ce(III) and La(III) were 107.7 and 127.2 mg g-1 at 298 K, respectively. The thermodynamic data indicated that the adsorption systems between SP-AC and both REEs were favorable, spontaneous, and exothermic. The adsorption mechanisms between SP-AC and the two REEs were proposed based on the experimental results, adsorbent characteristics, and statistical physics approach. Pore filling and ion exchange were the main mechanisms, although surface complexation was also involved. Finally, the SP-AC was employed to recover many REEs from real phosphogypsum leachate, demonstrating that SP-AC can selectively recover REEs in the real process.
... Prior to production, REE-containing minerals must undergo downstream processing and chemical separation. High-purity REE oxides can be purchased through this technique and sold to the manufacturing sector [4]. ...
From the analysis of zircon tailings using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), Yttrium is a rare earth element (REE) with the highest concentration compared to other REEs. The purpose of this study is to determine the best kinetic model for describing how sulfuric acid extracts Yttrium from zircon tailings. Leaching temperatures of 200, 250, and 300 °C were used to determine the kinetics. Samples were obtained at 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, and 120 min for each temperature. This study discovered that the chemical reaction model's kinetics are the most closely related to those of the leaching process. The evaluation of the model utilizing the coefficient of determination (R2) on the relationship between each model and time lends support to this conclusion. The activation energy (Ea) of the leaching process is determined by the Arrhenius plot between ln k and 1/T. In the Yttrium leaching procedure, the Ea value is 14.42 kJ/mol. The chemical reaction model was in charge of the leaching process, according to the Ea value. The premise of the chemical reaction model is that chemical reactions regulate the rate of the reaction.
... In the last decade, there has been a major rise and fall in the exploration of REMs. In the year 2010 to 2014, there was a global REMs boom that yielded outstanding results in terms of newly developed REM resources in other countries but was short-lived due to the various risks in exploration and processing [14]. Major risks due to the issues associated with the mining and processing of REMs are the environmental hazards caused by radioactive waste from thorium present in the ores, which tend to contaminate water and air. ...
The rise of globalization and industrialization has driven the demand for rare earth metals (REMs). These metals are widely used in various sectors of the global economy with various applications in medicine, renewable energy, electronics, agriculture, and the military. REMs are likely to remain an important part of our global future, and, as production increases, areas contaminated by REMs are expected to expand over the coming decades. Thus, triggering significant adverse environmental, animal, and human health impacts. Despite increased attention on REMs outside China in recent years, there are limited studies exploring REM production, deposits, and associated health impacts in the African context. Proper mine management, adequate safety protocols, sustainable processing methods, and waste handling systems have been identified and proposed globally; however, the nature and scale of implementing these management protocols on the African continent have been less clear. Therefore, planetary health-centered solutions are urgently needed to be undertaken by researchers, policy makers, and non-governmental actors in Africa and across the globe. This is with the overarching aim of ensuring eco-friendly alternatives and public health consciousness on REM exploitations and hazards for future generations to come.
... Because of their unusual physical and chemical properties, they are used in different varieties of industrial and technological applications [3,4]. The need for rare earth elements (REEs) has increased, because of their widespread use in high-tech applications [5] and advanced technologies; as a kind of valuable additive (composite) for automotive catalytic converters, the military, and green technologies; and in mobile phones, televisions, light-emitting diodes, and computer hard disks [6,7]. Some REEs(III) (i.e., Dy, Er) have been used for the above, first part of the manuscript. ...
Successive grafting of new sorbent bearing amino phosphonic groups based on chitosan nano magnetite particles was performed through successive coupling with formaldehyde. The produced composite was characterized by the high sorption capacity toward rare earth elements (REEs) and consists of different types of functional groups (phosphonic, hydroxyls and amine groups) that are used for enhancing the sorption properties. The chemical modification and the sorption mechanism were investigated through different analytical tools; i.e., FTIR, SEM, SEM-EDX, TGA, BET (surface area) and pHpzc. The sorption was investigated toward Nd(III) as one of the REE(III) members under ultraviolet (UV) and visible light (VL) conditions. The optimum sorption was found at pH0 4 and the sorption capacity was recorded at 0.871 and 0.779 mmol Nd g−1 under UV and VL respectively. Sorption isotherms and uptake kinetics were fitted by Langmuir and Sips and by pseudo-first order rate equation (PFORE) for the functionalized sorbent, respectively. The sorbent showed a relatively high-speed sorption kinetic (20 min). The bounded metal ions were progressively eluted using 0.2 M HCl solution with a desorption rate 10–15 min, while the loss in the total capacity after a series of sorption recycling (sorption/desorption) (five cycles) was limited (around 3%) with 100% of the desorption efficiency, indicating the high stability of the sorbent toward an acidic medium. The sorbent was used for the recovery of REEs from leach liquor residue after pretreatment for the extraction of particular elements. From these results (high loading capacity, high selectivity and high stability against acid treatments), we can see that the sorbent is a promising tool for the selective recovery of rare earth elements in the field of metal valorization.
... The demand of REEs between the years 2020 and 2025 is projected to grow exponentially because of their considerably increased use in modern technologies and green energy sources [4,21]. REEs production is limited to few countries with economically viable reserves whilst the rest of the world is dependent on them [22]. Exportation and pricing of REEs have been under Chinese control for over two decades [23]. ...
Phosphogypsum (PG) is a large hazardous waste from fertiliser and phosphoric acid industries from which useful products including rare-earth elements (REEs) can be recovered depending on the treatment process. Its conversion to calcium sulphide (CaS) which was achieved at 95% followed by the formation of S, CaCO 3 and residue is one of the plausible treatment processes leading to economic and environmental benefits. This study aimed at monitoring selected REEs behaviour during the conversion of (PG) to (CaS). The concentrations of REEs in the raw PG, the produced CaS and the obtained residue were determined after digestion (microwave and traditional acid leaching) using ICP-OES. The effect of CO 2 and H 2 S used in the process of forming CaCO 3 and S from PG on the concentrations of REEs was also investigated. Microwave digestion proved to be more effective than traditional acid leaching in the recovery of REEs. Microwave digestion using 3 mL HNO 3 + 1 mL HCl was more effective than 1 mL HNO 3 + 3 mL in REEs recovery. CaS contained the highest amount of Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Dy, Ho, Er, La and Y with values of 2646, 476, 2255, 320, 60.5, 376, 79.8, 1.24, 476, 1185 and 318 µg/g respectively. Based on these findings, the residue could be further processed to recover REEs despite less than 40% decrease in concentration for the majority of REEs observed due to the use of H 2 S and CO 2 . CO 2 was found to be more suitable as fewer REEs were leached as compared to H 2 S. All things considered, the obtained residue could be a good secondary source of REEs as it is easier to leach, retained good amount of REEs and lesser impurities.
... Apart from recycling of the served out industrial products, the latter include different wastes (red mud, phosphogypsum, coal combustion fly ash, mining and industrial residues [1,[4][5][6]), as well as by-products of phosphate, kaolin and some other productions [7][8][9]. Thumping majority of the various REE sources exploited today are substantially more prevalent in light rare earth elements (LREE) while the demand pattern has changed recently towards more intense use of far less abundant heavy REE (HREE) [10]. So, great interest grew of late years in this connection in the widespread zircon mineral (ZrSiO 4 ) as a unique primary [11] and secondary (different ore beneficiation tailing) [12,13] source of Y and heavy lanthanides. ...
Two samples of zircon concentrate by local manufacturers were investigated for the first time for their rare earth elements (REE) content by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) and energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis. Comparator variant of INAA based on an external standard (Fe) and two internal standards (Th, La) was used to determine the elements divided into three groups depending on the detector type, radionuclide half-lives, and suitable comparator. High Y and heavy REE contents of the samples exceeding their crustal averages up to two orders of magnitude confirmed significance of the zircon concentrate as an important source of these elements production as a by-product.
... For example, current REE production predominantly hails from the Bayan Obo, Daluxiang, and Weishan mining districts in China, as well as from the Mount Weld mine, Australia, and Mountain Pass, USA, all of which are carbonatite-related deposits (Wall 2014, Barakos et al. 2016, Poletti et al. 2016, Watts et al. 2022. Recent decades have been characterized by growing REE demand due to their use in high-strength permanent magnets and other high-tech industries (Goodenough et al. 2018), but the REE are also susceptible to future supply interruptions due to price and supply volatility (Paulick & Machacek 2017). Consequently, REE are classed as critical metals by the European Union (EU), as the EU is highly dependent on REE imports and, therefore, vulnerable to supply disruptions (European Commission 2020). ...
The Storkwitz carbonatite breccia, located near Delitzsch, Germany, is one of the few European domestic rare earth elements (REE) deposits, but is relatively understudied owing to more than 100 m of Cenozoic sedimentary cover. We present the results of a petrological investigation of the recently acquired ∼700 m-deep SES 1/2012 borehole. The Storkwitz breccia is composed of clasts of country rock and carbonatite ranging from <1 mm to ∼30 cm in size, cemented by ankeritic carbonatite. Extensive fenitization and biotitization mainly affects clasts of coarse-grained granitoids and medium-grained dolomite-calcite-carbonatites. An intersection of Storkwitz breccia at 425 m to 542 m contains local REE enrichment up to ∼1.7 wt.%. total rare earth oxides, which is predominantly contained in a REE-fluorcarbonate bearing mineral assemblage. The assemblage locally forms irregularly shaped vug-like features and rare hexagonal pseudomorphs in clasts of fine-grained ankerite-carbonatite. The REE-fluorcarbonate mineral assemblage formed prior to brecciation in the ankerite-carbonatite, which paragenetically fits with recent experimental and fluid inclusion data demonstrating the importance of late magmatic processes in forming carbonatite-hosted REE mineralization, possibly from an evolved ‘brine-melt' phase. Our findings indicate that minor REE recrystallization and redistribution occurred during late-stage hydrothermal or supergene processes, without leading to significant REE enrichment in the upper part of the breccia compared to the lower part. Cross-cutting faults represent the last deformation event and post-date carbonatite intrusion and fenitization. They may represent important conduits for late-stage hydrothermal or supergene fluids responsible for recrystallization of the breccia matrix to a cryptocrystalline oxide mineral assemblage. Our findings highlight the importance of REE enrichment in late-stage ‘brine-melt' phases through magmatic fractionation and in situ hydrothermal replacement.
... The occurrence of these metals in the Earth's crust, their mineralogy, and different types of deposits on land and oceans are a vital part of the mineral exploration industry. So far, many studies have been conducted on the association and exploration of the REE-rich rocks and minerals to improve the understanding of the location, type, and style of REE mineralization [6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. However, the minerals rich in REEs are commonly associated with the uncommon varieties of igneous rocks, such as carbonatites and alkaline rocks, or in residual deposits formed from physical and chemical weathering of igneous rocks, pegmatites, iron-oxide, copper-gold deposits, and marine phosphates. ...
A recent increase in the importance of Rare Earth Elements (REEs), proportional to advancements in modern technology, green energy, and defense, has urged researchers to look for more sophisticated and efficient exploration methods for their host rocks, such as carbonatites. Hyperspectral remote sensing has long been recognized as having great potential to identify the REEs based on their sharp and distinctive absorption features in the visible near-infrared (VNIR) and shortwave infrared (SWIR) electromagnetic spectral profiles. For instance, neodymium (Nd), one of the most abundant Light Rare Earth Elements (LREEs), has among the most distinctive absorption features of REEs in the VNIR part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Centered at ~580, ~745, ~810, and ~870 nm in the VNIR, the positions of these absorption features have been proved to be independent of the mineralogy that hosts Nd, and the features can be observed in samples as low in Nd as 1000 ppm. In this study, a neodymium index (NI) is proposed based on the 810 nm absorption feature and tested on the hyperspectral images of the Sillai Patai carbonatite samples to identify Nd pixels and to decipher the relative concentration of Nd in the samples based on the depth of the absorption feature. A preliminary spectral study of the carbonatite samples was carried out using a spectroradiometer to determine the presence of Nd in the samples. Only two of the absorption features of Nd, centered at ~745 and ~810 nm, are prominent in the Nd-rich samples. The other absorption features are either weak or suppressed by the featureless spectra of the associated minerals. Similar absorption features are found in the VNIR and SWIR images of the rock samples captured by the laboratory-based hyperspectral cameras that are processed through Minimum Noise Fraction (MNF) and Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) to filter the signal and noise from the reflectance data. An RGB false-color composite of continuum-removed VNIR reflectance bands covering wavelengths of 587.5, 747.91, and 810.25 nm efficiently displayed the spatial distribution of Nd-rich hotspots in the hyperspectral image. The depth of the 810 nm absorption feature, which corresponds to the concentration of Nd in a pixel, is comparatively greater in these zones and is quantified using the proposed NI such that the deeper the absorption feature, the higher the NI. To quantify the Nd-rich pixels in the continuum-removed VNIR images, different threshold values of NI are introduced into a decision tree classifier which generates the number of pixels in each class. The strength of the proposed NI coupled with the decision tree classifier is further supported by the accuracy assessment of the classified images generating the Kappa coefficient of 0.82. Comparing the results of the remote sensing data obtained in this study with some of the previously published studies suggests that the Sillai Patti carbonatite is rich in Nd and associated REEs, with some parts of the samples as high in Nd concentration as 1000 ppm.
... The rare earth elements (REEs), the group of elements consisting of Y and the lanthanides, exhibit unique properties marking them as crucial for modern technologies [1,2]. Nowadays, minerals containing REEs represent important strategic resources [3]. ...
The performance of a fast and simple analytical procedure for rare earth elements (REEs) quantification from secondary sources was investigated in the present work. Seven silicate-rich certified reference materials (CRMs) in the form of Andesite (JA-1), Basalt (JB-3), Rhyolite (JR-1, JR-2), Granite (JG-2), Granodiorite (JG-3), and Till (TILL-1), were used for the optimization and characterization of the analysis method. The optimized method was used in the analysis of nine mining wastes selected within the ENVIREE project, under the ERA-MIN Program of the 7th Framework, having as the main aim to ensure a policy securing long-term access of REEs secondary sources at reasonable costs. For silicate-rich samples efficient solid dissolution involves sintering with Na2O2 at 460 °C and a sample to oxidizing reagent ratio of 1:6.5. Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was used in the quantification of the REEs with aerosol dilution of samples applied to minimize the salt effect on the plasma and interface regions. The work performed in the present study clearly shows that accurate reports on the REE concentrations from geological matrices also involves as mandatory the estimation of the overall uncertainty from various sources (sample preparation or analyte measurements). In the analysis of geological samples, the proposed analysis method has on average 23% of the overall uncertainty explained by the sample preparation and 77% accounted by the analysis steps. Moreover, the method described by effective, cheap, robust and safe attributes, can be recommended as an accessible alternative to the HF wet digestion method. Although from all the investigated tailings samples, only those from Sweden and Czech Republic can be regarded as potential secondary sources for REEs, investigation of other resources with interest at European level might bring a great benefit in the general attempt to develop an economically viable method for the production of rare earth elements.
Lanthanide‐binding tag (LBT) peptides selectively complex lanthanide cations (Ln³⁺) in their binding pockets and are promising for lanthanide separation. However, designing LBTs that selectively target specific Ln³⁺ cations remains a challenge due to limited molecular‐level understanding and control of interactions within the lanthanide‐binding pocket. In this study, we reveal that the N5 asparagine residue acts as a gatekeeper in the binding pocket, resulting in a 100‐fold selectivity for smaller Lu³⁺ over larger La³⁺ cations. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and molecular dynamics simulations show that the N5 residue weakly binds to the larger La³⁺ cation, permitting H2O molecules inside the pocket. For the smaller Lu³⁺ cations, the N5 residue forms an inter‐arm hydrogen bond with the E14 glutamic acid residue, locking the Lu³⁺ cation in the pocket and preventing H2O infiltration. Mutating the N5 asparagine to a D5 aspartic acid prevents such a hydrogen bond, eliminating the gatekeeping mechanism and precipitously reducing selectivity. The resulting binding affinity to Ln³⁺ cations is non‐monotonic but generally increases with cation size. These results suggest a molecular design paradigm: the reduced affinity for larger lanthanides is due to open pocket conformations, while the selectivity of smaller Ln³⁺ cations over larger ones is due to the gatekeeping hydrogen bond.
Rare earth elements (REEs) are becoming increasingly important in the development of modern and green energy technologies with the demand for REEs predicted to grow in the foreseeable future. The importance of REEs lies in their unique physiochemical properties, which cannot be reproduced using other elements. REEs are sourced through mining, with global exploration of additional commercially viable mining sites still ongoing. However, there is a growing need for recycling of REEs due to the current supply of REEs not matching the growing demand, the environmental impact of REE mining and processing (the so-called “balance problem”), and the generation of large volumes of harmful electronic waste (e-waste). Industrial REE processing is mainly carried out by hydrometallurgy processes, particularly solvent extraction (SX) and ion exchange (IX) technologies. However, these methods have a significant environmental impact due to their intensive use of harmful and nonsustainable reagents. This Review highlights the development of approaches involving polymer-based extracting materials for REE manufacturing as more sustainable alternatives to current industrial REE processing methods. These materials include supported liquid membranes (SLMs), solvent impregnated resins (SIRs), macro and micro capsules, polymer inclusion membranes (PIMs), and micro polymer inclusion beads (μPIBs). Polymer-based extracting materials have the advantage of more economical regent usage while applying the same extractants used in commercial SX, enabling applications analogous to the current industrial process. These materials can be fabricated by a variety of methods in a diverse range of physical formats, with the advantages and disadvantages of each material type described and discussed in this Review along with their applications to REE processing, including e-waste recycling and mineral processing.
This paper aims to accurately predict China’s rare earth export prices and reveal the impact of variables such as
seasonality, significant events, finance, and supply and demand on rare earth price volatility. Daily datasets of
light and heavy rare earths from 2011 to 2023 were used, and the Tree-structured Parzen Estimator-Temporal
Fusion Transformer model was employed to predict rare earth prices. Complete Ensemble Empirical Mode
Decomposition with Adaptive Noise and partial dependence plots were used to reveal the factors affecting price
volatility. The following conclusions were drawn: (1) The Tree-structured Parzen Estimator-Temporal Fusion
Transformer deep learning model can provide more accurate rare earth price prediction information; (2) Light
rare earth prices are more susceptible to cyclical influences, while heavy rare earth prices are more affected by
significant events. The outbreak of COVID-19 has had a long-term impact on both light and heavy rare earth
prices; (3) The fluctuations in heavy rare earth prices are mainly influenced by financial factors, while the
fluctuations in light rare earth prices are influenced by multiple factors such as finance, supply and demand, and
macroeconomics; (4) An increase in resource tax rates may lead to a decrease in rare earth prices, while an
increase in restrictions on rare earth mining may lead to an increase in rare earth prices.
Rare earth elements play a crucial role in modern industrial development. However, the global supply and demand dynamics of rare earth resources have encountered significant challenges due to the escalating conflict between rapidly increasing demand and limited supply in the international market. This study utilizes a gray prediction model to project the future demand of major rare earth‐consuming countries and examines the competitive landscape of global rare earth resource demand. The findings indicate that: (1) China's rare earth consumption is expected to continue its upward trend, while the consumption in the United States and Japan may decline; (2) China, the United States, and Japan are likely to maintain their positions as major consumers of rare earth elements, although the competition for rare earth resources among these countries may weaken; (3) the United States and Japan heavily rely on the import of rare earth upstream products, while China's reliance on midstream and downstream imports remains prominent. Finally, based on these research conclusions, the article presents corresponding policy recommendations.
In this study, vine pruning wastes (VPW) were used as raw material to develop an
alternative activated carbon (VPW-AC) for adsorbing and concentrating rare earth
elements cerium (Ce(III)) and lanthanum (La(III)) from synthetic and real leachate
solutions. The Ce and La adsorption studies evaluated the effects of VPW-AC dosage, pH, contact time, rare earth initial concentration, and temperature. The VPW-AC adsorbent was subjected to many physicochemical characterization methods to correlate and understand its adsorptive performance. The characterization data indicated a carbonaceous adsorbent with a specific surface area of 467 m2 g-1. Zeta potential indicated a material with a negatively charged surface at a pH higher than 3.1, which was extremely beneficial for cations removal. For both REEs, the adsorption capacity increased with the increase of the pH, reaching its maximum at pHs 4-6. The kinetic data were well fitted by Avrami-fractional order, while the Liu model agreeably fitted equilibrium data. The maximum adsorption capacities for Ce(III) and La(III) were 48.45 and 53.65 mg g-1 at 298 K, respectively. The thermodynamic studies suggested that the adsorption process was favorable, spontaneous, and exothermic for both REEs. Pore filling, surface complexation, and ion exchange were the dominant mechanisms. Finally, the VPW-AC was subjected to the recovery of REEs from real phosphogypsum leachate, and it was proved that it could be successfully used to recover REEs in a real process.
Введение: Масштабы использования редкоземельных элементов (РЗЭ) промышленностью в XXI в. увеличиваются высокими темпами. Однако потребность в отдельных РЗЭ растет неравномерно: для части элементов рост спроса очень большой, для других он менее значительный или отсутствует. Из-за диспропорций между возможностями используемой в настоящее время ресурсной базы и потреблением отдельных РЗЭ цены на дефицитные празеодим (Pr), неодим (Nd) и тяжелые лантаноиды (LnY) на 1–2 порядка выше, чем на остальные РЗЭ. Важность этих элементов как для традиционных, так и инновационных отраслей современной промышленности делает их не просто
дефицитными, а критичными. Поэтому геологоразведочные компании во всем мире рассматривают выявление месторождений с повышенной долей дефицитных РЗЭ в качестве большого бонуса. При этом на начальном этапе работы часто ведутся без предварительной стратегии, т.к. в научной и методической литературе отсутствуют эмпирически обоснованные данные о возможных вариациях колебаний соотношений между дефицитными и недефицитными РЗЭ в месторождениях разных типов. Наше исследование имеет целью исправить такое положение вещей.
Данные и методика анализа: Собраны и впервые сопоставлены данные о распределении РЗЭ в рудах 127 месторождений РЗЭ со всего мира. Месторождения представляют девять металлогенических типов, к которым проявлялся интерес со стороны геологоразведочных или добывающих компаний в последние десятилетия.
Результаты и обсуждение: Были установлены возможные диапазоны значений для относительных долей (%) дефицитных групп РЗЭ (Pr+Nd min–max/mean; LnY min–max/mean) в рудах месторождений следующих металлогенических типов: карбонатитовом (11.2–35.0/19.4; 0.4–7.6/2.2), гипергенном в карбонатитах (15.2–28.9/21.4; 0.6–7.7/3.4), фоидном (14.0–25.6/18.1; 1.2–17.6/8.1), сиенитовом (16.1–20.9/18.9; 3.1–16.3/8.7), щелочногранитном (0.2–20.7/11.5; 7.8–34.0/21.7), субщелочногранитном (13.5–23.4/17.7; 0.1–13.3/3.5), ионно-адсорбционном (4.2–36.8/22.3; 4.5–34.2/16.3), россыпном (18.8–25.3/21.7; 1.6–11.9/5.4) и внутриразломном (4.6–10.5/7.6; 19.7–28.2/23.9). Для некоторых типов месторождений установлены минералогические или геологические особенности, влияющие на увеличение доли дефицитных РЗЭ в рудах.
Заключение: Полученные данные количественно маркируют границы специализации разных типов месторождений РЗЭ на наиболее востребованные группы РЗЭ. Такая информация дает возможность специалистам более целенаправленно проводить региональное прогнозирование и
геологоразведочные работы ранних стадий для выявления месторождений с желаемым соотношением разных групп РЗЭ.
The initiative to electrify and decarbonize economies over the next two decades, particularly in the energy and transportation sectors, is going to cause a significant increase in demand for critical rare earth elements , Rare earth elements have already proved themselves highly useful, contributing to many everyday items including batteries, electric vehicles, computer components, photovoltaic panels, and turbines to name a few examples. The number of countries outside of the United States that currently source and provide these critical elements is limited, posing implications for the security and continuity of the global and national supply chain and specifically to the national security of the US. This article is a mini review of the existing literature with recommendations for partnerships. It discusses potential stress points in the current supply chain of REEs and explores the feasibility of expanded American partnerships with Africa and the Democratic Republic of the Congo specifically to address opportunities to strengthen the security and transparency of the global supply chain of REEs. In Africa, REEs are concentrated in countries like South Africa, Madagascar, Malawi, Kenya, Namibia, the DRC, Mozambique, Tanzania, Zambia, and Burundi. These countries have significant quantities of neodymium, praseodymium, and dysprosium among other REEs that are required in the numerous technological items (including green technologies) that are manufactured today. The framework for extracting the elements from those countries requires specific attention to ensure the preservation of natural assets that are key to global health.
New and emerging threats to underwater cultural heritage also have implications for international regimes of protection. These include metal pirates, sand mafias, deep seabed mining, green technology, rare earth minerals, marine genetic bioprospecting, Sino–US geopolitical relations in the South China Sea and climate change. Seafloor extractive industries, targeting genetic resources, oil, gas, sand or minerals are significantly responsible for steadily growing physical disturbance of the seafloor. In addition, the global transition to renewable energy in response to global warming, particularly low carbon technologies, has stimulated rapidly increasing demand for rare earth minerals. As mineral security has grown in strategic importance for all nations, multinational corporations have turned to deposits on the floor of the ocean. Another threat is found in the escalating politicisation and militarisation of the seas and oceans of the Indo-Pacific region, with intricate implications for underwater cultural heritage located in disputed waters, ranging from evidence alleged to be provided by sunken wrecks in advocacy of sovereignty claims to jurisdiction over salvage of metals from sunken hulls. Deep seabed mining and climate change both pose threats to tangible heritage, such as the final resting places of sunken ships and their crews, and intangible heritage, for example, the belief systems and cosmologies of Indigenous Pacific Islanders, which are potentially impacted by sea-level rise and associated erosion of the natural environment, including traditional seascapes and the corresponding loss of ‘spirit-scapes’, eroding the cultures of many Pacific Islanders.KeywordsSouth China seaMarine genetic bioprospectingDeep seabed miningIllicit sand traffickingMetal piratesClimate changeIntangible heritage
This paper explores the importance of rare earth elements (REEs) as a huge economic challenge in the aspect of green economy. REEs are the key drivers of the industry 4.0, because they are a critical component in many high-technology goods. They are also a crucial element of the national security. Rare earths are widely used in green technologies e.g. electric car batteries, wind turbines, solar panels, and the demand for these metals in the near future will be growing. The creation of these green technologies involves environmental pollution during the mine production of rare earths oxides, for example it involves pumping out the groundwater and progressive drainage of the area around the mines. Due to the fact that China is still the largest producer and an important exporter of REEs, the negative ecological effects are held in China. Environmental management is a challenge for economical mining of REEs. The COVID-19 pandemic has shown that global supply chains must be resilient and efficient. Additionally, the war in Ukraine, and also the danger of a conflict in Taiwan, result in the search for methods of producing REEs in other parts of the world. But the problem of environmental pollution still remains. The aim of the article is to answer the questions: What are the benefits and threats of making the world economy dependent on production of REEs in China? Which countries may be important in the production of REEs in the future? Is diversification the only solution to solve the problem of production and supply chain of REEs in the future development of green economy? The research is based on qualitative analysis of the information, available data, and literature collected from various sources.
Gadolinium (Gd) is one important non-renewable strategic element and has been widely used in many fields. This study investigates gadolinium flows in China by conducting dynamic material flow analysis and identifies key factors that affect gadolinium supply and demand. Results show that: (1) China's demand for Gd increased by 30% from 2011 to 2020; (2) Gd supply kept increasing and reached 1922 tons in 2020; (3) Gd resource was exported mainly in the form of intermediate and final products, in which 72% Gd embedded in intermediate products was used for export to meet the growing global demand for Gd. The criticality of gadolinium is not that severe. But it is necessary to prepare appropriate policies to meet with future demands from emerging fields, such as ensuring sustainable supply of gadolinium resources, upgrading China's role in the global gadolinium industrial chain, and improving gadolinium resources efficiency by all the means.
This paper intends to apply the Hubbert curve to the production of rare earth elements by the United States, China, and total global production. The goal of this research is to see if the production of rare earth elements follows the predicted production forecasted by the Hubbert curve and to observe if the curve can create usable predictions of future production. Global demand for rare earth elements has drastically increased in the modern era due to their unique properties. Global production has increased as well to meet this increased demand. Rare earth elements are a collection of seventeen chemical elements that are used in the production of advanced technologies. The demand for rare earth elements has increased in the modern era with new applications for them being discovered and the increasing demand for green energy which requires rare earth elements in its production. The United States was chosen to be examined due to its long history of producing rare earth elements. The United States was also the largest supplier of rare earth elements before China overtook them in rare earth element production. Ever since China became the top producer of rare earth elements, the United States’ production of rare earth has declined. Production reached zero in 2016 due to the lone company that mines rare earth elements in the country filing for bankruptcy. This caused their only mine to be put on care and maintenance. This meant that the United States had to import all of the rare earth metals it requires until the mine reopens or until new mines are created. China was chosen as the other country to analyze because it has the largest known reserves of rare earth metals and is the largest supplier of rare earth elements in the world market today. China’s supply of rare earth metals for the market is also affected by its own increasing demand for rare earth due to its rising industrial sector and their government trying to preserve their reserves of rare earth metals. It was concluded that observed REE production does follow the trend predicted by the Hubbert curve, but the Hubbert curve does not create accurate predictions of future REE productions due to its simplicity. The first section of this paper is a literature review that scrutinizes previous research done about rare earth elements and the Hubbert curve. The reasoning behind this analysis is to get a better understanding of the state of the rare earth elements market and to create a basis for the research of this paper to be conducted on. Correspondingly in this section, the equation of the Hubbert curve and the theoretical implications of its results will also be discussed. The data and regressions will be described that look at the application of the Hubbert curve to the United States’ rare earth element production, China’s rare earth element production and global rare earth production in the next section. The results of this research will be thoroughly described in the conclusion alongside what implications these results have as well. A bibliography citing all material used within this project will be the last part of this paper.
Rare earth elements (REEs) have been increasingly diffused to the environment due to their extensive use and application in industries, agriculture, and high-tech devices, which have been regarded as emerge pollutants. However, the study concerning REEs in urban soils is still limited. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to investigate the potential source and risk of REEs in urban environment. We analyzed the concentration and distribution of REEs in urban park soils, and performed a combination of micro geochemical method and random forest method to characterize the pollution sources of REEs. The results showed that the ΣREE concentrations in Beijing urban park soils ranged from 117.19 to 198.09 mg/kg. Spatial distribution indicated that the high concentrations of REEs were mainly concentrated in the west of Beijing near an industrial area. The geochemical parameters, micro spherules and random forest results confirmed the anthropogenic pollution sources from industry and traffic. Risk assessment showed that the average daily doses of total REEs for children and adults were far below the reference threshold with values of 0.08 and 0.02 µg/kg/day, respectively. Our study has exhibited that though the reconstruction of parks from abandoned industrial sites showed an accumulation of REEs, the health risk of REEs for human beings are negligible.
The thermodynamic stability of intermetallic compounds formed by most conventional alloying elements in Mg alloys is not high, resulting in the poor heat resistance of Mg alloys. Although rare earth (RE) compounds have superior thermal stability, the melting point of Al-RE compounds is generally higher than that of Mg-RE compounds. Therefore, in-depth exploration of the influence mechanism of RE compounds on the heat resistance of Al-containing Mg alloys is necessary. In this work, the thermodynamic stability of the might exist precipitates in Mg–Al–Zn–Mn–Y alloys was analyzed using first-principles calculations and verified via scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS), and other experimental methods. Based on their results, the precipitation sequence of the key RE precipitates was deduced. Furthermore, it was investigated whether the preferentially precipitated precipitates could serve as the nuclei of primary α-Mg based on the mismatch theory. Consequently, the refinement mechanism of Y on Mg alloys was elucidated. Besides, the complex alloying reactions in the multi-elemental Mg alloy system were simplified using the electronegativity theory and the Al–Y, Mg–Y, Mg–Al binary phase diagrams, and the strengthening mechanism of Y on Mg alloys was elucidated eventually. The results indicated that the preferentially precipitated granular Al8Mn4Y and Al2Y prevented Mg17Al12 from forming a network structure, and a reinforced structure was formed in which the modified Mg17Al12 particles were mixed with the newly formed granular Al8Mn4Y and Al2Y. Tensile tests and fracture analyses indicated that the reinforced structure improved the mechanical properties of the alloy both at room and elevated temperatures.
The distribution of rare earth element (REE) deposits and their resources through geological time has been analyzed. The analysis is based on data on 103 deposits distributed around the world with a resource estimate of at least 100 000 t of lanthanoid and yttrium oxides. The variability in the formation of significant REE accumulations through geological time is demonstrated by comparing supercontinent cycles based on
the ore resources of different types and ages. In the Kenoran cycle, only one deposit was identified in which the REE resources quantitatively exceeded the specified limit: a modified paleoplacer with initially detrital U–REE mineralization. The placer type is also represented in the Amasian cycle, but by deposits with different ore specialization. Carbonatite, hypergene in carbonatites, syenite, and alkali-granitic types are represented
by deposits in all other supercontinent cycles. Significant foidic-type deposits were formed in the Columbian, Rodinian, and Pangean cycles; subalkali-granitic type deposits were formed, in the Columbian and Rodinian cycles; and ion-adsorption orebodies are known only in the Amasian cycle. On the geological time scale, deposits of all types are distributed very unevenly. The maximum resources are estimated in deposits of the Rodinian cycle. The other cycles, not counting the extremely nonproductive Kenoran cycle,
are 2–2.5 times inferior to the Rodinian cycle in this aspect. We have also analyzed the distribution in deposits of different types and ages of those light and heavy REE that are the most valuable on the world market. Deposits with a pronounced specialization in different groups of such REE have been identified. They occur in the sampling lists of deposits of all supercontinent cycles, except the Kenoran.
Export restrictions on metals and mineral products have been broadly applied by many countries with a view to securing domestic supply and addressing resource depletion. Export restrictions are designed to meet diverse policy objectives ranging from environmental protection and increasing fiscal revenue to the development of processing sectors. The global dependency on China for raw materials (particularly rare earth elements) is a contentious issue, as China imposes a number of restrictions on the export of these minerals. This study uses the case of rare earth elements to evaluate Chinese export restrictions, reviewing China's current monopoly over the industry and providing insights on how widely traded these minerals are and China's position in international trade in terms of both volume and value. The study investigates the various trade restrictions imposed by China and their implications, including the availability of materials to industrialized countries.
Rare earth metals are important inputs into the development and manufacturing of many green and high-tech products. It is an international strategic concern that much of the supply chain for rare earth metals is based in China. This paper looks at issues involving the availability of rare earth metals, its use, China’s involvement, and pricing to better understand the strategic issues and their impact. It is concluded that the major need is to develop rare earth metal processing and use capacity outside of China. However, this will not be easy to do because of economic and social factors.
The rare-earth elements (REE) are a group of seventeen speciality metals that have unique and diverse chemical, magnetic, and luminescent properties that make them strategically important in a number of high-technology industries. Consequently, the REE are increasingly becoming more attractive commodity targets for the mineral industry. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the distribution, geological characteristics and resources of Australia's major REE deposits. REE in Australia are associated with igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks in a wide range of geological environments. Elevated concentrations of these elements have been documented in various heavy-mineral sand deposits (beach, dune, marine tidal, and channel), carbonatite intrusions, (per)alkaline igneous rocks, iron-oxide breccia complexes, calc-silicate rocks (skarns), fluorapatite veins, pegmatites, phosphorites, fluviatile sandstones, unconformity-related uranium deposits, and lignites. The distribution and concentration of REE in these deposits are influenced by various rock-forming processes including enrichment in magmatic or hydrothermal fluids, separation into mineral species and precipitation, and subsequent redistribution and concentration through weathering and other surface processes. The lanthanide series of REE (lanthanum to lutetium) and yttrium show a close genetic and spatial association with alkaline felsic igneous rocks, however, scandium in laterite profiles has a closer affinity with ultramafic/mafic igneous rocks.
This article critically compares China's rare earth policy with perspectives upheld in the rest of the world (ROW). We introduce rare earth elements and their importance for energy and present how China and the ROW are framing the policy debate. We find strongly dissonant views with regards to motives for foreign direct investment, China's two-tiered pricing structure and its questionable innovation potential. Using the metaphor of “China Inc.”, we compare the Chinese government to a socially responsible corporation that aims to balance the needs of its internal stakeholders with the demands from a resource-dependent world. We find that China's internal stakeholders have more power and legitimacy in the REE debate than the ROW and reconceptualise various possible mitigation strategies that could change current international policy and market dynamics. As such, we aim to reframe the perspectives that seem to govern the West and argue in favor of policy formation that explicitly acknowledges China's triple bottom line ambitions and encourages the ROW to engage with China in a more nuanced manner.
TMS has forged cooperative agreements with several carefully selected organizations that actively work to benefit the materials science community. In this occasional series, JOM will provide an update on the activities of these organizations. This installment, by the Center for Resource Recovery & Recycling (CR3), focuses on the importance of recycling of rare earths to mitigate the so-called Balance Problem. The CR3 is a research center established by Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Colorado School of Mines, and KU Leuven. Twenty-eight corporations and national laboratories along with support from the U.S. National Science Foundation’s Industry University Cooperative Research Center (I/UCRC) program are sponsors of the center.
It is known to all that China is abundant in rare earth resources. But rare earth deposits are really not that rare in the earth crust. In the five continents, i.e. Asia, Europe, Australia, North and South America, and Africa, there are about thirty four countries found to have rare earth deposits; Brazil might surpass China and rank the first in rare earth deposits. At present, investment in rare earth production was surged, there have been about 200 projects, and the total production for 25 of them would be more than 170 thousand tons after 2015, a multi-supply system on rare earths is being established worldwide. Cautions on the investment of rare earth production are involved.
China monopolizes the rare earths resource, production, consumption, and export of rare earth products, while it has less opportunity to control the international market price. The issues of over-exploitation, excessive production and environmental pollution in China tend to be serious for a long time. In addition, poor scientific and technological innovation abilities limit the development of domestic rare earth industry. The Chinese government has implemented a series of export restriction policies to solve these problems. Due to the trade tension, the export restriction policies are abolished, and the China's rare earth firms will meet new problems. This study aims to provide an ANP-SWOT approach for interdependent analysis and prioritizing the rare earth industry in China. We analyze the internal and external environment factors, develop five short-term strategies and four long-term strategies to determine the optimal strategy of rare earth industry development plan. The results show that the best short-term development strategies for China's rare earth industry are the protection of key resources, mining right integration, and the best long-term strategies are establishing of national strategic reserve system of rare earth and improving the technical innovation capacity.
The rising imbalance between increased demand for minerals and their tighter supply has resulted in growing concerns about their criticality. This has in turn stimulated both resource-rich and resource-poor countries to take an active role in implementing mineral strategies. The present paper explains why different world regions responded differently to the global problem of securing stable supply of critical minerals, in particular of rare earths. The paper is based on a comparative political economy framework and examines the extent to which distinct national policy styles, national interests, resource endowment and historical experience in tackling supply risk shaped the different policy choices. The overall findings show that despite their similar objectives, strategies undertaken by various regions tend to differ in their foci. Whereas Europe opts for a policy dialogue with resource-rich countries, Japan and the United States have a more hands-on approach in research and development initiatives. Australia's and China's policies instead, focus on development of domestic mining activities and on resource protection.
The ionic clay rare earth resources in China are the cheapest and most accessible source of heavy rare earths. They are also the most valuable. The Chinese rare earth market has an uncontrolled illegal market segment that represents approximately 40% of the domestic market, which translates to 30% of the global market. This sector of the market pays little or no attention to the environmental damage of their mining and processing actions and, through their unregulated supply, depresses the market price such that external (and in some cases, internal) producers are having difficulties making or maintaining profit margins. It creates significant negative externalities that adversely affects the native environment and the international rare earth market.
In this paper, a clear and structured economic model is introduced to illustrate complex past and future developments of the market for rare earth elements (REE). The model consists of a sequence of four supply and demand models that give explanations how the mining and separation step of the REE value chain could concentrate in China. Furthermore, the sequence allows giving a coherent scenario for the future developments of the REE market. According to this scenario, the market could transform into an at least oligopoly due to a growing market demand. The validity of this scenario is discussed and evaluated from the perspective of western countries, investors and China. Additionally, a scenario, based on the models, of a propagating monopoly along the value chain is discussed. Finally, suggestions are made for western governments to promote the transformation and lead it to a positive outcome.
Rare earth elements (REE) are indispensable to infrastructure, technology, and modern lifestyles, which has led to an increasing demand for these elements. The current global rare earth oxides (REO) market is dominated by Chinese production, which peaked in 2006 at 133,000 tonnes REO per year, accounting for some 97.1% of global production, causing concern about the long-term supply of REE resources. Although the REE consist of 17 individual elements (15 lanthanides plus scandium and yttrium) that are hosted by numerous types of mineralization, the relatively modest scale of the global REE mining sector has limited our knowledge of REE mineral resources and mineralizing systems compared to metals such as copper and iron, which are produced in much larger quantities.
In order to quantitatively analyze the mineralogy, concentrations, and geologic types of REE deposits, we compiled a global dataset of REE mineral resources based on the most recently available data (2013–2014). This compilation yields minimum global contained total rare earth oxides plus yttrium oxide (TREO + Y) resources of 619.5 Mt split between 267 deposits. Deposits with available grade and tonnage data (260 of the 267 deposits in our database) contain some 88,483 Mt of mineral resources at an average concentration of 0.63% TREO + Y, hosting 553.7 Mt TREO + Y. Of the 267 total deposits in our database, some 160 have mineral resources reported using statutory mining codes (e.g., JORC, NI43-101, SAMREC), with the remaining 107 projects having CRIRSCO-noncompliant mineral resources that are based on information available in the industry literature and peer-reviewed scientific articles.
Approximately 51.4% of global REO resources are hosted by carbonatite deposits, and bastnäsite, monazite, and xenotime are the three most significant REE minerals, accounting for >90% of the total resources within our database. In terms of REE resources by individual country, China dominates currently known TREO + Y resources (268.1 Mt), accounting for 43% of the global REO resources within our database, with Australia, Russia, Canada, and Brazil having 64.5, 62.3, 48.3, and 47.1 Mt of contained TREO + Y resources, respectively. Some 84.3 Mt TREO + Y is hosted within tailings (dominated by tailings from Bayan Obo but with smaller resources at Palabora, Steenkampskraal, and Mary Kathleen) and 12.4 Mt TREO + Y is hosted by monazite within heavy mineral sands projects, illustrating the potential for REO production from resources other than traditional hard-rock mining.
Global REE resources are dominated by the light REE, having an average light REO (LREO; La-Gd) to heavy REO (Tb-Lu and Y) ratio of 13:1. These REE deposits contain an average of 81 ppm Th and 127 ppm U, indicating that radioactive waste associated with REE extraction and refining could be a concern. Modeling the 2012 global production figures of 110 kt TREO + Y combined with an assumed 5% annual growth in REE demand indicates that known REE resources could sustain production until 2100 and that geologic scarcity is not an immediate problem. This suggests that other issues such as environmental, economic, and social factors will strongly influence the development of REE resources.
Security of supply of a number of raw materials is of concern for the European Union; foremost among these are the rare earth elements (REE), which are used in a range of modern technologies. A number of research projects, including the EURARE and ASTER projects, have been funded in Europe to investigate various steps along the REE supply chain. This paper addresses the initial part of that supply chain, namely the potential geological resources of the REE in Europe. Although the REE are not currently mined in Europe, potential resources are known to be widespread, and many are being explored. The most important European resources are associated with alkaline igneous rocks and carbonatites, although REE deposits are also known from a range of other settings. Within Europe, a number of REE metallogenetic belts can be identified on the basis of age, tectonic setting, lithological association and known REE enrichments. This paper reviews those metallogenetic belts and sets them in their geodynamic context. The most well-known of the REE belts are of Precambrian to Palaeozoic age and occur in Greenland and the Fennoscandian Shield. Of particular importance for their REE potential are the Gardar Province of SW Greenland, the Svecofennian Belt and subsequent Mesoproterozoic rifts in Sweden, and the carbonatites of the Central Iapetus Magmatic Province. However, several zones with significant potential for REE deposits are also identified in central, southern and eastern Europe, including examples in the Bohemian Massif, the Iberian Massif, and the Carpathians.
The long-term growth of numerous industries will depend on the ability to secure stable and diverse sources of rare earths.
Recent years have seen unprecedented volatility in this sector, with the rare earths being increasingly considered as strategic
and critical to a wide range of technologies. During the next few years, demand for some of the rare earths is expected to
exceed supply. Chinese export-quota policies have had a severe impact on the market. Worldwide exploration efforts are now
leading to the deployment of a rare earth supply chain based outside China.
After top producer China decided in 2010 to tighten its export quotas for rare earth elements (REE), major customers feared being cut off from the valuable metals. The trade dispute intensified when the EU, the USA, and Japan brought the case before the WTO. The export controls raise questions about China's intentions and strategies. This article argues that China's export policy should not be viewed in isolation. The export controls are embedded in a greater transformation of the strategic REE industry. Beijing promotes a broad set of policies, including industry reorganization, resource conservation, and environmental protection. Next, the article examines three narratives that may be constitutive of the Chinese policy. Findings indicate that the geopolitical narrative, which sees natural resources as instruments of power politics, can be only partly attributed to China's REE policies. The major driving motives are domestic concerns for resource conservation and environmental protection, as well as the development of competitive downstream industries.
Maintaining the balance between the demand by the economic markets and the natural abundance of the rare-earth elements (REEs) in ores constitutes a major challenge for manufacturers of these elements. This is the so-called balance problem (or balancing problem). The ideal situation is a perfect match between the demand and (production) supply of REEs, so that there are no surpluses of any of the REEs. The balance problem implicates that the rare-earth industry has to either find new applications for REEs that are available in excess, or needs to search for substitutions for REEs that have limited availability and that are high in demand. Different solutions are proposed to solve the balance problem: diversification of REE resources, recycling and urban/landfill mining, substitution, reduced use and new high-volume applications. No single solution can solve the balance problem, but a combination of different strategies can. It is illustrated that the issue of thorium in REE ores is also directly related to the balance problem: presently, thorium is considered as radioactive waste, but this waste could be turned into a valuable resource by using thorium in a thorium-based nuclear fuel cycle.
The 2011 peak in rare earth element (REE) prices revealed a vast knowledge gap on the REE-based industry considered to be almost monopolized by Chinese players. A global value chain (GVC) framework is used to provide an understanding of value-adding segments of REE in their transformation from mine to market but inquiries on the currently most-advanced company strategies for alternative REE supplies form the cornerstone of this paper. The Anglo-REE deposit developer strategies are aligned with the value-adding segments and different approaches to integration and co-optation of REE processing competence are uncovered. On this basis the significance of alternative Anglo-REE-developer supplies is discussed and positioned in the perspective of Chinese industrial upgrading.
Rare earth elements (REEs) comprise the fifteen elements of the lanthanide series as well as yttrium, and may be found in over 250 different minerals. These elements are required for many different applications such as high-strength permanent magnets, catalysts for petroleum refining, metal and glass additives and phosphors used in electronic displays. The only REE bearing minerals that have been extracted on a commercial scale are bastnäsite, monazite, and xenotime. These minerals may be beneficiated using gravity, magnetic, electrostatic and flotation separation techniques. Increased demand for the different products manufactured from REE has resulted in a constriction of supply from China, which currently produces 97% of the world’s rare earths, via export quotas. Many new rare earth deposits are currently being developed to help meet the demand void created by the Chinese export quotas, however most of these developing deposits include rare earth minerals for which there is limited processing knowledge. This paper examines the separation techniques that are currently employed for rare earth mineral beneficiation and identifies areas in need of further research.
Mineral prospecting and raising finance for ‘junior’ mining firms has historically been regarded as a speculative activity. For the regulators of securities markets upon which ‘junior’ mining companies seek to raise capital, a perennial problem has been handling not only the indeterminacy of scientific claims, but also the social basis of epistemic practices. This paper examines the production of a system of public warrant and associated knowledge practices intended to enable investors to differentiate between ‘destructive’ and ‘productive’ varieties of financial speculation. It traces the use of the notion of ‘disclosure’ in constructing and legitimizing the ‘juniors’ market in Canada. It argues that though the work of ‘economics’ may be necessary in the construction of markets, it is by no means sufficient. Attention must also be given to the ways in which legal models of ‘the free-market’ can be translated and constantly re-worked across the sites and spaces of regulatory practice, animating the geographies of markets.
Supply of some critical raw materials by European industry is becoming more and more difficult. After the case of natural textile fibres, in particular cotton, and timber, over the last few years the problem of rare earths (REs) availability has also risen. The 97% of the global supply of rare earth metals (REMs) is produced by China, that has recently done copious cuts of its exports, apparently in order to protect its environment. This fact has greatly increased the REs prices, causing tension and uncertainty among the world hi-tech markets. Many of these materials, in fact, have very few effective substitutes and low recycling rates too. In addition, their natural reserves of rare earths are concentrated in a small number of countries (China, Brazil, US, Russia, Democratic Republic of Congo). REMs are a group of 17 elements particularly used in many new electronic and advanced components: such as fuel cells, mobile phones, displays, hi-capacity batteries, permanent magnets for wind power generation, green energy devices, etc. Many analysts foresee much more requests in the next decades.
The flow field of three geometry models 90-degree vertical to horizontal elbow, three-level conical rings concentrator and the combination of elbow and concentrator have been studied by simulation method. The velocity magnitude, relative mean axial velocity, relative mean radial velocity and axial particle volume flux has been analyzed. Elbow results in the asymmetry of its downstream flow field and the high speed airflow after conical rings shows lower speed and decays more quickly. Elbow influences the downstream particle distribution significantly. Elbow and conical rings cause a peak of axial particle volume flux, and the peak moves downwards. The peak value appears at y=0 on the axial position z/D=1.0. The concentration performance of the concentrator is enhanced by the elbow in some degree. The optimal distance between the outlet and the outlet of the primary air pipe had better be equal to the primary air duct diameter.
The rare earths community is small and restricted and needs better communication between production, end users, and research.This paper gives a general overview of RE reserves, production capacity, and also a breakdown of the consumption by end users.Among the permanent problems of RE producers, three are of greatest importance: 1.(i) Balancing the market demand with the natural occurrence of the RE elements in most common ores such as monazite and bastnasite. This is essential in ensuring the lowest market price for any RE element.2.(ii) The extreme speed of development of some new applications.3.(iii) The difference in growth rates of various applications.
The rare earth elements (REE) are a group of fifteen elements with unique properties that make them indispensable for a wide variety of emerging and conventional established technologies. However, quantitative knowledge of REE remains sparse, despite the current heightened interest in future availability of the resources. Mining is heavily concentrated in China, whose monopoly position and potential restriction of exports render primary supply vulnerable to short term disruption. We have drawn upon the published literature and unpublished materials in different languages to derive the first quantitative annual domestic production by end use of individual rare earth elements from 1995 to 2007. The information is illustrated in Sankey diagrams for the years 1995 and 2007. Other years are available in the supporting information. Comparing 1995 and 2007, the production of the rare earth elements in China, Japan, and the US changed dramatically in quantities and structure. The information can provide a solid foundation for industries, academic institutions and governments to make decisions and develop strategies.
About 200 rare earth (RE) minerals are distributed in a wide variety of mineral classes, such as halides, carbonates, oxides, phosphates, silicates, etc. Due to the large ionic radii and trivalent oxidation state, RE ions in the minerals have large coordination numbers (c.n.) 6–10 by anions (O, F, OH). Light rare earth elements (LREEs) tend to occupy the larger sites of 8–10 c.n. and concentrate in carbonates and phosphates. On the other hand, heavy rare earth elements (HREEs) and Y occupy 6–8 c.n. sites and are abundant in oxides and a part of phosphates. Only a few mineral species, such as bastnaesite (Ce,La)(CO3)F, monazite (Ce,La)PO4, xenotime YPO4, and RE-bearing clay have been recovered for commercial production. Bayan Obo, China is the biggest RE deposit in the world. One of probable hypotheses for ore geneses is that the deposit might be formed by hydrothermal replacement of carbonate rocks of sedimentary origin. The hydrothermal fluid may be derived from an alkaline–carbonatite intrusive series. Following Bayan Obo, more than 550 carbonatite/alkaline complex rocks constitute the majority of the world RE resources. The distribution is restricted to interior and marginal regions of continents, especially Precambrian cratons and shields, or related to large-scale rift structures. Main concentrated areas of the complexes are East African rift zones, northern Scandinavia-Kola peninsula, eastern Canada and southern Brazil. Representative sedimentary deposits of REE are placer- and conglomerate-types. The major potential countries are Australia, India, Brazil, and Malaysia. Weathered residual deposits have been formed under tropical and sub-tropical climates. Bauxite and laterite nickel deposit are the representative. Ion adsorption clay without radioactive elements is known in southern China. Weathering processes concentrate REE in a particular clay mineral-layer in the weathered crusts whose source were originally REE-rich rocks like granite and carbonatite. The production is increasing in recent years. However, the process of chemical extraction has brought environmental problems.
The future availability of rare earth elements (REEs) is of concern due to monopolistic supply conditions, environmentally unsustainable mining practices, and rapid demand growth. We present an evaluation of potential future demand scenarios for REEs with a focus on the issue of comining. Many assumptions were made to simplify the analysis, but the scenarios identify some key variables that could affect future rare earth markets and market behavior. Increased use of wind energy and electric vehicles are key elements of a more sustainable future. However, since present technologies for electric vehicles and wind turbines rely heavily on dysprosium (Dy) and neodymium (Nd), in rare-earth magnets, future adoption of these technologies may result in large and disproportionate increases in the demand for these two elements. For this study, upper and lower bound usage projections for REE in these applications were developed to evaluate the state of future REE supply availability. In the absence of efficient reuse and recycling or the development of technologies which use lower amounts of Dy and Nd, following a path consistent with stabilization of atmospheric CO(2) at 450 ppm may lead to an increase of more than 700% and 2600% for Nd and Dy, respectively, over the next 25 years if the present REE needs in automotive and wind applications are representative of future needs.
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