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AMMONIA INHALATION DOES NOT INCREASE DEADLIFT
1-REPETITION MAXIMUM IN COLLEGE-AGED MALE
AND FEMALE WEIGHT LIFTERS
JUSTIN N. VIGIL,PHILIP L. SABATINI,LAURA C. HILL,DAVID P. SWAIN,AND J. DAVID BRANCH
Department of Human Movement Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia
ABSTRACT
Vigil, JN, Sabatini, PL, Hill, LC, Swain, DP, and Branch, JD.
Ammonia inhalation does not increase deadlift 1-repetition
maximum in college-aged male and female weight lifters. J
Strength Cond Res 32(12): 3392–3397, 2018—Ammonia inhal-
ant use by powerlifters and weight lifters is a prevalent practice
with little research support for improved performance. The pur-
pose of this study was to investigate the effects of ammonia as
a stimulant on athletic performance during a deadlift 1-repetition
maximum (1RM) absolute strength test. Subjects (men: n=10,
mean 6SD age = 21 61 year, mass = 72.5 66.8 kg; and
women: n=10,age=2265 years, mass = 66.2 68.1 kg)
were required to have at least 2 years of resistance training
experience while lacking a history of asthma, lightheadedness,
fainting, anaphylaxis, sickle cell traits, and other respiratory dis-
orders. After a baseline 1RM test, subjects were paired by 1RM
performance and gender, then randomly assigned in a counter-
balanced treatment order to control (water) or ammonia trials
after a minimum 72-hour recovery period for another 1RM test
involving attempts at 100.0, 102.5, 105.0, and 107.5% of the
established 1RM value. Testing was then repeated after
the minimum rest period for the remaining trial. Results revealed
the expected gender main effect for absolute deadlift 1RM
(93.0 629.5 [women]; 152.0 629.5 kg [men]; p,0.001),
but no trial main effect (p= 0.874) or gender by trial interaction
effect (baseline = 93.0 615.3, 151.8 642.3 kg; water =
92.0 612.5, 150.9 637.8 kg; ammonia = 92.5 616.4,
153.4 637.9 kg) for women and men, respectively (p=
0.559). Within the limitations of this study, there is no support
for the practice of ammonia inhalation to improve deadlift 1RM in
training or competition.
KEY WORDS powerlifting, weight lifting, strength, ergogenic
aids
INTRODUCTION
Competitive powerlifting combines the maximal
mass successfully lifted in a squat, bench press,
and deadlift. Powerlifting is an international
sport with the World Powerlifting Congress re-
porting 46 affiliate member countries (27). The 2015 Inter-
national and US Powerlifting Championship events
reported more than 750 and almost 1,000 competitors,
respectively (correspondence from Robert Keller, Secre-
tary General, International Powerlifting Federation, March
9, 2016). Powerlifters, similar to athletes in other sports,
seek ergogenic aids to gain an edge over their competitors.
Several ergogenic aids used by powerlifters and other ath-
letes such as anabolic-androgenic steroids, prohormones,
human growth hormone, insulin-like growth factors, etc.
have well-documented adverse health effects and/or pro-
vide an unfair competitive advantage (5). Other ergogenic
aids appear to have little to no risk but also lack scientific
evidence for an ergogenic effect (21). Evidence for the
efficacy of any ergogenic aid used by athletes today ranges
from a large body of scientific support to only anecdotal
testimonials.
Although some ergogenic aids are banned in training and
competition by the World Anti-Doping Agency, others,
including ammonia inhalant (AI) use, are not banned and
are used in competition by powerlifters (16,26). In their
international survey of powerlifters, Pritchard et al. (22)
revealed that 49% of all respondents used AI, 78% of users
felt AI use was ergogenic, and 80% of all respondents indi-
cated AI use was a safe practice. AI was typically used for
2–3 lifts during a competition (45% of AI users) and before
the deadlift, the last event in powerlifting competitions. AI
use by powerlifters is acknowledged by the International
Powerlifting Federation Technical rules book (12), which
states that “a lifter shall not .use ammonia within view
of the public.” Physiological effects of AI include irritation
of the nasal cavity and lungs resulting in momentary
increased inspiration, respiration rate, and alertness (12).
Perry et al. (19) reported increased middle cerebral artery
blood flow velocity and increased heart rate after AI. The
role of these physiological effects in improved powerlifting
performance remains to be elucidated.
Address correspondence to J. David Branch, dbranch@odu.edu.
32(12)/3383–3388
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
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VOLUME 32 | NUMBER 12 | DECEMBER 2018 | 3383
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Despite the high prevalence of AI use by powerlifters,
well-controlled research on the efficacy of AI use is almost
nonexistent. AI was ineffective in increasing back squat and
bench press repetitions at 85% of 1-repetition maximum
(1RM) (24) or maximal mid-thigh pull force, rate of force
development, or electromyography activity (19), but
increased Wingate test peak and mean anaerobic power
was observed after a simulated American football game
(25). To our knowledge, no studies have examined the er-
gogenic effect of AI on the 1RM of any competitive weight-
lifting event. According to an international survey of
powerlifters, 89% of AI use was associated with deadlift
1RM which is the last of 3 events in powerlifting compet-
itions (22). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to
examine the effect of AI use on deadlift 1RM in college-
aged male and female recreational weight lifters. We
hypothesized that AI would significantly improve deadlift
1RM performance.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
For testing our hypothesis that AI would increase deadlift
1RM, we used a 2 gender 33 treatment (baseline, water,
and ammonia) design with repeated measures on treat-
ment. The primary independent variable was treatment,
with water and ammonia treatments administered in coun-
terbalanced order after the baseline treatment. Subjects
were blinded to their first assigned treatment of either
water or ammonia up to the first exposure, after which they
were aware of the treatment for subsequent deadlift 1RM
attempts in that session and the remaining treatment in the
third and final session. Therefore, the nature of the treatments
precluded true blinding throughout the entire study. During
the baseline session, absolute deadlift 1RM was measured
after a standardized warm-up which was also used in the
water and ammonia treatments. The following progressive
approach was used to achieve deadlift 1RM in the water
and ammonia treatments: 2 repetitions (reps) each at 65
and 75% of baseline 1RM; 1 rep each at 85, 90, and 95% of
baseline 1RM; then 100, 102.5, 105 and 107.5% of baseline
1RM as necessary to failure. The study design attempted to
mimic conditions during both training and competition,
including attempts to lift the heaviest load in 3 attempts.
Absolute deadlift 1RM was selected as the dependent variable
for 3 reasons. First, the effects of AI are brief, therefore it is
logical to assume that an ergogenic effect would occur within
the much shorter time window of administration immediately
before a 1RM attempt rather than before multiple high-
intensity repetitions (24). Secondly, the deadlift is generally
considered to be a safe lift for recreational weight lifters
assuming the use of proper technique. Finally, the deadlift is
the last lift in powerlifting competitions and the lift most
associated with AI inhalation among powerlifters (22). The
study protocol is presented in Table 1.
Subjects
Undergraduate exercise science majors (mean 6SD:n=10
men; n= 10 women; age range = 19–34 years) were re-
cruited from a strength and conditioning leadership course.
TABLE 1. Study protocol.*
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Subject
recruitment and
screening;
informed
consent
Standardized warm-up
preceding baseline
deadlift 1RM with
subjects paired based
on 1RM and gender
and randomly
assigned to water/
ammonia or ammonia/
water treatment orders
72-h rest
interval
Standardized warm-up
preceding deadlift
1RM under first
treatment in assigned
treatment order (water
or ammonia)
72-h rest
interval
Standardized warm-
up preceding
deadlift 1RM under
remaining
treatment in
assigned treatment
order
Deadlift weight
progression
based on
baseline 1RM
2365% 1RM 2 365% 1RM
2375% 1RM 2 375% 1RM
1385% 1RM 1 385% 1RM
1390% 1RM 1 390% 1RM
1395% 1RM 1 395% 1RM
13100% 1RM†13100% 1RM†
13102.5% 1RM†13102.5% 1RM†
13105% 1RM†13105% 1RM†
13107.5% 1RM†13107.5% 1RM†
*1RM, 1-repetition maximum.
†To failure.
Ammonia Inhalation and Deadlift
3384
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All subjects were naive to AI use and were required to have
a minimum of 2 years of resistance training experience, spe-
cifically experience with deadlift exercise. Data collection was
done in the spring of 2016 beginning at the 10th week of the
semester in order for one of the researchers to provide indi-
vidual instruction on correct weight lifting movements includ-
ing the deadlift. We used recreational athletes as subjects due
to an insufficient number of available highly trained and com-
petitive weight lifters. At the time of testing, all subjects had
received supervised instruction on performing the deadlift and
other weight lifting movements. Subjects were instructed not
to change their weight lifting routines, nutritional intake, or
hydration for the duration of the study and to refrain from any
heavy lifting outside of the study. Otherwise, there was no
control of periodization cycle training volume or intensity.
Participants with a history of asthma, lightheadedness, faint-
ing, anaphylaxis, sickle cell trait, and other respiratory disor-
ders were excluded from the study. Ammonia inhalation has
been reported to irritate the eyes and upper respiratory tracts
in humans (20) and rats (1). This study used small amounts of
inhalants 2 inches from the nose for a brief, split second inha-
lation. Subjects were only exposed a total of 6 times through-
out the study with minimal duration and depth of exposure.
All testing was conducted at one university. Before all testing,
the study protocol was approved by the Human Subjects
Institutional Review Board at Old Dominion University
(Norfolk, VA). All procedures conformed to the Declaration
of Helsinki as revised in 1996. Participants received a verbal
explanation of the risks and benefits of the study and also
provided written informed consent.
Procedures
Subjects reported for data collection on 3 separate sessions
separated by 7 days. Baseline deadlift 1RM was measured
in the first session after a standardized warm-up {fire
hydrants (2 310 per leg); lunge stretches (2 310 seconds);
dumbbell good mornings (2 310 at 4.5 and 9.1 kg [10 and
20 lbs]); 3 35 at 45% 1RM; and 2 33at50%1RM}which
was replicated in the other 2 sessions. Equipment used in
the study included a standard Rogue Fitness (Columbus,
OH) Echo Series Bumper Plates (1.1, 2.3, 4.5, 6.8, 11.4,
15.9, 20.4, and 25.0 kg [2.5, 5, 10, 15, 25, 35, 45, and 55
lbs] options) which were secured to a 20-kg (45-lb) Rouge
Fitness (Columbus, OH) 28-MM Training Bar with spring
collars. Deadlift 1RM testing took place on a standard 2.4 3
2.4-m (8 38-ft) Olympic regulation weightlifting platform
(FW-147; ProMaxima, Houston, TX, USA), located in
the university’s student recreation center. Subjects were
allowed to use any weightlifting accessories such as Olym-
pic weight lifting shoes, belts, sleeves, etc., and were
required to use the same equipment and the same grip
and lifting technique for baseline, water, and ammonia tri-
als. The AI was Pac-Kit (South Norwalk, CT, USA) AI
medical kit refills (#9–100, 100 count). Each capsule con-
tained 0.33-ml solution of ammonia (50 mg, 15%), dena-
tured alcohol (35%), and water (50%). The control
substance was water in an identical bottle.
For sessions 2 and 3, subjects inhaled the assigned inhalant
in counterbalanced order and attempted to lift 102.5, 105,
and 107.5% of the 1RM achieved in baseline testing. Subjects
were asked to set their feet and adjust equipment (e.g.,
tighten belt, set straps, etc.) before the attempt, take in 1
maximal inhalation from the assigned bottle and perform the
lift within 15 seconds of inhalation. Water (control) or
ammonia capsules were placed in identical opaque plastic
bottles along with a coin by an individual not involved with
data collection or analysis. Immediately before administra-
tion, the bottle containing a subject’s assigned treatment was
shaken which broke the ammonia capsule by contact with
the coin. The contents of the bottle (water or ammonia)
were then inhaled through a small hole in the bottle cap.
Subjects and the researchers were blinded to the treatments.
If the subject failed an attempt, they were allowed a second
attempt at the weight with identical procedures, including
another inhalation of the prescribed inhalant. All subjects
had a timed rest interval of 3 minutes between all attempts
during this study for ideal recovery time without compro-
mising performance (15). A given subject was measured at
the same time of the day for baseline, water, and ammonia
treatments which were separated by a 72-hour interval
(Table 1). The trial-to-trial reliability of deadlift 1RM was
determined by an intraclass reliability coefficient of 0.995
across 3 separate measurements.
Statistical Analyses
Baseline descriptive variables (age, baseline height and mass,
and years of weight lifting experience) and 1RM data for
baseline, water, and ammonia trials were examined for
normality and homogeneity of variance. All variables con-
formed to Gaussian distributions according to the Shapiro-
Wilk test. Differences between men and women for descriptive
variables were examined by independent ttest. The difference
in the deadlift 1RM attempts between ammonia and water
trials was examined by dependent ttest. One-RM data and
percentage changes between baseline, water, and ammonia
treatments were analyzed by separate 2 gender 33 treatment
repeated-measures analyses of variance with Tukey post hoc
comparisons for significant main and interaction effects.
Repeated measures data conformed to sphericity assumptions
according to Mauchly’s test. All analyses were performed
using IBM SPSS (Version 21; Armonk, NY, USA). The crite-
rion for statistical significance was a= 0.05. Unless otherwise
indicated, values are reported as mean 6SD.
RESULTS
Ten men and 10 women completed all 3 testing sessions.
Baseline characteristics are presented in Table 2. As ex-
pected, men were significantly heavier and had greater
(p#0.05) absolute (kg) and mass-relative (kg$kg
21
) deadlift
performance. There were no reported issues or injuries from
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participation in the study outside of normal soreness and
delayed onset muscle soreness signs and symptoms. There
was no difference between ammonia and water trials in
deadlift 1RM attempts with the first attempt at 1RM mea-
sured at baseline (ammonia = 2.2 61.2 vs. water = 2.1 61.3,
p= 0.629).
Matching of subjects in pairs according to baseline
performance and gender for randomized assignment to
treatment order (water/ammonia; ammonia/water) resulted
in no order effect (p= 0.533).
The effect of treatments on absolute deadlift performance
is presented in Figure 1. As expected, there was a significant
gender main effect (F
1,18
= 20.09, p,0.0001) in favor of
men. However, there was no trial main effect (F
2,36
= 0.135,
p= 0.874) or gender-by-trial interaction effect (F
2,36
= 0.591,
p= 0.559).
As shown in Figure 2, percentage changes in absolute
deadlift strength (water vs. baseline; ammonia vs. baseline;
ammonia vs. water) were not significantly different (F
2,36
=
0.141, p= 0.869) with no gender main effect (F
1,18
= 0.368,
p= 0.552) or gender by percent comparison interaction
effect (F
2,36
= 0.909, p= 0.412).
DISCUSSION
AI is commonly practiced by power athletes to induce
heightened arousal and alertness, and increased respiratory
rate (16,26). AI use by powerlifters is most commonly associ-
ated with the deadlift which is the last lift in powerlifting
competitions (22). Despite the prevalence of this practice,
there is scant research on the ergogenic effects of AI. Further-
more, we are unaware of any studies of AI ergogenic effects
on maximal 1RM strength in any lifting task including the
deadlift. The key finding of this study is that AI resulted in
no significant difference in absolute deadlift 1RM after ammo-
nia inhalation compared with either a water control or base-
line measurement in male and female recreational weight
lifters. Our null findings are similar to separate studies report-
ing no increase in mid-thigh pull force, rate of force develop-
ment, or electromyographic (EMG) activity immediately, 15,
30, or 60 seconds after AI (19) and no effect of AI on back
squat and bench press repetitions at 85% of 1RM (24). To our
knowledge, the only evidence of an AI ergogenic effect was an
increase in Wingate test peak and mean power output after
a simulated game of American football (25).
This study did not examine a potential AI ergogenic
mechanism. Cross-sectional survey data support a belief
among users that AI increases psychological arousal and
decreases perceived fatigue (22). Middle cerebral artery blood
flow velocity and heart rate have been reported to increase
and peak 10 and 15 seconds, respectively, after AI (19). If any
AI ergogenic mechanism is related to these acute changes, it
is logical to surmise that the brief time window for effective-
ness would be further reduced by International Powerlifting
Federation (IPF) rules stating “a lifter shall not .use ammo-
nia within view of the public” (12).
This study has several acknowledged limitations. We did
not report mass-relative deadlift strength for baseline, water,
and ammonia conditions since body mass was measured
only before baseline measurement of 1RM. Although the
subjects had the required weightlifting experience, they
were recreational weight lifters with training goals that did
not require knowledge of deadlift 1RM. As a result, the
baseline condition was the first time that many had ever
performed a deadlift 1RM. However, the absence of
significant differences in deadlift 1RM between baseline
and water or AI conditions supports the absence of a learning
effect or any hypothesized AI treatment effect. Nevertheless,
one recommendation for future study is to replicate this
Figure 1. Effect of baseline, water, and ammonia inhalation treatments
on absolute deadlift 1-repetition maximum (1RM). Values are mean 6
SE. Two gender 33 trial design repeated measures analysis of variance.
Gender main effect (p,0.0001) with no treatment (p= 0.874) or
gender 3treatment interaction (p= 0.559) effects.
TABLE 2. Baseline characteristics of study
subjects.*†
Variable
Women
(n= 10)
Men
(n= 10)
Age (y) 22 652161
Body mass (kg)z66.6 68.1 75.2 66.8
Absolute baseline
deadlift 1RM (kg)§
93.0 615.4 151.8 642.3
Relative baseline
deadlift 1RM
(kg$kg
21
)k
1.42 60.27 2.01 60.5
*1RM = 1-repetition maximum.
†Values are mean 6SD.
zOne-tailed independent ttests: p= 0.007.
§p= 0.003.
kp= 0.0019.
Ammonia Inhalation and Deadlift
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study in more experienced male and female powerlifters who
represent more homogeneous populations where any AI
ergogenic effect may be more apparent.
Equipment use was standardized within but not between
subjects. Only one-third of the subjects used a weight-belt,
which has been shown to improve lifting posture and stabi-
lize the trunk by increasing intra-abdominal pressure (13)
and rectus abdominis RMG activity (9,17) while decreasing
external oblique EMG activity (9). One subject used power-
lifting straps which has been reported to retard the develop-
ment of grip strength, an important contributor to successful
barbell movements (23). Differences in lifting technique (e.g.,
stances, grips, grip widths, etc.) within the standard of reach-
ing full torso, hip, and knee extension while lifting the barbell
from the floor could have affected any AI-related ergogenic
effect on deadlift performance. Greater between-subject
standardization in equipment use and technique would be
expected in more experienced male and female powerlifters.
There was no tracking of the menstrual cycle in female
subjects. Menstrual cycle phase has been reported to have no
effect on maximal voluntary isometric contraction of knee
extensors and flexors (18); first dorsal interosseus muscle (8),
or isokinetic strength (10). On the other hand, greater knee
extensor peak torque and isometric contractions of knee
flexors have been reported at ovulation compared with luteal
or follicular phases (3) and greater isometric lifting strength
in the luteal phase than the follicular phase (6). Although
any menstrual cycle-related fluctuations in muscle force pro-
duction represents a maturation threat to internal validity in
this study, female powerlifters compete in scheduled events
without regard for menstrual cycle phase, a fact which sup-
ports the external validity of our study.
Another limitation to our study is the likelihood that true
double-blinding did not occur throughout the entire pro-
tocol. It is possible that not all subjects were blinded after
their first exposure to water or ammonia. Ammonia is
a respiratory irritant, therefore a subject’s reaction (or lack
thereof) to ammonia or water undermine a completely
blinded condition.
Previous studies have reported placebo effects associated
with anabolic-androgenic steroid use of 9.5 (2) and 3.8% (14)
in male weight lifters. In their review, Beedie and Foad (4)
reported placebo effects ranging from 21.0 to 50.7% of base-
line performance, with effects that were either statistically or
clinically significant in all but one or 12 studies. The mean
performances for ammonia, water, and baseline conditions
are within a range of only 1.75 kg and not significantly dif-
ferent, which suggests no placebo effect.
Although ammonia is toxic in higher doses, AIs are used
for the treatment of fainting. The single-dose ammonia
concentration used in this study was the same as found in
first aid kit capsules and is generally but not unanimously (7)
considered as safe. Although the risk of adverse events
related to AI use by athletes is low, a case study reported
an allergic reaction after a single dose of aromatic AI in
a female powerlifter who regularly used nonaromatic AI
(11). More frequent or even single low-dose exposure may
cause pulmonary congestion and skin irritation in susceptible
individuals (7).
In conclusion, AI use by powerlifters is acknowledged by
the International Powerlifting Federation (12). AI use is prev-
alent among competitive powerlifters, usually before the dead-
lift (22). We are aware of no prior study to test the effects of AI
on 1RM for any weight lifting movement. The prevalence of
AI use by competitive powerlifters suggests a possible ergo-
genic effect of AI use on deadlift 1RM. However, within the
previously discussed limitations of this study, there was no
significant increase in deadlift performance after AI use.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Although AI use is prevalent among certain strength and
power athletes, the ergogenic effects of its use on weightlift-
ing performance has received little research attention. This
study reported no improvement in deadlift 1RM after AI.
Based on this finding, there is no rationale to recommended
AI use to strength and power athletes for improved deadlift
performance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors extend deep appreciation to the subjects who
participated in this study. They report no conflicts of
interest. The results of this study do not constitute
endorsement by the authors or the National Strength and
Conditioning Association.
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