Fundamentals of Space Law and Policy
Abstract
Chapter 1: Introduction - Space Law and Policy.- Chapter 2: The Historical Context.- Chapter 3: How "Rules" Are Made for Space Activities.- Chapter 4: The Participants and Actors in Space Law and Policy.- Chapter 5: The Role of the United Nations and Its Specialized Agencies.- Chapter 6: Distinction vs. Cooperation - Civic, Commercial and Military Uses of Outer Space.- Chapter 7: International Space Law.- Chapter 8: Space Regulations, Standard, and Codes.- Chapter 9: Space Policy, State Practice, and Emergent Normative Regimes.- Chapter 10: Establishing "Rules" for the Latest in Space-Related Enterprises.- Chapter 11: Dispute Settlement and Arbitration.- Chapter 12: Conclusions - Top Ten Things to Know About Space Policy and Law.- End Notes.- Appendices.
Chapters (7)
The analysis of any legal framework must start with the description of its sources. A source of law is where one looks to determine the law on a particular matter. Within a national legal system the basic sources are the Constitution of that particular state and the legislation adopted pursuant to it.
Space activities have traditionally been limited to governmental entities. In the early decades of the Space Age only states had the technical and financial capabilities to carry out the exploration and use of outer space. Private actors were long excluded from it. On one side, due to strategic and political reasons, governments were hesitant to allow anyone other than their own military or governmental space agencies to be involved in space-related affairs. On the other side, the enormous financial commitments required to undertake any kind of operation in space deterred potential private investors from entering the space sector. Furthermore, the legal framework to regulate private activities in space was largely inadequate.
Space law has progressively become an area of great interest not only from an academic point of view but also from a diplomatic and technical perspective. This interest is revealed by the increasing number of organizations, bodies, agencies, institutions and associations dealing with space matters.
International relations are inextricably linked to the emerging and settling of disputes. Although international law is created to balance diverging interests and to prevent international disagreements, it is nearly inevitable that disputes connected to the interpretation and application of international rules arise. In order to maintain international peace and stability and to ensure the correct application of the law, international law has long established methods and practices to settle international disputes, the so-called dispute settlement mechanisms.
Outer space has progressively become a central component of international relations. Thanks to technological developments, regulatory changes, and a favorable political environment, outer space has acquired a growing significance both from an economic and a strategic point of view.
After having discussed the political and economic significance of space activities, this chapter gives some examples of national space policies. Furthermore, it addresses some key issues having special significance on the strategic, economic and political dimension of space activities.
Space activities have undergone tremendous changes in the past decades. Once constituting a mere strategic tool in the hands of few states, now they are a global phenomenon affecting the lives of millions of people as well as international relations.
... Por su parte, el acuerdo no hace referencia a los beneficios o manejo de personas que no sean precisamente astronautas y que se dirijan al espacio (como es el caso reciente de los turistas espaciales) (Tronchetti, 2013) ni a quienes podrían verse afectados por los impactos señalados en materia ambiental, económica y social previa-mente mencionados en este artículo. En consecuencia, el Acuerdo sobre Salvamiento no resulta relevante para los desechos espaciales, debido a que se centra en la vida y salud de los astronautas. ...
Esta revisión de literatura aborda el desafío que representa la carencia de mecanismos de gestión en el ámbito en el derecho internacional respecto a los desechos espaciales acumulados en el espacio ultraterrestre, así como la integración de esta problemática dentro del marco del derecho internacional ambiental. El objetivo central de este estudio es determinar si la generación de basura espacial constituye una amenaza para la sostenibilidad espacial, considerando sus implicaciones en la dimensión ambiental, económica y social. Con este fin, el artículo se estructura en tres secciones principales. En la primera parte se presenta una definición detallada de los conceptos de desecho y sostenibilidad espacial, estableciendo un marco conceptual sólido para el análisis. En segundo lugar, se realiza una aproximación a los desafíos ambientales, económicos y sociales a mediano y largo plazo que plantea la creciente acumulación de residuos en el espacio para la sostenibilidad de la relación espacio-Tierra, como consecuencia de su crecimiento exponencial. La tercera y última parte del texto identifica y discute los vacíos existentes en el derecho internacional ambiental en lo que respecta a la sostenibilidad y la gestión de residuos espaciales. A partir del análisis de teorías como el síndrome de Kessler y la reflexión de esfuerzos mundiales como el UNISPACE+50, el artículo plantea un dilema regulatorio en el ámbito del derecho espacial internacional. Se señala la existencia de normativas desactualizadas que no logran establecer una conexión adecuada entre la problemática de los desechos espaciales y su impacto en la sostenibilidad. La conclusión subraya la urgente necesidad de adoptar un enfoque integrador que permita abordar de manera efectiva esta problemática global, instando a la revisión y fortalecimiento del marco normativo internacional vigente, desde una perspectiva integral.
... The space colonisation governance debate is limited to the question of how interpretation of international space law influences space activities in general (Tronchetti, 2013). The theoretical and policy proposals discussing the effective, fair, desirable, or sustainable governance of space colonies are limited to vocal statements of various space exploration advocacy groups, their ideological directions, and those that are harshly criticizing them (Billings, 2017). ...
... Although the Treaty does not explicitly state [10] the obligation to enact a national law, this can be implicitly and clearly inferred, since the control, supervision and authorisation of private market players cannot be arbitrary and ad hoc in any State governed by the rule of law, but must be based on predetermined rules. ...
We enter the new space age characterized by the arms race in outer space, by the emergence of new space powers and by the increasing importance of the private entities in conducting – often dual use – activities on Earth orbits. All countries party to the Outer Space Treaty willing to develop national space activities are obliged authorize and continuously supervise activities undertaken by their national entities. Whilst the international legal regime on space activities is frozen since the end of the 70’s, more than 40 states have adopted national legal regime regulating space activities conducted by their nationals or from their territory. The aim of this study is to present the international and European legal environment related to national space law and to identify the best practices of national space laws from the perspective of a smaller country like Hungary, having ambitions in space activities.
... Uma Política Espacial descreve a política de uma nação em relação ao seu programa espacial civil e à utilização do espaço sideral. Inclui a formulação de políticas por meio do processo legislativo e sua execução por civis, órgãos militares e agências reguladoras (TRONCHETTI, 2013). À medida que as implicações militares, econômicas e sociais dos usos do espaço se expandem, também aumenta a relevância do espaço sideral em escala Fonte: Souza (2006, p. 24). ...
A depender do paradigma adotado, a origem das operações conjuntas
pode ser traçada até a antiguidade. Contudo, independente do ponto de partida
a ser considerado, o advento no avião trouxe uma nova dimensão para a coordenação de esforços no teatro de operações. Esse tópico ganhou especial relevância devido à separação das forças aéreas em comandos independentes no perí-
odo entreguerras e às rivalidades que se seguiram, notadamente após a Segunda
Guerra Mundial. Campanhas como a do Vietnã (finalizada em 1973), a invasão
a Granada (1983) e a tentativa de resgate de reféns no Irã (1980) demonstraram
a falta de coordenação entre as forças, fazendo com que fosse aprovada legisla-
ção com foco específico na busca por jointness entre as forças armadas norte-americanas. Entretanto, há outro termo, mais abrangente, e que guarda estreito
relacionamento com esse: interoperabilidade. Este artigo explora cada um desses
conceitos e tem por objetivo compreender o relacionamento entre jointness e interoperabilidade, partindo da hipótese de que os dois termos não são sinônimos,
mas há interseção entre os seus significados. O tema é explorado através de uma
abordagem bibliográfica, dando embasamento teórico ao desenvolvimento doutrinário nas forças armadas brasileiras.
... Diederiks-Verschoor is called "An introduction to space law" [17]. Fabio Tronchetti called his book on space activities "Fundamentals of Space Law and Policy" [25], and Imre Anthony Csabafi named his book "The concept of state jurisdiction in international space law" [3]. Many other lawyers, scientists, and authors analyzed the process of regulating space activities, including through the UN Resolutions and Declarations as well as through international treaties. ...
This article is a continuation of an extensive study of the process and results of the regulation of space activities over the period from 1958 to the present, the purpose of which is a deep analysis of international documents adopted over the entire period of space activities.
The article is focused on an attempt to answer some controversial or unresolved issues related to the regulation of relations in outer space and on celestial bodies.
Thus, for example, there are still many different theories and discussions on the topic: Does space law exist or not, and provided it exists, what documents can be attributed to its sources? Who can be the founder of space law, and to what extent? What can be the subjects and objects of space activities and space law? And, of course, one of the most important issues is the question of the jurisdictions of subjects of space activities and space law.
To understand this, it is necessary to return to the origins of the process of regulating space activities, namely, during the period 1958-1963 years, when the technical exploration of outer space and celestial bodies had just begun and the first and most important documents in this area were adopt�ed, namely, the first Resolutions and UN Declaration.
Based on the analysis of these documents and the circumstances in which they were created, as well as taking into account the various opinions of scientists and the basic postulates of the theory of law, and even taking into account some philosophical aspects of human nature, this article attempts to define and describe the essence of space law, existing and possible spatial and territorial jurisdictions and also the subject-object composition of partici-pants in space activities.
... The lack of protest from the members of the international community led to the freedom of scientific exploration in space. This rule helps to expand the area of space research (Tronchetti, 2013). ...
The article is devoted to the study and research of contemporary legal issues in the field of
international space law. Today we are witnessing the rapid and unstoppable development of the space
industry. Such cooperation requires an appropriate legal framework. In this article, we will review the
leading normative legal acts regulating relations in outer space today and analyze current development
trends and problems.
Space law is a relatively new branch of international public law, involving a combination of customs
and treaties. The legislative framework of the space industry is expanding accordingly to the subject
that is regulated. One of the main issues that are investigated in this article is the search for a balance
between free access of humanity to the space and the opportunity to establish ownership of certain study
objects in outer space. The ability to develop the right of ownership of private enterprises, companies,
research centers is extremely important for the economic development of the space industry.
This article aims to provide a holistic understanding of current trends and challenges in space law
with particular emphasis on such issues as space tourism, the “new space” and climate change. The
article will examine the founding treaties of space law, the legal framework, and scientific literature
concerning space law. The leading goal of this article is to highlight new trends and prospects of space
research, the exploration of new perspectives, which are distributed today in the field of outer space, and
search of ways of its solution within the framework of legislative regulation.
... What just a few years ago seemed to be wild conjecture, is now becoming reality. The flourishing of scientific publications on technical and legal aspects of extraterrestrial mining can be interpreted as a sign that industry's next frontier may soon be opened (Dunk, 2018;Jakhu et al., 2017;Lee, 2012;Pop, 2009;Tronchetti, 2009Tronchetti, , 2013. ...
In this article we explore a possible scenario of space colonization and its consequences for planet Earth. We argue that in the short term space colonization will take place, but not in the form often presented in scientific and science fiction literature. Space colonies will be fully automated. There are three main reasons to believe that this is the most plausible scenario: 1) space mining is very profitable; 2) humans cannot survive for long periods of time in outer space limiting the prospects for human space colonization (HSC), and 3) automation is already a leading trend on Earth. Crewed missions will have an ancillary function, while machines or human/ machine avatars will 'inhabit' other celestial bodies, in order to pursue economic enterprises and progress scientific discovery. We also propose some considerations on the speculative hypothesis, elaborated by a few leading futurists, that the development of machine-based learning Artificial Intelligence would lead to the so-called Singularity. In relation to this scenario, we argue that fully automated space colonization (FASC) could be a solution to prevent unwanted side effects of the Singularity, such as competition for resources between humankind and a hostile Artificial Intelligence.
Japan’s advancements in technology and its strategic focus on space policy have driven swift advancements in the field, attributed to Japan’s ability to balance scientific exploration, industrial growth, and national defense. This article examines Japan’s national legal framework governing space activities. The key pieces of legislation analyzed are the Law Concerning Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency of 2002, the Basic Space Law of 2008, the Act on Launching of Spacecraft, etc. and Control of Spacecraft of 2016, the Act on Ensuring Appropriate Handling of Satellite Remote Sensing Data of 2016, and the Act on the Promotion of Business Activities for the Exploration and Development of Space Resources of 2021. The analysis of these activities is conducted in accordance with the relevant international space legal framework. The article delves into the shift in Japan’s space policy from “non-military” to “non-aggressive” in 2008 and its impact on national legislation. An examination is provided of the fourth law in the world (following similar actions by the USA, Luxembourg, and the UAE) concerning the exploitation of natural resources of celestial bodies, enabling private entities to conduct exploration and extraction activities. This is especially noteworthy given the lack of direct international legal oversight on space resource utilization. This article also examines Japan’s international legal space policy, including the Japan-U.S. Framework Agreement on Cooperation in the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies 2023, in light of the particularly close Japan-U.S. cooperation in space exploration and use. Japan’s enactment of a law regarding the exploration and exploitation of natural resources of celestial bodies, along with Japan’s participation in projects such as Artemis, Lunar Gateway, and Hakuto-R, demonstrates its growing role in international space projects and its pursuit of the closest possible cooperation with the United States in ensuring national security through the use of outer space. The conclusion offers summarizing statements.
This volume provides a unique perspective on an emerging area of scholarship and legislative concern: the law, policy, and regulation of human-robot interaction (HRI). The increasing intelligence and human-likeness of social robots points to a challenging future for determining appropriate laws, policies, and regulations related to the design and use of AI robots. Japan, China, South Korea, and the US, along with the European Union, Australia and other countries are beginning to determine how to regulate AI-enabled robots, which concerns not only the law, but also issues of public policy and dilemmas of applied ethics affected by our personal interactions with social robots. The volume's interdisciplinary approach dissects both the specificities of multiple jurisdictions and the moral and legal challenges posed by human-like robots. As robots become more like us, so too will HRI raise issues triggered by human interactions with other people.
The United Arab Emirates is one of the countries that have ambitions to explore the Space, the moon and the celestial bodies, in addition to the use of space in many fields such as science and tourism among other fields that will benefit the United Arab Emirates. Since the state has started its journey to discover outer space, it was a must to probe into the most important legal consequences that it might be held liable for, in the event of damages resulting from the process of exploring outer space. Based on the foregoing, this research aims to create a legislative and regulatory framework for the United Arab Emirates’ space sector and to determine the liabilities of the United Arab Emirate in line with international laws, regulations, treaties and agreements, in order to create a comprehensive legal environment and to provide a strategic basis for all matters related to outer space sector.
In the first instalment of this article, the author examined why the United Nations Committee for the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UN and UNCOPUOS), established to make international law of outer space, stopped making outer space treaties, and how did the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (Institute International pour l’unification du Droit Privé or UNIDROIT), a non-UN entity established to unify private law, created with its 2012 Protocol to the Convention on International Interests in Mobile Equipment on Matters Specific to Space Assets (Space Protocol) what is allegedly the first outer space treaty in (then) thirty-two years. The UNCOPUOS system of public international law treaty-making was compared with the UNIDROIT private international law one; and the question as to whether the UNIDROIT has created a new method of treaty-making. The author now advances recommendations for the UNCOPUOS to produce hard law to cure this unsatisfactory situation. He concludes that the Space Protocol can only form part of space law if one accepts a fourth stage of development of space law as part of a redefining of space law sensu lato, and although multilateral treaty-making is no longer the most appropriate tool for meeting the new needs and requirements, treaties cannot be ignored in international space legislation.
This chapter offers relevant insights into debate and clarity on key concepts that underscore the subject of this book, such as space, space policy, development and security. On space, the chapter provides insights on the debates between pure and applied scientists on one hand and humanities and social scientists on the other hand, the resultant emergence of geometric and social spaces, and the perspectives on absolute, relative and relational spaces. This is important to reiterate the multidisciplinary perspectives that are required in this study. Although space (outer space) is generally geometric and specifically astronomical, it is interlocked with social spaces in its policy context. On this basis, this chapter align with utilitarian conception of space policy as the use of space and attendant technologies to promote the socioeconomic development and security of the affected party. Accordingly, the concepts of development and security are interrogated and then summarised as the aspirations of the affected party, that is, the people and government concerned.
The article below addresses the Artemis Accords. It is a non-binding act by which its signatories adopted a set of principles for space exploration. Even though it is not an international treaty, it is a controversial issue. The author presents the Artemis Accords against the background of international agreements, soft-law and domestic regulations, aiming to answer the question of their revolutionary character and of them being an agreement between states that strive for a common goal. Firstly, the author presents the problem of space mining and the related possibilities. There are numerous benefits from this new branch of economy, but there is also a risk of global conflict on the ground of a race for space resources. After this, the author presents the state of affairs of international law and tries to draw crucial conclusions on the subject of space mining. The last part of the paper is devoted to an analysis of the Artemis Accords as a non-binding agreement between states and as a new platform which allows the launch of a new era of conquest of outer space. At the end the author presents his opinion on the Artemis Accords as an instrument of a new space policy of world’s superpower and its allies.
Given that sudden breakthroughs in conquering the cosmos are expected, some basic questions about the law governing relations in respect to outer space and in it can be expected to be triggered, starting already with the issue how one has to call that law and what is its real content. The first part of the paper deals with the naming of this branch of law and concludes that for the time being the term outer space law is the best and widely accepted. In the second part, the author states that many scientific papers and even official documents, do not define outer space law at all. There are even opinions that the outer space is a phenomenon which cannot be defined at all, suggesting that it is not possible to define a cosmic right either. The author considers that a distinction should be made between national space law of states and international space law (space law in the narrow sense a branch of international law containing legal rules governing relations in respect to the space and in the space, and in particular the regime of that space and celestial bodies it contains, exploration and exploitation of the space, the regime of navigation in the space, the legal position of the astronauts and space objects, international legal liability for damage caused by space activities, etc.). When so is clearly stated, one can also speak of space law in a broad sense, which, in addition to the norms of space law in the narrow sense, would include norms that are part of soft law, agreements and legal customs between states and non-state entities, and even at some point so-called. metalaw (law that may one day govern relations between humanity and creatures of other worlds).
Commercial Human Spaceflight – a new addition to the commercial activities in outer space – is attracting the ultra-rich section of the society. It has enormous potential to accelerate the economic aspect of commercial spaceflight since with the development of reusable technologies it is expected to become cheaper. At the same time, it poses a severe threat in various ways to the status quo of the existing regime of space regulation. Taking humans to outer space as a passenger affects the current social, psychological, political, and legal setup. The paper highlights the legal issues that are arising from commercial human spaceflights. Therefore, in section one, the article discusses applicable international law to this emerging activities. Part two details specifically on the international space law that is relevant to regulate these activities. After analyzing the existing international law on space activities in sections one and two, which are essential for the commercial human spaceflights, part three identifies several legal challenges that are not sufficiently addressed by the existing laws. Section four examines the role played by the regulatory organization to develop the space law, and the role of the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) has been discussed in detail. As the ICAO holds good experience in handling air transportation, many believe that the ICAO is naturally well placed to regulate commercial space transportation. This aspect has been elaborated in detail in this part. In the fifth, i.e. the last section, the authors conclude by arguing to develop a new international convention to regulate it.
This paper analyzes the current EU space strategy and confronts it with existing global challenges in the space sector. The ultimate aim of this research is to recommend a well-adjusted space policy for the European Commission to ensure effective and sustainable exploration and use of outer space for the benefit of all EU member-states. In order to draft the most efficient space policy, the uniqueness of Europe’s space sector is studied. This paper argues that the EU space policy has to focus on guaranteeing European autonomy in access and use of outer space. The author extensively analyzes the challenges and opportunities related to dynamic development of private space sector’s activities. Emphasis is made on the significance of symbiotic cooperation between the public institutions and private companies regarding mutual benefits. The paper concludes that it is the right time for the European Union to build a bold and prospective space policy.
Pengembangan tekonologi, khususnya di bidang teknologi roket, saat ini sedang gencar dilakukan oleh berbagai negara di dunia. Tulisan ini melihat sejauh mana regulasi pengembangan teknologi roket yang diatur oleh Amerika Serikat dan Rusia sebagai contoh negara maju dalam keantariksaan serta Korea Selatan sebagai contoh negara Asia yang berkembang menjadi negara spacefaring. Penulisan dilakukan dengan metode yuridis normatif yang membahas pelaksanaan hukum nasional negara-negara dimaksud. Kemudian lebih lanjut akan dikaji praktiknya di Indonesia sesuai dengan beberapa ketentuan nasional yang relevan. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahwa baik ketentuan nasional maupun praktik Amerika Serikat, Rusia dan Korea Selatan mengarahkan ke pengembangan teknologi RLVs dan roket kelas berat. Sementara, berdasarkan ketentuan nasional Indonesia, pengembangan roket masih mengarah ke roket sonda dan roket pengorbit satelit mikro ke orbit bumi rendah.
DEPANRI merupakan forum koordinasi nasional tingkat tinggi di bidang kebijakan penerbangan dan antariksa yang telah dibubarkan oleh Pemerintah Indonesia melalui Peraturan Presiden Nomor 176 Tahun 2014 tentang Pembubaran DEPANRI dan Beberapa Lembaga Non Struktural lainnya. Akibatnya, LAPAN dalam menyampaikan hasil kajian kebijakan strategis nasionalnya kepada Presiden mengalami hambatan. Terutama terkait dengan kebijakan selain aspek teknis dibidang penerbangan dan antariksa yang bersifat lintas sektor yang memerlukan koordinasi dengan kementerian/lembaga dan stakeholder terkait. Tujuannya adalah mengkaji pertimbangan dan dasar tentang perlu atau tidaknya forum atau media koordinasi nasional yang dapat memberikan saran rumusan kebijakan strategis nasional dibidang penerbangan dan antariksa kepada Presiden RI. Metode yang digunakan dalam kajian adalah yuridis normatif dan yuridis empiris. Berdasarkan hasil kajian dapat disimpulkan bahwa perlu dibentuknya sebuah forum atau media koordinasi nasional yang bernama Panitia Ad-hoc yang dapat mewadahi LAPAN dan Kementerian/Lembaga terkait lainnya dalam melakukan kajian kebijakan strategis nasional dibidang penerbangan dan antariksa serta menjembatani dalam menyampaikan hasil kebijakannya kepada Presiden RI.
After more than 60 years of human activities in outer space, society is highly dependent on space based technologies. A State that aims to enhance its capacities in the sectors of defence, communication, Earth monitoring and emergency management needs to invest in the Space sector. This instigated enormous investments by private and public entities in order to develop Space programmes and deploy satellites in orbit. Satellites are used for both military and civilian purposes and are developed in order to establish a state of security. The military applications of satellites vary from reconnaissance, early warning and telecommunications to meteorology and geodesy. States, recognising these strategic advantages space based assets provide and their importance in the modern theatre of operations, sought the development of technologies capable of neutralising them, in order to deprive the adversary of these advantages. This introduced a new type of weapons, the Anti-Satellite Weapons (ASAT), which can be both hard-kill (kinetic energy weapons, explosions) and soft-kill (jamming, cyber attacks) in nature. The US, Russia, China and now India have developed and tested these weapons which can drastically change the established Space ecosystem. The paper will demonstrate that, the development and use of ASAT creates a new field where NATO and its member States can enhance their operational capabilities in order to safeguard their security and defence. Additionally, given the ultra-hazardous nature of Outer Space, security concepts should extend beyond cyber security to cyber defence and eventually also cyber resilience.
La exploración de los recursos minerales terrestres ha sido fuente de beneficios económicos, perjuicios ambientales y costos humanos. Nuevas tecnologías, sin embargo, están promoviendo la minería espacial con el potencial de, simultáneamente, maximizar los beneficios de esa actividad económica y reducir los daños socio-ambientales. Con esta perspectiva, el presente estudio examina dos implicaciones, en el ámbito jurídico, de esa innovación tecnológica: la naturaleza jurídica y la titularidad de los recursos naturales espaciales. Con los objetivos de reconocer al sujeto de derecho más plausible —según criterios jurídicos, lógicos y éticos— para obtener la titularidad del derecho de propiedad sobre minerales espaciales y de proponer el tratamiento más adecuado en relación a sus lucros, el abordaje adoptado pretende concatenar las explotaciones mineras terrestre y espacial sobre la base de la perspectiva de continuidad renovada. Para alcanzar esa proposición teórica, fueron analizados, previamente, los impactos humanos y ambientales de la minería terrestre; las viabilidades de utilización y de exploración de los minerales espaciales, así como las ventajas y desventajas de la minería espacial. Asimismo, se estudiaron los posicionamientos político-normativos —internacionales y locales—, así como los posicionamientos académicodoctrinarios — egacionistas, expansionistas y analogistas— acerca de ese derecho de propiedad. Se concluye que los minerales espaciales son mejor clasificados como res nullius, apropiables por cualquier persona, física o jurídica, pública o privada, siempre que se comprometan con determinados requisitos en cuanto a sus lucros, lo que culmina en una razonable propuesta de regulación para la minería espacial que es, simultáneamente, ejecutable y beneficiosa para la humanidad y el medio ambiente.
That the claiming of sovereignty on celestial bodies is a topical issue, one that might get newspapers’ headlines in the near future, is pretty evident. Public entities as well as private actors are studying, if not explicitly scheduling, missions destined to land on the Red Planet and colonize it. What about the law regulating such conduct? In the last decade or so, we have witnessed a revival of legal studies on space affairs, and those relating to the legality of the extraction of planetary resources have in particular flourished. However, the possibility of asserting sovereignty over those bodies, or part thereof, did not partake in such revival. This contribution takes the issue seriously, as it aims to understand which rules apply when we reach the final frontier. The same old answer: ‘the Outer Space Treaty applies’ is not satisfactory, for a number of reasons that relate to its uncertain legal status and even its somewhat uncertain content. These factors might prevent the scramble for Mars from being legally hindered. Irrespective of the treaty’s status, someone might try to establish a colony on a celestial body. This contribution analyzes the conditions under which the space homesteaders would be entitled to lay a valid sovereign claim on it; conversely, it answers the question whether the Earthlings would be bound to a duty of non-recognition of the new entity. A problem remains open: is there a possibility that international law at the (final) frontier might turn into the frontier of international law?
Outer space is becoming a space for capitalism. We are entering a new era of the commercialization of space, geared towards generating profits from satellite launches, space tourism, asteroid mining, and related ventures. This era, driven by private corporations such as Elon Musk's SpaceX and Jeff Bezos's Blue Origins, has been labeled by industry insiders as 'NewSpace'-in contrast to 'Old Space', a Cold War-era mode of space relations when (allegedly) slow-moving, sluggish states dominated outer space. NewSpace marks the arrival of capitalism in space. While challenging the libertarian rhetoric of its proponents-space enterprises remain enmeshed in the state, relying on funding, physical infrastructure, technology transfers, regulatory frameworks, and symbolic support-NewSpace nevertheless heralds a novel form of human activity in space. Despite its humanistic, universalizing pre-tensions, however, NewSpace does not benefit humankind as such but rather a specific set of wealthy entrepreneurs, many of them originating in Silicon Valley, who strategically deploy humanist tropes to engender enthusiasm for their activities. We describe this complex as 'capitalistkind'. Moreover, the arrival of capitalism in space is fueled by the expansionary logic of capital accumulation. Outer space serves as a spatial fix, allowing capital to transcend its inherent terrestrial limitations. In this way, the ultimate spatial fix is perhaps (outer) space itself.
Reexamining Customary International Law takes on the complex issues and controversies surrounding the history, theory, and practice of customary international law as it reexamines customary law's increasingly important role in world affairs. It incorporates the expertise of distinguished authors to probe many difficult issues that remain unresolved concerning the doctrine of customary law. At the same time, this book engages in a profound exploration of the practical role of customary international law in a variety of important fields, including humanitarian law, human rights law, and air and space law.
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