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Do Women’s Orgasms Function as a Masculinity Achievement for Men?
The Journal of Sex Research
Abstract
Orgasms have been promoted as symbols of sexual fulfillment for women, and have perhaps become the symbol of a woman’s healthy sex life. However, some research has suggested that this focus on women’s orgasms, though ostensibly for women, may actually serve men; but the mechanisms of this are unclear. In the present experiment, we hypothesized that women’s orgasms specifically function as a masculinity achievement for men. To test this, we randomly assigned 810 men (M age = 25.44, SD = 8.31) to read a vignette where they imagined that an attractive woman either did or did not orgasm during a sexual encounter with them. Participants then rated their sexual esteem and the extent to which they would feel masculine after experiencing the given situation. Our results showed that men felt more masculine and reported higher sexual esteem when they imagined that a woman orgasmed during sexual encounters with them, and that this effect was exacerbated for men with high masculine gender role stress. These results suggest that women’s orgasms do function—at least in part—as a masculinity achievement for men.
... Arguably, the pressure to act as a playboy might also explain why men in romantic relationships distance themselves from their romantic partners when their masculinity is threatened (Lamarche et al., 2021). Consistent with the idea that masculinity and sexual behavior are inextricably linked, men asked to imagine that their new female partner had an orgasm during each sexual encounter felt more masculine than those asked to imagine their partner did not have an orgasm (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017). Importantly, feelings of masculinity that resulted from imagining their female partner had an orgasm during sex with them were highest for men who reported higher levels of masculine gender role stress. ...
... Participants were recruited from Prolific, a digital platform where participants receive compensation for completing research surveys. Eight hundred participants (N = 800) were recruited, which is consistent with other experimental studies designed to examine the relationship between masculinity and sexual behaviors (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017). Invited participants were citizens of the United States, fluent in English, indicated their sex as male, and had not completed any of the previous studies from our laboratory examining sexual decision making. ...
... The more that men adhered to the playboy norm, the less likely they were to use a condom on both tasks, which is consistent with previous studies that found masculinity is inextricably linked to sexual behavior in men (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Savoury et al., 2022). It is also important to highlight that the playboy norm is associated with other sexually maladaptive behaviors. ...
Men experiencing stress related to masculinity seem to be at greater risk for contracting a sexually transmitted infection. This relationship may be due to the precarious nature of masculinity and degree to which men adhere to traditional masculine norms. The present study investigated the impact of threatening masculinity and the moderating role of the playboy masculine norm on delay and probability discounting of condom-protected sex. A final sample of 784 U.S. men (Mage = 37.5; 72% White; 83% heterosexual) completed the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory, presented as a personality test. Participants were randomly assigned to receive false feedback about their personality designed to lead them to believe they were more feminine (i.e., threat; n = 393) or somewhat more masculine (i.e., affirmed; n = 391) than other men. Subsequently, participants completed two behavioral discounting tasks, which assessed their willingness to wait a period of time for a condom (i.e., delay discounting) and engage in sex without a condom despite a specified risk of contracting a sexually transmitted infection (i.e., probability discounting). Threatened men were more likely to forgo condom use on the probability discounting task, but not on the delay discounting task. Additionally, greater adherence to the playboy norm was associated with a lower likelihood of using a condom on both tasks. However, the playboy norm did not moderate the effects of masculinity threat. Men who face a threat to their masculinity, as well as those who conform to the playboy ideology, may be more likely to engage in risky sexual behavior.
... Accordingly, research has shown that partner orgasms have highly gendered intrapersonal stakes, at least for men partnered with women. For example, men stand to gain confidence in their masculinity, sexual skill, sexual satisfaction, and potentially social status when their woman partner has an orgasm (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Frith, 2013;Gilfoyle et al., 1992;Nicolson & Burr, 2003;Salisbury & Fisher, 2014;Savoury et al., 2022;Walker, 2020b). Conversely, when a woman does not orgasm, men's feelings of masculinity can drop, resulting in feelings of social failure, disappointment, and inadequacy (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Gilfoyle et al., 1992;Jackson & Scott, 2002;Potts, 2000;Walker, 2020a). ...
... For example, men stand to gain confidence in their masculinity, sexual skill, sexual satisfaction, and potentially social status when their woman partner has an orgasm (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Frith, 2013;Gilfoyle et al., 1992;Nicolson & Burr, 2003;Salisbury & Fisher, 2014;Savoury et al., 2022;Walker, 2020b). Conversely, when a woman does not orgasm, men's feelings of masculinity can drop, resulting in feelings of social failure, disappointment, and inadequacy (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Gilfoyle et al., 1992;Jackson & Scott, 2002;Potts, 2000;Walker, 2020a). ...
... One potential gendered nuance in partnered sex outcomes is whether men's orgasms function specifically as an achievement for women. Previous research has demonstrated that women's orgasms function as an achievement for men (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017), and the reverse may also be true regarding how men's orgasms function for women. However, the gendered narratives that clearly structure women's orgasms as an opportunity for men's achievement arguably provide a murkier picture for how men's orgasms might function for women. ...
Previous research has shown that women’s orgasms function as a masculinity achievement for men. Less clear is whether men’s orgasms function as a gendered achievement for women. In the present study, we explored this question via an experimental design by randomly assigning 440 women (M age = 32.29, SD age = 11.91) to read a vignette in which they imagined that an attractive man either did or did not orgasm during a sexual encounter with them. The women then rated their feelings of achievement, failure, femininity, and masculinity in response to the scenario along with how much they would attribute the situation to themselves or to the man partner. Results showed that women experienced men’s orgasm presence as a femininity achievement and men’s orgasm absence as a femininity failure. There were lesser impacts on women’s feelings of masculinity. Feelings of achievement and failure were stronger for women who attributed the scenario more strongly to themselves. Further, greater sexual assertiveness in general predicted stronger feelings of achievement in response to men’s orgasm presence and greater feminine gender role stress predicted stronger feelings of failure in response to men’s orgasm absence. Together, findings highlight that men’s orgasm seems to function as an achievement for women; however, the connection to femininity (which is less valued and prescribed differently compared to masculinity) denotes that men’s orgasms for women are a different gendered experience with different stakes compared to women’s orgasms for men.
... However, it is not just the quantity of sexual interactions that dictate feelings of masculinity; the outcomes of those interactions are also an important factor. For example, imagining orgasm by a female partner increased male participants' perceptions of their own masculinity and sexual esteem (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017). In addition, an inability to satisfy one's sexual partner is associated with lower perceptions of men's sexual confidence (San Martín et al., 2012). ...
... Correspondingly, women report sometimes faking orgasm (Harris et al., 2019;Muehlenhard & Shippee, 2010) to avoid hurting their partner's feelings and/or to enhance their male partner's ego (Opperman et al., 2014), as well as to protect, what they perceive to be, their partner's fragile sense of masculinity (Jordan et al., 2022). Collectively, these findings suggest that for men, as well as those whose masculinity is not "on the line" (i.e., women), female orgasm is important to perceptions of men's sexual adequacy, and subsequently provides proof of their masculinity (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017). ...
... There were, however, no main or interactive effects of gender, and therefore gender was removed as a variable. In Experiment 1, 606 participants submitted responses (see Fig. 1), which is within the range of the number of participants employed in earlier studies from which the design and methodology of the current study was adapted (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Savoury et al., 2022). ...
Sexual behaviors play a role in the social construction of masculinity. Moreover, this stereotype has been capitalized upon by pharmaceutical companies, as well as those that sell products not approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, for purposes of marketing sexual medicines. Stereotypical notions of masculinity, however, also emphasize the importance of self-reliance, which may cause some to look unfavorably upon the use of sexual medicine. Consistent with this notion, a male target was viewed as more masculine when his female partner consistently reached orgasm, unless he had no history of erectile dysfunction (ED), but was taking Viagra anyway (Experiment 1; N = 522). In addition, when his partner consistently reached orgasm, ratings of his sexual esteem were also lower if he used Viagra than if he did not, but only if he had no history of ED. In Experiment 2 (N = 711), although there was no effect of a male target’s use of testosterone, social perception of his masculinity and sexual esteem increased as his “natural” levels of testosterone increased. In addition, exploratory analysis revealed that if the male target had low (but not normal or high) “natural” levels of testosterone, ratings of his masculinity were higher if his female partner consistently had an orgasm, which suggests that female orgasm served to “rescue” masculinity. Because expectations about drugs drive their use, it is important to address preconceived notions about the use of sexual medicines for purposes of enhancing masculinity and sexual esteem, as the social perception of their use is much more complex.
... Specifically, for women who are in a relationship with a man, conversations about sexual pleasure may often be difficult to initiate (Harvey et al., 2023;Kaighobadi et al., 2012;Muehlenhard & Shippee, 2010). Women in mixed-sex relationships are likely to pretend orgasm rather than communicate their sexual preferences, perhaps for the sexual gratification of their male partner (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Harris et al., 2019). Women in same-sex relationships are more likely to experience orgasms during partnered sexual activities than women in mixed-sex relationships (Blair et al., 2018;Harvey et al., 2023;Peragine et al., 2023), and this is likely due to greater sexual communication about sexual pleasure (Kelly et al., 2004). ...
... Relatedly, they are more likely to report sexual compliance (Darden et al., 2019;Impett & Peplau, 2003) and they are more likely than men to fake orgasms (Mahar et al., 2020;Piemonte et al., 2019). Women may avoid initiating conversations about sex because they are embarrassed (Herbenick et al., 2019) or because they are focused on the sexual pleasure of their male partner rather than their own (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Fahs & Swank, 2016;Harris et al., 2019). It has been found that orgasm performance (i.e. ...
... It has been found that orgasm performance (i.e. faking orgasms) is most likely to occur when women believe that the female orgasm is important for the sexual pleasure of their male partner (Harris et al., 2019) and when they aim to increase the sexual self-esteem of their male partner (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Fahs & Swank, 2016). Again, it is important to study what may promote sexual communication. ...
Sexual communication can be challenging to initiate. Nevertheless, people with a responsive romantic partner may feel more comfortable with sexual communication. Thus, we examined whether there is an association between partner responsiveness and greater sexual communication, and whether greater sexual communication may potentially mediate associations between responsiveness and positive relationship outcomes (i.e., intimacy types, sexual satisfaction, and relationship satisfaction). We recruited participants from Amazon Mechanical Turk (N = 119) and a sample of undergraduate students (N = 89) to complete online measures. As hypothesized, partner responsiveness was associated with greater sexual communication. Results from structural equation modeling showed that sexual communication mediated associations between responsiveness and intimacy types, and the association between responsiveness and sexual satisfaction in both samples. Interestingly, sexual communication only mediated the association between responsiveness and relationship satisfaction in the sample of undergraduate students. Other notable differences between the samples are discussed, such as differences in age, relationship length, and sexual satisfaction. These results show the importance of sexual communication for romantic relationships, and that even non-sexual partner characteristics may impact a sexual relationship.
... Fear of perceived inadequacy and performance anxiety may also prompt some men to fake (Ford et al., 2022;Muehlenhard & Shippee, 2010). Research has shown that pressures around masculinity predict (heterosexual) men's higher odds of faking orgasm (Ford et al., 2022), and that women's orgasm functions as a masculinity achievement for (heterosexual) men (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Savoury et al., 2022). In men who have sex with men, those who take a receptive sexual position ("bottom") may fake orgasm to preserve not only their own but also their partner's masculinity. ...
... For example, the bottom (vs. top) may have similar experience to that of heterosexual women (Hoppe, 2011), in which their orgasm is generally less consistent and expected yet plays an important role in their partner's masculinity achievement (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017). ...
Existing literature on "faking" orgasm focuses almost exclusively on women. Limited research exists among men, and none focuses on sexual minority (e.g., gay, bisexual, queer) men. Additionally, faking satisfaction (pretending to be sexually satisfied) remains an unknown concept. This study examined the occurrence, frequency, and correlates of faking orgasm and satisfaction in sexual minority men. Participants (N = 211, age = 18-53, 59% identified as gay) responded to an online survey assessing frequencies of faking orgasm and satisfaction as well as potential correlates of faking (age, relationship status, sexual frequency, orgasm frequency, internalized sexual stigma). Results showed that faking orgasm and faking satisfaction were highly prevalent among sexual minority men in this sample (83% had faked orgasm and 88% had faked satisfaction in the past two years). The frequency of faking was also high; 62% and 68% faked orgasm and satisfaction at least "sometimes." Higher internalized sexual stigma and lower orgasm frequency were associated with higher frequencies of faking orgasm and satisfaction. For faking orgasm, however, the relationship between internalized sexual stigma and faking only existed in gay men. The findings suggest that faking pleasure in sexual minority men is common and deserves more empirical attention.
... Thus, performance concerns were influenced by beliefs about masculinity, and beliefs about the gender dynamics in heterosexual sex specifically. Prior research has identified that both women and men may hold the belief that it is a man's role, or responsibility, to bring about their female partner's orgasm in heterosexual sex (Salisbury & Fisher, 2014), and that men more concerned about demonstrating their masculinity are more likely to view facilitating a woman's orgasm a masculine achievement (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017). Such beliefs are underpinned by gendered discourses of sexuality wherein women's sexual desire and pleasure are constructed as more complicated than men's, rendering women's orgasms as elusive, and men's as easy to achieve; thus, (in heterosexual sex) (re)producing a hierarchy wherein men are responsible for eliciting their partner's orgasm -the ultimate goal of the sexual encounter (Thomé, 2023). ...
Prior research with heterosexual and gay men suggests that heteronormative, hegemonic masculine norms influence sexual behaviors, including in relation to sexual health, and in sex between men, positioning in anal intercourse. This qualitative study offers an in-depth account of how bisexual men’s beliefs about masculinity, and about the gendered nature of certain sexual behaviors, may influence their experiences of sex with women and men, and the sexual practices they engage in. Twenty-two bisexual men participated in one-to-one, semi-structured interviews, where they were asked about their experiences of sex with women and men in relation to their beliefs about masculinity. A reflexive thematic analysis identified the influence of prevailing discourses of heteronormativity and hegemonic masculinity on sexual experiences and behaviors. Participants’ beliefs about masculinity and the gendered nature of certain aspects of sex influenced experiences relating to sexual performance, sexual assertiveness, positions adopted, practices engaged in, and how gender was enacted in sexual encounters. Sex with women was experienced as more masculine than sex with men: Participants described felt more sexually assertive than their sexual partners, in control of the encounter, and responsible for facilitating their partners’ sexual pleasure. Sex with men was experienced as more egalitarian, and provided favorable opportunities to relinquish sexual control and responsibilities around facilitating pleasure, and to feel less masculine, including by engaging in receptive anal intercourse. Findings therefore indicate that, for some bisexual men, masculinity is highly salient, influencing a range of sexual behaviors and experiences in sex with women and with men.
... Articles in this domain focus on masculinity identity (Booth et al., 2019;Chadwick and van Anders 2017;Cohn and Zeichner, 2006;Scaptura and Boyle 2021) and effects of masculinity on attitudes and behavior (Gebhard et al., 2019;Jakupcak et al., 2003Jakupcak et al., , 2005Yeung et al., 2015). ...
Introduction
Gender role stress emerges as a concept to try to explain the health difficulties presented by men and women due to gender socialization. Thus, gender role stress arises when individuals feel stressed due to their perceived inability to fulfill the demands of their gender role, or when they believe that a particular situation necessitates behavior traditionally attributed to the opposite gender. To evaluate the presence of gender role stress in individuals, two scales were developed: the masculine gender role stress scale and the feminine gender role scale.
Objective
To identify the main thematic areas studied in the behavioral sciences with the feminine gender role stress scale (FGRSS) and the masculine gender role stress scale (MGRSS) as main variables, specifically examining their contributions to the understanding of the attitudes and behaviors of individuals who are affected by gender role stress. We also aimed to analyze the difference, both quantitatively and qualitatively, in terms of scientific literature produced between the scales.
Method
We followed the preferred items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) checklist. A scoping review of the literature was conducted using systematic techniques, resulting in the inclusion of 87 articles utilizing either of the two scales.
Results
80% (n = 72) of the articles employed the MGRSS, while 20% (n = 18) utilized the FGRSS. The MGRSS articles were also the most frequently cited in the literature. The FGRSS has been predominantly used to examine the implications for women’s well-being, whereas the MGRSS has primarily been employed to predict disruptive behaviors in men.
Conclusion
This scoping review highlights disparities in the scientific literature concerning the examination of feminine and masculine gender role stress and its consequences for people. Specifically, it points out the limited investigation into feminine gender role stress and its ramifications compared to masculine gender role stress. These findings indicates the lack of a gender perspective even in research intended to study it, and outline the importance of more research with a gender perspective where women are the aim of study.
... McClelland's Intimate Justice Framework (2010) emphasizes how this can occur, i.e., because of systematic discrepancies in sexual experience, sexual expectations are also subject to between group differences (e.g., trans women of color are significantly more likely to experience sexual violence than other genders (James et al., 2016;Stotzer, 2009;Tillery et al., 2018)). This phenomenon has become well documented in relation to gender differences in orgasm expectations (Armstrong et al., 2012;Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Klein & Conley, 2021;Matsick et al., 2016). For example, one study provided correlational evidence that both men and women base their expectation and desire for orgasm at least partially on how often they experience orgasm in a relationship (Wetzel et al., 2022). ...
A number of studies have examined women’s and couples’ sexual experiences during pregnancy; few studies, however, have explored how pregnant couples expect their sex lives to change despite the possible relationship between sexual expectations and sexual function and satisfaction. The purpose of this study was to assess the utility of two scales: the Maternal Pregnancy Impact Expectations Scale (PIES-M) and the Partner Pregnancy Impact Expectations Scale (PIES-P), which measure newly pregnant couples’ sexual expectations later in the pregnancy.
The current project was split into three distinct phases across two data collection points: 1. language elicitation, 2. item development and revision, and 3. empirical validation. A total of 242 participants were included in Phase 1, and a total of 241 data points in 124 dyads for Phase 3 were obtained via a cross-sectional, web-based survey administered in 2011 and 2012. Exploratory factor analysis was used to assess the factor structure of the PIES-M and PIES-P. Multilevel modeling was used to understand the variability of PIES-M and PIES-P scores. Measures on sexual motivation, sexual interest, sexual anxiety, attitudes to sex, and somatic pregnancy symptoms were used to further assess the test scales.
Findings demonstrated a two-factor structure for the PIES-M with sexual expectations and pain expectations loading on separate factors. For PIES-P, all items loaded onto one factor as no pain expectation items were included for partners.
Both the maternal and partner versions of the scales demonstrated acceptable construct validity and internal consistency, providing evidence for the validity of these measures of sexual expectations during pregnancy.
A greater understanding of sexual expectations during pregnancy has social, clinical, and research implications. Policy makers and practitioners should assess and incorporate sexual expectations into their practice, especially with marginalized and minoritized populations.
... For women, sexual self-esteem may be representing many components such as sexual selfefficacy, awareness, and confidence, which would facilitate asking for and/or providing themselves with this additional stimulation, as has been found in research on women's empowerment for obtaining sexual pleasure (Bond et al., 2020). For men, sexual self-esteem could also represent sexual knowledge and confidence in one's sexual ability, making them more likely to provide or encourage such stimulation, or making it less likely for them to be offended by a partner's request for additional stimulation (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017). ...
We explored the unique roles that body and genital image play in behavior-specific orgasm consistency, beyond overall sexual self-esteem. US adults (N = 599; 64% women) completed questionnaires online. Hierarchical regression analyses predicted orgasm consistency during receptive oral sex and penile-vaginal intercourse (PVI) with additional clitoral stimulation (WAS) and with no additional clitoral stimulation (NAS) for the woman. Body image, genital image, and gender were entered in later steps to assess model improvement above sexual self-esteem. Models accounted for age, sexual and racial minority identities, and current relationship status. Results indicated that genital image improved all models and predicted higher orgasm consistency across all behaviors for men and women. For orgasm during receptive oral sex and PVI–NAS, sexual self-esteem was no longer significant once genital image was included. Genital image was a stronger predictor of women’s versus men’s orgasm during PVI–NAS; no significant gender differences were found for oral sex and PVI–WAS. Body image was not significant in any models, contrary to expectations, suggesting role overlap with sexual self-esteem. Genital image appears to play a unique role in sexual pleasure beyond overall sexual self-esteem and body image.
... The point is not really about his partner's enjoyment, but about how that enjoyment makes Steven feel about himself. Steven's account echoes previous research positioning women's orgasm as achievement for heterosexual men (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;McClelland, 2014;Salisbury & Fisher, 2014;Walker, 2020). ...
Sexual satisfaction is important to individual well-being and relationship satisfaction, making it a relevant research topic for researchers and relationship therapists. While ample research exists examining which factors affect sexual dysfunctions, there is much less research about sexual experiences circumventing functional or satisfactory sex and transcending into great and extraordinary sexual experiences; the current study adds to sexuality literature by asking participants questions about the factors involved in “great,” “good,” and “bad” sex, and the differences between those experiences. Through in-depth interviews, participants reported sexual skills (either their partner’s or combined skill), sexual responsiveness, and sexual mindfulness as characteristics of great sex. Women reported body image concerns thwarted their ability to remain present during sex. This study contributes to the scant existing literature on the components of great sex.
... Prior research demonstrated that men value women's orgasms and pleasure as it boosts their sense of their own masculinity and self-esteem (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Salisbury & Fisher, 2014;Walker, 2020;Walker & Lutmer, 2023). Other studies showed that women fake orgasms (Harris et al., 2019), express high levels of vocalization during male ejaculation (Brewer & Hendrie, 2011), and, most notable to the current study, withhold honest communication (Jordan et al., 2022) in an attempt to preserve their male partner's self-esteem and masculinity. ...
Sexual communication functions as an important relational process expediating satisfying sexual experiences (Sprecher & Hendrick, 2004). Much of the existing literature on sexual communication concerning sexual pleasure biases verbal communication (Babin, 2012). This study adds to the existing research regarding patterns of communication surrounding sex and during sex through qualitative analysis. Further, this inquiry focused on participants’ full histories, rather than their tendencies within any current relationship. We analyzed 78 qualitative interview transcripts from participants between the ages of 18 and 69. Participants reported a reluctance to communicate anything but pleasure, discomfort, or dislike during sex to avoid discouraging their partners. Though participants reported a perception that communicating pleasure served as encouragement and affirmation to their partners, most preferred to communicate pleasure nonverbally. Some participants reported a tendency to communicate pain or dislike verbally. Some preferred communication about sexual topics only before or after sexual activities. Participants shared that a high level of comfort with their partner increased sexual communication. How sexual partners communicate sex not only affects pleasure but can only affect intimacy between partners and health. This adds to the scant literature on nonverbal communication during sex and some people’s preference for that style (Blunt-Vinti et al., 2019).
... Further, strict adherence to sexual scripts often necessitates the maintenance of hegemonic masculinity-endorsing a hierarchy that has men dominant over women while engaging in socially approved practices and avoiding others to prove one's manhood (Alden & Parker, 2005;Scott, 2014). For many straight men, such masculinity achievement involves sexual prowess, knowledge of the female body, and the requisite skills (i.e., sexual adequacy; see Mahar et al., 2020;Masters & Johnson, 1970) necessary to provide sexual pleasure to female partners through penetrative sex (Backstrom et al., 2012;Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Gagnon & Simon, 2005;Pascoe, 2007). Indeed, a cursory search of social media provides ample anecdotal evidence that some men identify cunnilingus as a threat to masculinity. ...
There is currently little research investigating men’s lack of engagement in cunnilingus. This study explored reasons why some men do not engage in cunnilingus, as well as characteristics that distinguish those who engage from those who do not. A convenience sample of 935 straight and bisexual/pansexual male participants were asked to indicate whether they have ( n = 833, M age = 37.14, SD age = 14.12) or have not ( n = 102, M age = 21.63, SD age = 6.11) engaged in cunnilingus. Additionally, we interrogated participants’ sexual history, precarious manhood belief, sexist beliefs, sexual narcissism, homophobia, and attitudes toward women’s genitals. Our results indicated that engagement in cunnilingus is very common among men who have sex with women, with 89.09% of our sample having performed oral sex at least once and the overwhelming majority of engagers (94.47%) indicating enjoyment. However, we also identified that men who do not engage in cunnilingus demonstrated greater levels of homophobia, had more negative attitudes toward women’s genitals, and were less likely to be sexually narcissistic than men who did engage in cunnilingus. Endorsement of precarious manhood belief, benevolent sexism, and hostile sexism did not influence engagement in cunnilingus. Results also indicated that the primary reason men do not engage in or enjoy cunnilingus—aside from lack of opportunity—was the perception that cunnilingus is “gross.” Further, men who engaged in oral sex but did not enjoy it demonstrated greater endorsement of both precarious manhood belief and hostile sexism, as well as higher levels of homophobia and more negative attitudes toward women’s genitals.
... Observed differences between men and women may be explained by objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). Cultural norms force women more than men to be attractive (Parker et al., 2017) and to show satisfaction during sex (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017). Moreover, women's sexual dissatisfaction and other sexual problems are attributed to their internal characteristics (Angel, 2010). ...
Body esteem, self-esteem, and sexual satisfaction influence people’s well-being so it is important to look for psychological factors that may contribute to their improvement. However, men and women differ in the factors that affect their body esteem, self-esteem, and sexual satisfaction. We analyzed links between men’s and women’s self-esteem, body esteem, sexual satisfaction, and self-compassion. The research involved 716 heterosexual participants (365 men and 351 women). All measured variables correlated positively; however, some correlations were stronger among women than among men. Mediation analyses revealed that sexual satisfaction directly affected women's body esteem but did not directly affect men's body esteem. Self-compassion and sexual satisfaction explained more variance in self-esteem and body esteem among women than among men. We explained observed differences in the contexts of the self-perception theory and the objectification theory.
... These results are consistent with studies that found women represented in popular mainstream pornography receive primarily penetrative types of stimulation (McKee, 2005;Séguin et al., 2018;Vannier et al., 2014). One way to make sense of the imbalance in non-penetrative genital touch is to examine the persistent and misleading beliefs regarding masculinity and sexuality held by heterosexual men and women that the penis is central to women achieving sexual pleasure (Braun et al., 2003;Chadwick & van Anders, 2017). This belief prioritizes vaginal touch over clitoral touch in women (Wade et al., 2005) and implies that if the penis is the way men give pleasure (through PVI), then the vagina is the main way women receive pleasure. ...
Watching mainstream porn today is a main source for men and women to learn how to behave sexually, including how to erotically stimulate one another. To date, research into the content analysis of pornography has been limited to the measurement of the frequency or prevalence of sexual behaviours or themes. In contrast, little is known regarding porn presentation of the specific location and duration of touch, vital for orgasm, pleasure, and sexual satisfaction for both women and men. Eighty “most-viewed” video clips were selected from two popular porn sites and coded for the gender of toucher/receiver, location, and duration in seconds of erotic touch. Results showed that women received significantly less genital stimulation than men overall, with this difference drastically increasing with non-penetrative erotic touch. The men in these videos received stimulation to their main sexual organ (penis) 10 times more than women received on their most sensitive sexual organ (clitoris), and the women were found to do the majority of non-reciprocal genital touch. While accurate information is widely available regarding competent erotic touch necessary for pleasure and orgasm, unbalanced and inadequate touching is still strongly represented in popular heterosexual pornography. This study elucidates how popular, freely accessible pornography is normalizing beliefs that men’s sexual touch and pleasure are primary and that clitoral stimulation is not a priority for women’s pleasure. Implications for how these normative aspects of sexual stimulation that may be leading to difficulties in sexual pleasure, orgasm, and satisfaction are discussed.
... It is worth noting that the domain of specific techniques of mutual stimulation is important, which suggests that sex education programs and interventions aimed at maximizing sexual pleasure may be an opportunity for improving partnered sex. These results are in line with previous research that has highlighted the importance of knowing the most effective ways to stimulate a partner [79] in order to have a pleasurable partnered experience. ...
Introduction: Sexual pleasure is a human right and a central aspect of human sexuality that contributes significantly to people’s overall well-being, making it an essential element to consider in clinical settings. This study aims to expand the understanding of sexual pleasure by examining how LGB+ people (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and other minority sexual orientations)-who perceived having a sexual problem-define solitary and partnered sexual pleasure. Methods: A cross-sectional exploratory qualitative study was conducted online. The current study included 85 people who self-identified as LGB+ and reported experiencing a sexual problem. Data analysis was performed using summative content analysis. Results: The results for solitary sexual pleasure comprised the creation of 5 categories (Enhancing the relationship with oneself, Specification of solitary pleasure, Negative experience, Unrestrained experience and A goal). For partnered sexual pleasure, 9 categories were created (The perks of being with another, Openness to experience, A result of sexual techniques, Psychophysiological experience, Misconceptions about sexual pleasure, Absence of intrapersonal constraints, Undesirable feelings, Explicit consent, and Absence of interpersonal constraints). Discussion: Despite reporting sexual problems, most participants reported having experienced sexual pleasure, and were able to define it. This study provided a deeper understanding of the perspectives on and experiences of sexuality among LGB+ people who experience sexual problems. Our findings highlight that current diagnostic criteria (e.g., DSM-5) do not seem to align with the problems reported by this sample population (the problems presented are beyond their sexual function). This reinforces the importance of viewing sexual problems from a perspective that goes beyond the categorial psychopathology model. Our study’s findings may offer valuable insights for the evaluation and treatment of sexual problems, where sexual pleasure is considered a crucial aspect of sexual well-being.
... For men, acceptance or recognition of the SDS has been associated with (pressure toward) promiscuous, unsafe, or unsought sexual activity that proves masculinity (Berkowitz, 2011;Kalish, 2013;Soller & Haynie, 2017). Masculinity has been associated with risk of poor sexual inhibition due to fear of performance failure (Clarke et al., 2015), while the emphasis on performance explains the strong preoccupation of men with the demonstration of competence through achieving and giving female partners an orgasm, which can lead to a less positive or satisfactory sexual experience (e.g., Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Salisbury & Fisher, 2014). ...
The Sexual Double Standard is a complex multi-layered construct that functions as an organizing principle of heterosexual behavior. It is a dynamic, ubiquitous, two-dimensional sexual gendered norm, the quantitative exploration of which requires up-to-date assessment tools to better capture both personal endorsement and social recognition of the SDS. This study develops a New SDS Scale to assess personal SDS, which is easily adapted to measure societal SDS, with demonstration of its validity and gender invariance. College students (N = 481) completed the New SDS Scale, plus convergent-divergent and concurrent validity measures. Exploratory analysis indicated an eight-item two-factor structure. Confirmatory factor analysis showed the better adjustment of a bifactor structure combining a general factor of SDS and the subscales Sexual Relationships and Actions/Activities. In addition to factorial validity, results were also demonstrative of convergent, discriminant, and concurrent validity, and reliability and gender invariance were demonstrated. The new scale may be a useful tool to briefly assess personal endorsement of the SDS or of alternative standards, and it can easily be adapted to measure perceptions about the social existence of the SDS. Beyond the potential for practical application to individual or group assessment in clinical and educational settings, the New SDS Scale updates our knowledge on the types of sexual conduct that elicit the SDS, identifying critically gendered activities for which permissiveness continues to be markedly differentiated, despite the openness and sexual freedom of recent years.
... Further, strict adherence to sexual scripts often necessitates the maintenance of hegemonic masculinity-endorsing a hierarchy that has men dominant over women while engaging in socially approved practices and avoiding others to prove one's manhood (Alden & Parker, 2005;Scott, 2014). For many straight men, such masculinity achievement involves sexual prowess, knowledge of the female body, and the requisite skills (i.e., sexual adequacy; see Mahar et al., 2020;Masters & Johnson, 1970) necessary to provide sexual pleasure to female partners through penetrative sex (Backstrom et al., 2012;Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Gagnon & Simon, 2005;Pascoe, 2007). Indeed, a cursory search of social media provides ample anecdotal evidence that some men identify cunnilingus as a threat to masculinity. ...
There is currently little research investigating men’s lack of engagement in cunnilingus. This study explored reasons why some men do not engage in cunnilingus, as well as characteristics that distinguish those who engage from those who do not. A convenience sample of 935 straight and bisexual/pansexual male participants were asked to indicate whether they have ( n = 833, M age = 37.14, SD age = 14.12) or have not ( n = 102, M age = 21.63, SD age = 6.11) engaged in cunnilingus. Additionally, we interrogated participants’ sexual history, precarious manhood belief, sexist beliefs, sexual narcissism, homophobia, and attitudes toward women’s genitals. Our results indicated that engagement in cunnilingus is very common among men who have sex with women, with 89.09% of our sample having performed oral sex at least once and the overwhelming majority of engagers (94.47%) indicating enjoyment. However, we also identified that men who do not engage in cunnilingus demonstrated greater levels of homophobia, had more negative attitudes toward women’s genitals, and were less likely to be sexually narcissistic than men who did engage in cunnilingus. Endorsement of precarious manhood belief, benevolent sexism, and hostile sexism did not influence engagement in cunnilingus. Results also indicated that the primary reason men do not engage in or enjoy cunnilingus—aside from lack of opportunity—was the perception that cunnilingus is “gross.” Further, men who engaged in oral sex but did not enjoy it demonstrated greater endorsement of both precarious manhood belief and hostile sexism, as well as higher levels of homophobia and more negative attitudes toward women’s genitals.
... As discussed previously, female orgasms serve as a marker of men's masculinity (Chadwick & Anders, 2017;Lamb et al., 2018;Savoury et al., 2022;Walker, 2020b). Men often experience them as accomplishment (Walker, 2020b). ...
Sexual satisfaction is important to individual well-being and relationship satisfaction, making it a research topic relevant for sex clinicians and relationship therapists. The current study adds to sexuality literature by asking participants questions about the factors involved in “great sex.” We conducted 78 interviews via email or phone with participants ranging in age from 18 to 69. The sample included a diverse range of sexual orientations and identities, and various relationship statuses. Three primary themes emerged regarding great sex: orgasm, an emotional component, and chemistry/connection. Though some participants equated an emotional aspect as love; most participants made clear the difference between love and emotional elements in sex. Many participants shared their belief that a man only invests in his female partner’s orgasm when he also invests in her emotionally. Thus, some women explained that the emotional component helped them be present enough to orgasm. Others explained the emotional component as trust and affection. Participants also elaborated to define chemistry, which they regarded as out of one’s control and impossible to manufacture. A smaller number of participants stated unequivocally the lack of necessity of an emotional aspect to great sex; they stated instead that physical connection trumped an emotional component.
... Hence, an "orgasmic imperative" (Potts 2000) exists in relation to heterosex, where the orgasm is seen as the "end point and high point" of any sexual exchange (Jackson and Scott 2001: 104). Yet men's and women's orgasms are constructed divergently and the "performance" of orgasm is highly gendered (Chadwick 2017). Men's orgasm is seen as natural, automatic, and unproblematic, whereas women's orgasm is deemed more elusive and as requiring work (Frith 2015a), even if viewed as integral to successful sex (see also Farvid and Braun 2006). ...
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... Mainly, orgasm is faked by women and is supposed to be a positive emotional experience for the man, an affirmation of his self-image as a capable lover and his sexual skills (Potts, 2002;Bryan, 2001;Fahs, 2011;Roberts et al., 1995;Wiederman, 1997), which has been widely criticized by feminist approaches (Nicholson & Burr, 2003;Lafrance et al., 2017). The phenomenon of faking an orgasm, albeit to a lesser extent, also affects men (Jagose, 2010;Zilbergeld, 1999;Ford et al., 2022), although the motives for faking may vary by gendermen faked more often to avoid an awkward situation and to avoid having to explain why they did not reach orgasm, given that not having an orgasm may undermine their masculinity (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Jonason, 2019). Reciprocity in the context of orgasm-fororgasm approach may differ in close relationships and casual sexual encountershere, individuals are more interested in their own sexual pleasure, so faking an orgasm to ensure a partner's comfort is less likely, as well as there may be a greater tolerance for disappointing sexual interactions (Jonason, 2019). ...
Reciprocity is the propensity to reward generous and punish unfair acts. It is the response to the perceived kindness of others with kindness and to the perceived meanness of others with meanness, as well as an anticipation of such behavior from other people (Sobel, 2005). The basic types of reciprocity are direct (taking place between two actors) and indirect (when one gives to another but receives from someone else, and another gives back to someone else than from whom they received, creating a generalized exchange system; Molm et al., 2007). Such a system is the basis of the functioning of societies and the mechanism of solidarity.
... Traditional and social media outlets may further amplify this tendency, thus undermining the researchers' efforts to disseminate their findings responsibly and accurately. Case in point, researchers found that men treat women's orgasms as an achievement that reaffirms their masculinity [120]. In the article, the authors emphasized that this attitude has negative implications for men and (especially) for women. ...
Guidelines concerning the potentially harmful effects of scientific studies have historically focused on ethical considerations for minimizing risk for participants. However, studies can also indirectly inflict harm on individuals and social groups through how they are designed, reported, and disseminated. As evidenced by recent criticisms and retractions of high-profile studies dealing with a wide variety of social issues, there is a scarcity of resources and guidance on how one can conduct research in a socially responsible manner. As such, even motivated researchers might publish work that has negative social impacts due to a lack of awareness. To address this, we propose 10 simple rules for researchers who wish to conduct socially responsible science. These rules, which cover major considerations throughout the life cycle of a study from inception to dissemination, are not aimed as a prescriptive list or a deterministic code of conduct. Rather, they are meant to help motivated scientists to reflect on their social responsibility as researchers and actively engage with the potential social impact of their research.
... Alternative research suggests that men actually reported a higher desire to please their partner than women suggesting that men may benefit from their partner orgasming consistently . Additionally, research has highlighted that men derive pleasure from helping a woman partner achieve orgasm as it acts as a masculinity achievement (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017); one study even suggested that women's orgasm consistency was a more consistent predictor of men's sexual satisfaction than his own orgasm consistency, though this could be partly due to lack of variability in men's self-report of orgasm consistency (Leonhardt et al., 2018). Considering limited empirical evidence concerning the extent to which men and women are more sexually satisfied from their partner consistently orgasming, it would be beneficial to add empirical evidence to potentially clarify these connections. ...
The potential link between orgasm consistency (i.e., the percentage of time an individual experiences orgasm during sexual interactions with a partner) and sexual satisfaction in mixed-gender sexual relationships remains underexamined in the literature. We combined two dyadic samples (N = 725 couples) and utilized Dyadic Response Surface Analysis (DRSA) to examine how both partners’ orgasm consistency and their discrepancy of orgasm consistency predict both partners’ sexual satisfaction. We found that partners’ discrepancy in orgasm consistency was not uniquely connected to higher sexual satisfaction for either women or men; rather, the overall consistency of orgasm was connected to better sexual satisfaction for both partners. In addition, there was some evidence tentatively suggesting that men were more likely than women to report lower sexual satisfaction if his partner was orgasming more consistently than he was, as opposed to her reporting lower sexual satisfaction from him orgasming more consistently than she was; though this appears to be a rare scenario as only 5.9% of couples had women who orgasmed more consistently than men. This study may assist educators and clinicians as they help couples consider the sexual scripts surrounding orgasm consistency, and how they can attend to each others’ desires in a way that maximizes sexual satisfaction for both partners.
... Third, masculine practices are adopted in sexual performance. An ability to sustain a penile erection and make women achieve orgasm during a sexual encounter is emblematic of masculinity (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Khan et al., 2008). ...
Cosmetic surgery is a thriving industry worldwide and Thailand is one of the market leaders. However, research which has explored issues concerning cosmetic surgery largely focuses on that of females. Moreover, it revolves around surveying clients, either quantitatively or qualitatively, rather than investigating the text which they consume. Even among the studies examining such text, they are predominantly conducted with the text published in offline media and within a Western context.
Therefore, the current study seeks to address such knowledge gaps by concentrating on online texts which male clients possibly consult for cosmetic surgery in Thailand. Since it is required by law that cosmetic surgery be conducted within authorised medical establishments, Thai cosmetic hospitals play a vital role in pursuing particular discursive strategies to communicate with clients. It is those strategies which the present study intends to investigate. To be exact, it intends to answer the following research questions: (1) What discursive strategies are employed by Thai cosmetic hospitals to propagate the ideologies about cosmetic surgery for masculinity enhancement? and (2) How do such strategies operate?
To answer the first question, the present study employs Van Dijk’s conception of the ideological square. It consists of how to: (1) emphasise our good things, (2) de-emphasise our bad things, (3) emphasise their bad things and (4) de-emphasise their good things. This framework is useful in providing a general principle of how hospitals are likely to communicate with clients. However, an additional issue may arise with regard to, for example, in which way hospitals actually emphasise the good things of cosmetic surgery. Such an issue connects with the second research question. Hence, the other framework, Taylor’s six-segment message strategy model, comes into play by functioning as a specific tool to answer it. The model consists of the ego, social, sensory, routine, acute need, and ration message strategies.
Methodologically, the present study utilises a corpus-assisted discourse analysis which amalgamates a quantitative method (the identification of significant keywords and collocations) into a qualitative analysis (the investigation of data extracts containing those significant lexical items). The corpus consists of the English version of webpage content belonging to 20 Thai hospitals with a total number of 73,168 words.
The findings reveal that, firstly, to emphasise the good things of cosmetic surgery, hospitals implement the ego, social, sensory and ration strategies. Secondly, to de-emphasise the bad things of post-operative complications, hospitals employ the ration strategy. Thirdly, to emphasise the bad things of not undergoing cosmetic surgery, hospitals adopt the ego strategy. Fourthly, to de-emphasise the good things of other means which are perceived as a rival to cosmetic surgery, hospitals pursue the ego and ration strategies. Overall, a preponderance of these strategies revolves around the notion of masculinity, which is conceptualised as the ideology concerning how to feel like a man, act like a man and have a body touted as a man.
The current study makes a theoretical and practical contribution. Theoretically, it is among the first which triangulates the discourse and the communication frameworks to analyse gender-related discourse pertaining to cosmetic surgery for masculinity enhancement in the Thai context. Practically, it hopes to raise awareness and promote media literacy among male clients about how cosmetic hospitals manifest and medicalise the ideology of masculinity via their online platforms.
https://repository.nida.ac.th/items/6a3f7631-7c7f-4bf0-8aa2-2bd75486e535
... Taken together, cosmetic surgery is portrayed as being able to assist clients in providing their partners with more intense sexual pleasure. This concurs with men's perception that an ability to sustain an erection and make women achieve orgasm is symbolic of masculinity (Chadwick & van Anders, 2017). Notably, while the findings here exclusively focus on the penis, other body parts are also connected with sexual attractiveness. ...
This study investigates the communication strategies which Thai cosmetic hospitals pursue to market their services to international male clients. The investigation is predicated upon Taylor’s six-segment message strategy model. Methodologically, corpus-assisted discourse analysis is employed, by qualitatively examining texts containing statistically significant keywords. The corpus consists of the English version webpages belonging to 20 Thai hospitals with a total number of 73,168 words. Findings indicate that, in the absence of the routine strategy, the ego, social, sensory, acute needs, and ration strategies are implemented. Recommendations on how to improve communication strategies within the healthcare sector are offered.
... As pleasure givers, men tend to view themselves negatively if they are not able to create a pleasurable sexual experience for women. Sexual performance anxiety is closely tied to rigid notions of masculinity 21 . ...
Background: Across societies, gender norms often allow men to hold key decision-making power within relationships, households and communities. This extends to almost all domains, consisting of family planning (FP) as well. FP programs have largely engaged men as clients and rarely as equal partners or influencers although across lower- and middle-income countries (LMICs), and especially in South Asia, men hold key decision-making power on the domain of family planning. The objective of this article is to explore couple dynamics through the lens of spousal communication and decision-making and unpack male engagement and spousal dynamics in family planning.
Methods : This review presents a synthesis of evidence from two peer-reviewed databases, PubMed and Jstor, and and insights from programmatic documents to shed light on gender equitable engagement of young married men in family planning. Inclusion and exclusion criteria for both these databases was set and search strategies were finalized. This was followed by title and abstract screening, data extraction, synthesis and analysis.
Results: Study participants included unmarried men (16%, n=8), married men (19%, n=9), married women (19%, n=9), married couples (25%, n=12) or more than two respondent categories (21%, n=10). Almost three quarters (71%, n=34) of the studies selected had FP as the primary area of inquiry. Other prominent thematics on which the studies reported were around norms (n=9, 16%), couple dynamics and intimacy (n=12, 22%).
Conclusions: The evidence presented provides sufficient impetus to expand on gender-equitable male engagement, viewing men as equal and supportive partners for informed, equitable and collaborative contraceptive uptake and FP choices by couples.
... It's important to consider how gender differences in orgasm expectations (e.g., men's orgasm is the expected result of sex while women's orgasm is perceived as a bonus or achievement; Armstrong et al., 2012;Chadwick & van Anders, 2017;Fahs, 2011;Klein & Conley, 2021;Matsick et al., 2016) may influence how participants chose to respond to the orgasm frequency measures, given the subjective and limited response options. For example, if a man and a woman both objectively experience orgasm at an equal frequency (e.g., 90%), their subjective reports on the scale may differ because of gendered expectations. ...
While previous research has established the existence of an orgasm gap between men and women, research exploring this phenomenon within dyadic samples of mixed-sex couples has been limited. The current study aims to investigate the impact of this orgasm disparity on novel sexual outcomes for couples, including desire and expectation for orgasm. We conducted secondary data analyses on a sample of 104 sexually active mixed-sex couples using an online Qualtrics panel (Mage = 43.9 years; 94.2% heterosexual; 79.3% White). Cisgender men and women within the couple reported on their sexual satisfaction, orgasm frequency, desired orgasm frequency, expectation for how often people should orgasm (“orgasm expectation”), and perceptions of their partner’s orgasm frequency. An orgasm gap emerged, and men significantly underreported the size of the orgasm gap in their relationships. In a dyadic path model, men’s and women’s own orgasm frequency positively predicted their desire and expectation for orgasm. Additionally, women’s orgasm frequency predicted men’s orgasm expectation. This relationship between orgasm frequencies and expectancies may partially explain women’s lower orgasm importance compared to men. A cycle of orgasm inequality within relationships may be perpetuated when women who experience less frequent orgasms lower their desire and expectation for orgasm. Sex educators, activists, and therapists should work to improve entitlement to sexual pleasure and orgasm, particularly for women who wish to increase their orgasm frequency.
Emotional labor, the act of suppressing or altering one’s feelings to enhance another person’s well-being, is predominantly performed by women, especially within intimate relationships. Despite its impact on well-being, research on its role in sexuality remains limited. We developed the Women’s Sexual Emotional Labor Assessment (WOSELA), a 12-item scale based on themes identified by past qualitative studies. To ensure its reliability and validity, we conducted three studies with women partnered with men, as well as heterosexual single women from the UK and the USA (N = 831). Drawing on exploratory factor analysis in Study 1, four subscales were identified: faking orgasm, performing desire, tolerating discomfort or pain, and partner-referenced sexual satisfaction. Confirmatory factor analyses in Study 2 (pre-registered) provided support for the WOSELA in its current form. In Study 3 (pre-registered), we demonstrated the validity of the WOSELA by establishing significant negative correlations with sexual agency, sexual communication, and sexual pleasure. Our results further show that the WOSELA was not significantly related to positive-partner-oriented sexual responsiveness. The WOSELA offers a unique tool to explore the role of emotional labor in sustaining the pleasure gap, as well as in broader power dynamics within intimate relationships and its impact on women’s well-being.
Sexual ambivalence—sex that is simultaneously wanted and unwanted—is not unusual in young women’s experiences with heterosex. Elucidating how gender and sexuality contribute to ambivalence is important for understanding how social forces shape oft-hidden sexual behaviors that affect women’s well-being. We draw on 20 interviews with young women in the United States to argue that mixed feelings about sex (psychological ambivalence) could stem from conflicting norms about heterosex (sociological ambivalence). Participants recalled wanting sex with partners because the characteristics met one set of social norms that valorized the encounters, but also discussed simultaneously not wanting those same experiences because of coexisting norms that stigmatized their behaviors. Such mixed feelings contributed to some women’s unease about experiences that they understood as explicitly consensual. In the end, the study highlights the importance of attending to the sociological study of ambivalence and its role in theorizing access to pleasurable, not just consensual, sex.
About risks of piercing and tattooing
Digital technologies are shaping young people’s intimate relationships in profound ways, yet we have little knowledge of these experiences from the Global South. Drawing from a qualitative study, this article examines how 16-19-year-old South Africans make meaning of gender and sexuality through digital intimate practices. The study finds that digital intimacies are facilitated through producing and sharing of sexual content through sexting, video calls, selfies, nudes and emojis. Together they serve as affective entities in enhancing intimate connections expanding what we know of young people’s online sexual activities. However, we also draw attention to enduring patterns of male dominance within digital practices where girls’ online activities are curtailed by heterosexual oppressive relations of power. We contribute to the emerging research in South Africa advocating for the need for greater emphasis on young people and digital sexual intimacies beyond the current framing of risk and danger in order to promote healthy young sexualities.
Orgasm is considered by many to be an essential part of women's ideal sexual experiences. As a result, sexual liberation narratives have often advocated for the prioritization of women's orgasms - particularly during heterosex - framing them as a central indicator of "good," healthy, liberated sex. However, scholars have increasingly critiqued these narratives, arguing that they result in an orgasm imperative that has negatively impacted women's sexual lives. Perspectives that promote the prioritization of women's orgasm and those that warn against the negative repercussions strive for the same thing - to draw attention to women's sexuality in ways that will lead to more pleasurable, enjoyable, and equitable sex for women overall. Yet, together, they offer contradictory messages about the role that women's orgasms can or should play in women's sexual liberation. For example, one could argue that it perhaps makes sense to prioritize women's orgasms given that they often are highly pleasurable for women, center a unique form of embodied pleasure, and offer a supposedly clear objective for women and their men partners. On the other hand, such narratives frame women's orgasm absence as abnormal, concede to men's sexuality in problematic ways, and constrain more comprehensive possibilities for women's sexual pleasure. In this critical feminist review, I offer a summative outline of these and other contradictions, focusing on how narratives prioritizing women's orgasms can have simultaneous benefits and negative repercussions when it comes to (1) women's sexual pleasure, (2) the medicalization/pathologization of women's orgasms, and (3) heterosex norms.
Feminist considerations have influenced how women and men view sex, affecting not only women's perspectives but also men’s feelings about sexual desire with regard to gender equity. This might be especially the case among men who self-identify as feminist. However, how men should manage their sexual desire or communicate about it within relationships with women is not always clear in this evolving social climate. Thus, the current study aimed to explore the successes and/or struggles feminist heterosexual men experience while navigating their desires alongside feminist considerations. To explore this, we recruited feminist-identified heterosexual men in long-term relationships. We asked participants (N = 30) a series of questions regarding their sexual desire, considering the context of their long-term relationships and evolving gender norms, during a one-on-one interview via Zoom. Using thematic analysis, we identified 11 themes from the interview data. We found that, though the feminist men in this study were all aware of negative societal perceptions of heterosexual men’s sexual desire, most men in this study did not feel conflicts between their feminist principles and their own sexual desires. This is because they reported already following feminist principles; those who felt ambivalent navigated this by communicating with their partners. Findings demonstrate the usefulness and positive impact men report feminism having on them, their sexuality, and their long-term relationships, by allowing them to better engage with their sexuality and partners.
Attitudes among couples about women's solo masturbation are not well understood. The primary aim of this study was to assess (dis)similarities in attitudes between partners about women's solo masturbation and associations of each partner's attitudes with women's and their partners' sexual satisfaction. One hundred and four mixed-sex couples (M = 27.43 years), recruited through social networking websites and Prolific (an online research participant platform), completed an online survey about demographics, their experiences of solo masturbation, and validated measures of attitudes about women's masturbation and sexual satisfaction. Dyadic data were analyzed using correlational methods and the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model. Women and their partners reported similar and positive attitudes about women's solo masturbation. For women, reports of positive attitudes toward women's solo masturbation were associated with both their own and their partner's sexual satisfaction; there were no associations for men. The role of solo masturbation within romantic relationships is complex but our results support the idea that women's masturbation is now less stigmatized than commonly thought. Normalizing and including masturbation in the sexual script for individuals in relationships may help maximize their, and their partners,' sexual satisfaction.
Background
Prior studies primarily of men correlated low personal genital satisfaction (PGS) with decreased sexual activity; however, the association between PGS and genital anatomy perceptions is unknown, and there is a paucity of studies examining women.
Aim
We assessed the relationship between genital satisfaction, survey respondent sexual activity, and perceptions of anatomy and function.
Methods
A 54-item REDCap survey was distributed to any-gendered volunteers ≥18 years of age through ResearchMatch from January to March 2023. Responses were split into (1) high PGS and (2) low PGS. Analysis was performed using chi-square tests on survey responses and a Mann Whitney U test on median satisfaction level.
Outcomes
Outcomes were genital anatomy perceptions, sexual activity, and respondents’ PGS.
Results
Of the 649 respondents who started the survey, 560 (86.3%) completed it. Median PGS was 7 of 10, forming subgroups of high (≥7 of 10) satisfaction (n = 317 of 560 [56.6%]) and low (<7 of 10) satisfaction (n = 243 of 560 [43.4%]). The mean age was 45.8 ± 16.8 years, and demographics were notable for 72.1% women (n = 404 of 560), 83.2% White (n = 466 of 560), 47.9% married (n = 268 of 560), and 75.5% bachelor’s degree holders (n = 423 of 560). Comparing high- and low-PGS groups, more low-PGS respondents felt normal flaccid penis length to be <2 inches (11.1% vs 5.1%; P = .008). High-PGS respondents more often responded that it is normal for women to have orgasms over half the time (20.8% vs 13.2%; P = .0002) or to identify as being sexually active (81.1% vs 71.6%; P = .008). Women were more likely than men to report larger normal testicle sizes as 60.1 to 90 mL (24.5% vs 10.3%; P < .0001), whereas more men felt that normal testicle size was 7 to 15 mL (26.3% vs 11.4%; P < .0001). Orgasm length perceptions also differed: more women felt female orgasm length was 2.6 to 5 seconds (36.6% vs 16.7%; P < .0001), and more men believed female orgasms to be longer, at 7.6 to 10 seconds (29.5% vs 17.3%; P = .002), 10.1 to 12.5 seconds (11.5% vs 5.2%; P = .0008), and >12.5 seconds (12.2% vs 5.7%; P = .009). Respondents’ views on their genitalia differed by gender, with women more likely to feel that their genitals are normal compared with men (89.4% vs 75.0%; P < .0001).
Clinical Implications
PGS may be a useful screening tool given its association with sexual activity.
Strengths and Limitations
Our large-scale survey assesses public perceptions of genital anatomy and function. Limitations include a lack of gender nonbinary perceptions.
Conclusion
Gender and PGS interact with perceptions of male anatomy and female sexual activity, and the frequency of sexual activity was higher among high-PGS respondents; however, the direction of these interactions remains unclear and requires future causal analysis.
While most research on digital sex toys to date has focussed on their affordances and marketing, or issues of data governance and privacy, research on user experience is limited. This article centres the accounts of 11 interviewees who used digital sex devices within mostly heterosexual relations, and often for remote partnered sex. We demonstrate how digital sex toys offer creative potential and possibilities for sexual pleasure and connection, and explore to what extent this challenges normative gendered dynamics and expectations of heterosex. We conclude that digital sex devices operate as allies with which users navigate and continually re-make heterosexual sex.
This article, based on a set of 71 interviews conducted in France between 2014 and 2017, examines the basis of contemporary scripts for ‘good’ heterosex and reciprocal pleasure. It shows that, paradoxically, the male discourse on the pre-eminence of female orgasm falls within a persistently gendered order in which male desire prevails. It finds that non-penetrative genital practices continue to be stigmatized and are in general only practiced in conjunction with penile-vaginal intercourse. Interviews show that when people adopt what are still considered ‘inferior’ scripts it is usually as a result of external constraints. This article adds to our knowledge of changes in contemporary heterosexual practices over time but also what remains unchanged, while shedding light on current dynamics in gender relations.
Un recorrido histórico de los desarrollos tecnológicos asociados a la sexualidad. Desde la Venus de Willendorf, hasta Videojuegos, Kanojo y la Realidad Virtual.
Un leve recorrido histórico por la masturbación, hacia actualmente fuentes de inspiración del placer, disfunciones y erotismo, creatividad y técnicas para explorar.
Little sociological research has examined how cis people might be accepting or not of trans people on an intimate level. To begin to fill this gap, the author analyzes over 200 online discussion board posts and threads on Reddit by cis heterosexual men who discuss their romantic and sexual desires for trans women. The author coins the concept of transamorous misogyny to capture the paradoxical process of how cis heterosexual men’s desires for trans women is in and through their contempt of all women. Specifically, the author shows how the cis heterosexual men expand ideas of sexual identity as attraction toward gender expression. However, the men expand the definition of heterosexuality in ways that construct trans women as hyper-feminine, hyper-submissive, and as not real women. The men also discursively work to reassert their cis heterosexual masculinity through discussing how trans women are better than cis women. Ultimately, transamorous misogyny works to devalue all women and allows cis heterosexual men to desire trans women in ways that help the men invest in their own cis heterosexual masculinity.
Compared to the male orgasm, the female orgasm is poorly understood in humans. There is continuing debate about whether female orgasm is an adaptation or if it is a byproduct of the male orgasm. Additionally, even among scholars who agree that the female orgasm does serve an adaptive function, there are multiple proposed hypotheses as to what that function could be and insufficient evidence to differentiate among them. There are also questions concerning whether these hypotheses are mutually exclusive. However, there is one feature related to the female orgasm that is much clearer from the research: male interest in inducing orgasm in their female partners. This chapter will address male interest in inducing female orgasm from the perspective of sperm competition theory. First, the importance of avoiding cuckoldry and the use of tactics to combat sperm competition (including inducing female orgasm) will be discussed. Next, there will be a brief review of hypotheses for the possible adaptive function of female orgasm, with special attention paid to hypotheses related to the quality of the male partner. The chapter will then discuss specific behaviors men use to induce orgasm in their female partners, as well as the relational contexts in which men are more versus less interested in inducing female orgasm. Then, men’s individual differences in terms of traits (e.g., warmth and sense of humor) will be discussed with regard to how they moderate both interest and success in inducing female orgasm. The chapter closes with suggestions for several future directions in this understudied area of research.
Many actors report, anecdotally, a phenomenon known as a “showmance,” whereby actors develop romantic and/or sexual feelings for acting partners, often in the process of portraying romance onstage together. Because acting partners spend so much time together and may be engaging in several activities that facilitate emotional and physical closeness, it is possible that performing intimacy may influence feelings of actual intimacy. In this study, we aimed to understand the association between the type of onstage relationship that an actor portrays with their acting partner and the degree of intimacy—specifically nurturance and eroticism—that they feel toward this partner. We surveyed actors (amateur and professional) about their past theatrical experiences performing with a romantic acting partner ( romantic/intimate), a non-romantic but still intimate partner ( non-romantic/intimate; e.g., friendship, parent-child), and a non-romantic and non-intimate partner ( non-romantic/non-intimate; e.g., strangers, colleagues). We found that actors reported significantly higher levels of nurturance when recalling romantic and non-romantic/intimate onstage roles, compared to non-romantic/non-intimate roles. We also found that actors reported significantly higher levels of eroticism when recalling romantic onstage roles compared to other roles. Finally, we found that actors reported having experienced a significantly greater proportion of romantic/sexual feelings across their acting careers toward romantic acting partners, compared to other acting partners. The findings of this study provide a better understanding of the bidirectional relationship between behaviour and affect, as well as the predictors of intimacy, through a theatrical lens.
This article is based on ethnographic fieldwork, focusing on the processes and practices of cuddle parties. Data was collected from a combination of participant-observation, interviews, and diaries aimed to understand and interpret this unique form of intimate interaction. By disentangling bodily disciplines and dramaturgical (self-)presentations, this study explores how and to what extent cuddle party participants embody safe and nonsexual touch experiences in forms of “playful” interaction rituals. Alongside the chance for participants to explore bodies, with permission, this study concludes that cuddle parties are experiential, bounded playgrounds where both intimacy and touch are (re)created in the context of loosened normative, relational, and sexual constraints.
The present study describes a mixed-methods approach to studying gendered attributions made in response to orgasm non-occurrence during sexual encounters with a partner. The study employed a concurrent nested mixed-methods design with primary data, which nested a quantitative analysis within a more extensive qualitative analysis (n = 390). Two qualitative questions regarding both the participant and their partner’s attributed reasons for being unable to orgasm were coded and analyzed thematically. These responses were then quantitized into dichotomous variables used as predictors of sexual satisfaction, relationship satisfaction, and orgasm frequency in a multiple regression analysis. Results of the study indicated that medical/health and technique/setting attributions were the most frequent reasons participants and their partners did not orgasm. Furthermore, relational attributions were negatively associated with sexual and relationship satisfaction in women. Finally, not knowing to what cause orgasm non-occurrence should be attributed was also negatively associated with sexual and relationship satisfaction in women and orgasm frequency in both men and women. Implications for clinicians and further research are discussed.
Orgasm coercion occurs when someone pressures a partner to orgasm by implying that not orgasming will have negative consequences. But what happens when the coerced partner refuses to go along with orgasm coercion? And how do perpetrators of orgasm coercion react? In the current study, we analysed 100 participants’ (cisgender women, n = 66; cisgender men, n = 24; gender/sex minorities, n = 10) descriptions of refusing orgasm coercion during their most recent orgasm coercion encounter. We assessed how participants expressed refusals, perpetrators reacted to these refusals, and perpetrator reactions connected to relationship and psychological outcomes. Results showed that participants used a variety of refusal strategies that were positively- or negatively-valenced. Some perpetrators (31%) reacted in positive, understanding ways. However, most perpetrators (61%) reacted negatively or with more coercion when confronted. Of note, results suggested that whether perpetrators responded in positive vs. negative ways did not depend on participants’ refusal strategies. We also found that positive perpetrator reactions were associated with positive relationship outcomes, but participants reported high negative psychological outcomes regardless of perpetrators’ reactions. Findings support that perpetrators of orgasm coercion are not necessarily invested in partners’ positive experiences and that orgasm coercion cannot be resolved through better communication.
This study explored gender differences in young adult heterosexual men's and women's experiences, beliefs, and concerns regarding the occurrence or nonoccurrence of orgasm during sexual interactions, with emphasis on the absence of female orgasm during intercourse. Qualitative reports were obtained from five female focus groups (N = 24, M age = 19.08) and five male focus groups (N = 21, M age = 19.29), involving three to five participants per group. Transcripts of the discussions were analyzed for emerging themes across focus group discussions. Results indicated that, for both male and female participants, the most common concern regarding lack of female orgasm in a partnered context focused on the negative impact this might have on the male partner's ego. Male and female participants also agreed that men have the physical responsibility to stimulate their female partner to orgasm, while women have the psychological responsibility of being mentally prepared to experience the orgasm. Men and women tended to maintain different beliefs, however, regarding clitoral stimulation during intercourse, as well as the importance of female orgasm for a woman's sexual satisfaction in a partnered context. Findings suggest foci for sexual education.
Understanding the determinants of men's participation in housework has been the focus of much research in the past two decades. Increasingly, scholars argue that men's reluctance to do family work is because they associate it with “women's work” and thus a threat to their masculinity. The authors extend this idea by considering the link between challenges to men's identities in the workplace and their behavior in the home. Using data collected for the Class Structure and Class Consciousness Survey, it was found that the extent of men's workplace subordination was negatively related to their performance of “feminine” tasks in the home. Moreover, this relationship was stronger in families in which wives' earnings approached those of their husbands'. The theoretical implications of the results are discussed, and a call is made for more longitudinal studies to understand the complex and evolving relationship between work and family.
Social scripting theory points to the fact that much of sexual behavior seems to follow a script. Similar to scripts that stage actors use to guide their behavior, social scripts instruct members of a society as to appropriate behavior and the meanings to attach to certain behaviors. In Western cultures, scripts for sexual activity are markedly different for males and females. In this article, the goals are to provide (a) an introduction to social scripting theory, (b) an exploration of the ways and potential reasons sexual scripts differ by gender, and (c) a discussion of ways that a social scripting perspective can be applied to work with individuals and couples experiencing sexual problems.
One of the most consistent and troubling findings in sexuality research is that men report a substantially greater number of sexual intercourse partners compared to women. In a population that is more or less closed and is comprised of approximately equal proportions of men and women, such a finding is illogical. In the current article, I review the primary explanations that have been offered for this gender discrepancy and review the relevant data that exist for each explanation. Afterwards, I present data from two studies in which I further explored the apparent gender discrepancy and factors that may account for it. The first study involved a sample of college students (N = 324), whereas the second study was based on a nationally representative sample of adults (N = 2,524; 1994 General Social Survey, Davis & Smith, 1994). In Study 1, accounting for a lack of inclusion of casual sex partners and for self‐rated dishonesty in reporting did not affect the gender discrepancy in lifetime number of sex partners, whereas correcting for the ratio of men versus women on campus did to a small degree. Only correcting for self‐rated inaccuracy eliminated the gender discrepancy. In Study 2, removing those respondents who had participated in prostitution reduced the gender discrepancy somewhat. However, the gender discrepancy appeared to be driven primarily by men's greater tendency to report large, “round” numbers of partners. The results are discussed with regard to possible explanations for greater distortion in men's estimates of lifetime sex partners compared to women's estimates, directions for further investigation are suggested, and recommendations are provided for researchers who ask respondents to report lifetime number of sex partners.
On surveys, men report two to four times as many lifetime opposite‐sex sexual partners (SPs) as women. However, these estimates should be equivalent because each new sexual partner for a man is also a new sexual partner for a woman. The source of this discrepancy was investigated in this study. Participants reported number of lifetime and past‐year SPs and estimation strategies. The pattern of lifetime estimates replicated. The lifetime protocols indicated that people used different estimation strategies, that people who used the same strategy produced similar estimates, that some strategies were associated with large estimates and others with small ones, and that men were more likely to use the former and women the latter. No sex differences in estimates or strategies were apparent in the past‐year protocols. Our findings suggest that discrepant lifetime partner reports occur because men and women rely on different estimation strategies, not because they intentionally misrepresent their sexual histories.
Sexual relationships may be viewed from a communal perspective which emphasizes caring and concern for a partner's sexual needs and preferences, or else from an exchange perspective which emphasizes a quid pro quo approach. The purpose of the present investigation was to construct and validate an objective self-report instrument measuring communal and exchange approaches to sexual relations, the Sexual Relationship Scale (SRS). Reliability analyses indicated that the two SRS scales designed to measure communal and exchange approaches to sexual relations had reasonably strong internal consistency, and other analyses revealed that, among females, the two SRS subscales were essentially orthogonal to one another. In addition, it was found that the Sexual Relationship Scale correlated in predictable ways with measures of relationship orientation. Additional evidence indicated that men's and women's relationship satisfaction was influenced by their tendency to approach sexual relationships from either a communal or an exchange perspective.
I conceptualize sex-based harassment as behavior that derogates an individual based on sex. I propose that sex-based harassment is fundamentally motivated by the harasser's desire to protect or enhance his or her own sex-based status, a desire that stems from the fact that social status is stratified by a system of gender hierarchy. This theory explains currently identified forms of sexual harassment and predicts others, including nonsexual harassment between women.
Reciprocity is a basic premise of egalitarian relationships, and is typically depicted as a `good thing' within heterosexual sex and relationships. Here we examine a discourse of reciprocity - articulated as orgasm for both partners - evident in accounts of heterosex collected from 15 heterosexual women and 15 men. We argue that notions of reciprocity are not necessarily as liberatory as they might seem, as they do not occur in a social or sexual vacuum. In conjunction with other dominant sexual meanings, a discourse of reciprocity produces entitlements and obligations that can render `choice' in heterosex problematic, particularly for women.
This article describes the development of the Sexuality Scale, an instrument designed to measure three aspects of human sexuality: sexual‐esteem, defined as positive regard for and confidence in the capacity to experience one's sexuality in a satisfying and enjoyable way; sexual‐depression, defined as the experience of feelings of depression regarding one's sex life; and sexual‐preoccupation, defined as the tendency to think about sex to an excessive degree. The procedure involved (a) item construction, selection and subsequent validation through item analysis; and (b) a factor analysis of the items on the Sexuality Scale and the establishment of factorial validity. The results indicated that the three subscales were psychometrically sound, that males reported more sexual‐preoccupation than did females, and that the three subscales have unique intercorrelation patterns. The exploratory nature of these findings are discussed.
In the current dispute about the medicalization of female sexual dysfunction, both sides warrant their case on meeting women's needs and wishes. Yet there has been very little research about women's subjective experiences and the meaning they attach to them. This paper aims to gain a greater understanding of women's experiences of problems with orgasm and the social discourse and social praxes which produce them. The paper draws on a semi-structured interview-based study, consisting of 50 interviews with women age 25 to 67. Its findings challenge the idea that absence of orgasm is a medical condition, and argue that it is an embodiment experience that is socially constructed, both through media portrayals and through male expectations and “needs”.
Like fast food and fizzy drinks, discourses are globally marketed by powerful multinational corporations. In this article we look at discourses about women which are distributed around the planet by the 44 different national versions of Cosmopolitan. These versions are localized, but still transmit the Cosmo brand, resulting in similarities between the versions. We apply a multimodal discourse analytic approach to understand this global branding, the type of analysis which is lacking in existing accounts of globalization, and ask, what exactly does remain the same across the localized versions? What this article offers is not an analysis of the magazine per se, but an analysis of the discourses that underpin it. We show how the magazine creates a fantasy world through the use of low modality images, which allow a particular kind of agency, mainly sex, to signify power. The multimodal realizations of Cosmo discourse enable women to signify their alignment with the Cosmo world through such things as the cafes they frequent, the clothes they wear and the way that they dance. Cosmo presents these not as real, but as playful fantasies, something which existing literature on women's magazines has missed. In these fantasies, women act alone and rely on acts of seduction and social manoeuvreing, rather than on intellect, to act in and on the world.
Orgasm is a "goal" of much sexual activity, and a source of potentially intense pleasure and fulfillment, yet can be fraught with difficulty or distress. Relatively little social science research has explored people's experiences around, and their meanings related to, orgasm, and indeed other sexual pleasures, especially with young adults. This study aimed to provide a rich exploration of the meanings associated with orgasm and sexual pleasure during sex with a partner, to understand the social patterning of orgasm experience. A qualitative survey was used to collect data from 119 sexually experienced British young adults (81% women, mean age 20, 92% heterosexual). A descriptive form of thematic analysis that prioritizes participants' meanings and experiences was used to identify and explore patterns in the data. Five main themes are reported here: (a) orgasm: the purpose and end of sex; (b) "it's more about my partner's orgasm"; (c) orgasm: the ultimate pleasure?; (d) orgasm is not a simple physiological response; and (e) faking orgasm is not uncommon. These (mostly not gendered) themes demonstrate the complex and contradictory meanings around orgasm, and reveal meaning to be dependent on situation and context. However, they do resonate strongly with widespread discourses of sexuality that prioritize heterosexual coitus, orgasm, and orgasm reciprocity.
Male-male social bonds have a powerful influence on the sexual relations of some young heterosexual men. Qualitative analysis among young men aged eighteen to twenty-six in Canberra, Australia, documents the homosocial organization of men's heterosexual relations. Homosociality organizes men's sociosexual relations in at least four ways. For some of these young men, male-male friendships take priority over male-female relations, and platonic friendships with women are dangerously feminizing. Sexual activity is a key path to masculine status, and other men are the audience, always imagined and sometimes real, for one's sexual activities. Heterosexual sex itself can be the medium through which male bonding is enacted. Last, men's sexual storytelling is shaped by homosocial masculine cultures. While these patterns were evident particularly among young men in the highly homosocial culture of a military academy, their presence also among other groups suggests the wider influence of homosociality on men's sexual and social relations.
Inorgasmia is under-studied in the domain of sexual health psychology. This study explores women's experiences of inorgasmia and the meanings giving to this experience. Interviews with six inorgasmic women were analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). The analysis showed that the absence of orgasm was experienced as problematic and disturbing. A search for reasons for their condition, and its effects on self-image and self-confidence underpinned the experience of inorgasmia as a problem. The spectrum of meanings surrounding female orgasm demonstrates that, far from being perceived as a merely physical experience, the moment of orgasm takes on relational significance and it has implications for the women's identities. The paper identifies areas for future research and theorising.
The Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory – 46 (Parent & Moradi, 2009) is a useful tool with which to assess masculine gender role conformity. The CMNI-46 retained and built on the psychometric strengths of the original CMNI (Mahalik et al., 2003) while offering greater efficiency at approximately half of the length of the original measure. The present study offers additional examination of the reliability, validity, and factor structure of the CMNI-46 with a sample of 255 college men. In this sample, confirmatory factor analysis results suggested acceptable fit of the posited factor structure. Evidence of reliability was garnered with Cronbach's alphas in the good to excellent range across subscales. Correlations with convergent and discriminant validity indicators were supportive of the validity of subscale scores in this sample, but suggested some caution in interpreting scores on the Playboy subscale. Overall, the findings offered psychometric support for use of the CMNI-46 in research and practice pertaining to men and masculinity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article reports on the development of a Likert-type scale measuring attitudes toward egalitarian-traditional sex roles. A total of 484 undergraduates participated in six phases of the study. An item analysis study yielded 20 items with part-whole correlations p.001). Five other phases of research show promising concurrent and construct validity. In particular, traditional attitudes are related to rigidity as measured by authoritarian, religious, same-sex touching, rape acceptance, divorce, and conservative attitudes. Overall, a varimax rotated factor analysis revealed one major factor accounting for 84.6% of the variance. Further, females were shown to have higher levels of egalitarian attitudes as compared to males.
This study examines women's social representations of female orgasm. Fifty semi-structured interviews were conducted with British women. The data were thematically analysed and compared with the content of female orgasm-related writing in two women's magazines over a 30-year period. The results indicate that orgasm is deemed the goal of sex with emphasis on its physiological dimension. However, the women and the magazines graft onto this scientifically driven representation the importance of relational and emotive aspects of orgasm. For the women, particularly those who experience themselves as having problems with orgasm, the scientifically driven representations induce feelings of failure, but are also resisted. The findings highlight the role played by the social context in women's subjective experience of their sexual health.
The authors report 5 studies that demonstrate that manhood, in contrast to womanhood, is seen as a precarious state requiring continual social proof and validation. Because of this precariousness, they argue that men feel especially threatened by challenges to their masculinity. Certain male-typed behaviors, such as physical aggression, may result from this anxiety. Studies 1-3 document a robust belief in (a) the precarious nature of manhood relative to womanhood and (b) the idea that manhood is defined more by social proof than by biological markers. Study 4 demonstrates that when the precarious nature of manhood is made salient through feedback indicating gender-atypical performance, men experience heightened feelings of threat, whereas similar negative gender feedback has no effect on women. Study 5 suggests that threatening manhood (but not womanhood) activates physically aggressive thoughts.
Heterosexual masculinity is the cultural pressure exerted on males to be masculine in traits and heterosexual in orientation or else be viewed as feminine and socially unacceptable. The current study investigated the link between heterosexual masculinity and homophobia in 74 college males. Specifically, gender self-discrepancy (how well males think they fit cultural expectations of how they should act as a man), attribute importance (perceived importance of possessing masculine attributes), and self-esteem were examined as predictors of homophobia. Attribute importance, self-discrepancy along masculine traits, and their interaction significantly predicted degree of homophobia in this sample.
Men report more permissive sexual attitudes and behavior than do women. This experiment tested whether these differences might result from false accommodation to gender norms (distorted reporting consistent with gender stereotypes). Participants completed questionnaires under three conditions. Sex differences in self-reported sexual behavior were negligible in a bogus pipeline condition in which participants believed lying could be detected, moderate in an anonymous condition, and greatest in an exposure threat condition in which the experimenter could potentially view participants responses. This pattern was clearest for behaviors considered less acceptable for women than men (e.g., masturbation, exposure to hardcore & softcore erotica). Results suggest that some sex differences in self-reported sexual behavior reflect responses influenced by normative expectations for men and women.
No systematic study has examined the psychological impact of premature ejaculation (PE) on the man and his partner. This study explores this vital issue by reporting on interviews of 28 men with self-diagnosed PE. From a qualitative perspective, these interviews assess whether these men had concerns about their PE and, if so, what they were. These men focused on two major themes: impact on self-confidence and future/current relationships. This suggests that PE has a similar qualitative impact on the individual as erectile dysfunction. Further investigation will need to determine how prevalent these concerns are in the PE population and also to delineate the impact on the men s partners.
Two laboratory experiments investigated the hypothesis that threat to male identity would increase the likelihood of gender harassment. In both experiments, using the computer harassment paradigm, male university students (N=80 in Experiment 1, N=90 in Experiment 2) were exposed to different types of identity threat (legitimacy threat and threat to group value in Experiment 1 and distinctiveness threat and prototypicality threat in Experiment 2) or to no threat and were then given the opportunity to send pornographic material to a virtual female interaction partner. Results show that (a) participants harassed the female interaction partner more when they were exposed to a legitimacy, distinctiveness, or prototypicality threat than to no threat; (b) this was mainly true for highly identified males; and (c) harassment enhanced postexperimental gender identification. Results are interpreted as supporting a social identity account of gender harassment.
Jealousy evokes strong psychological responses, but little is known about physiological effects. This study investigated whether actively thinking about a jealousy-provoking situation would result in a testosterone (T) response, and what factors might mediate this effect. We examined T responses to imagining one’s partner engaging in one of three activities: a neutral conversation with a co-worker, a flirtatious conversation with an attractive person, or a passionate kiss with an attractive person. Women in the flirting condition experienced a significantly larger increase in T relative to those in the neutral condition; the kissing condition was intermediate. In men, there were no significant effects of jealousy condition on T. These findings are consistent with the Steroid/Peptide Theory of Social Bonds, such that the flirting condition elicited a ‘competitive’ T response, and the kissing condition elicited responses consistent with defeat.
The masculine overcompensation thesis asserts that men react to masculinity threats with extreme demonstrations of masculinity, a proposition tested here across four studies. In study 1, men and women were randomly given feedback suggesting they were either masculine or feminine. Women showed no effects when told they were masculine; however, men given feedback suggesting they were feminine expressed more support for war, homophobic attitudes, and interest in purchasing an SUV. Study 2 found that threatened men expressed greater support for, and desire to advance in, dominance hierarchies. Study 3 showed in a large-scale survey on a diverse sample that men who reported that social changes threatened the status of men also reported more homophopic and prodominance attitudes, support for war, and belief in male superiority. Finally, study 4 found that higher testosterone men showed stronger reactions to masculinity threats than those lower in testosterone. Together, these results support the masculine overcompensation thesis, show how it can shape political and cultural attitudes, and identify a hormonal factor influencing the effect.
This paper examines the phenomenon of faking orgasm in order to construct a critical analysis of heterosexual relations. Such an analysis, we argue, is central to the task of developing effective HIV/AIDS educational campaigns for heterosexual people. In the paper we examine the different narratives upon which heterosexual men and women rely when they are discussing their sexual and relationship experiences. We analyse these in terms of recent feminist theories of embodiment. We conclude by arguing the importance of this kind of analysis to HIV/AIDS prevention and education.
This article presents a feminist discursive analysis of orgasm, focusing on the transcripts from discussions with women and men in Aotearoa/New Zealand regarding the meanings that attach to (hetero) sexual health. Certain aspects of deconstructive theory lie behind the approach used to read the transcript material. In the first place, as Derrida (1981) has pointed out, ` “everyday language” is not innocent or neutral' (p. 19); rather, it is laden with assumptions and investments that may not be immediately apparent. This textual analysis is thus principally concerned with examining one of the habitual structures underlying Western thought and language - the distinction between presence and absence - and with examining how this binary pairing produces, and is produced by, the `common-sense' attitudes to sex within the `everyday language' of the participants. Examining the functioning of notions of presence and absence reveals some of the paradoxes inherent in contemporary ideas about orgasm; for example, the notion that orgasm offers a transcendental experience (a meeting with one's `true' self) at the same time as it involves a loss or absence of `self'. Finally, it is suggested that the deconstructive properties of `desire' have the potential to challenge the conventional place of orgasm as the ultimate (or only) measure of healthy heterosex.
The sexual self-help genre constitutes an ever-expanding market for the modern heterosexual couple, influenced by decades of `personal growth' therapy, literature and television. John Gray's (1992) best-seller Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus, for example, claimed to offer some ostensibly ground-breaking insights into differences between men and women, and into the means by which heterosexual communication in relationships covvvvbe imprnved. It also paved the way for a series of popular sequels. This article employs feminist critique, influenced by poststructuralism, in order to examine the kinds of discursive strategies employed in Gray's recent (1995) Mars and Venus in the Bedroom: A Guide to Lasting Romance and Passion. In particular, this analysis seeks to demonstrate how the text attempts to regulate and normalize heterosexual behaviours, and how it functions to construct its predominantly female audience as female.
This paper attempts to synthesize general issues pertaining to masculinity and male sexuality using essentialist and postmod- ern theoretical ideologies. According to essentialist ideologies, the construction of male gender requires one's molding into a masculine role, which presupposes autonomy, competition, and aggressiveness, and the suppression of the innate human needs for connectedness, intimacy, and self-disclosure, which have been traditionally devalued as feminine traits. Alterna- tively, postmodern ideologies call for the deconstruction of essentialist notions of male sexuality and the reconstruction of a more balanced androgynous ideology drawing from the his- torical, social, and cultural determinants of sexuality and cher- ishing both masculine and feminine traits. The historical, social, and cultural perspective may be viewed as an overarch- ing umbrella encompassing economic and power issues, an arena where the inequality wars are being waged, primarily those of gender, sexual orientation, age, physical ability, race, and social stratification. The reconstruction process is attained by helping one re-narrate his/her lifelong sexual narrative.
The prevalence rates of unwanted sexual activity indicate that a substantial proportion of both men and women are at risk for experiencing unwanted (nonconsensual) sexual activity. However, little is known about the extent to which men and women consent to unwanted sexual activity, such as when a person indicates willingness to engage in a sexual activity at a time when he or she experiences no sexual desire. In the current study, 80 male and 80 female U.S. college students involved in committed dating relationships kept diaries of their sexual interactions for two weeks. More than one third (38%) of the participants reported consenting to unwanted sexual activity during this period. The most common motives for engaging in this behavior were to satisfy a partner's needs, to promote intimacy, and to avoid relationship tension. Most participants reported positive outcomes associated with these motives. The results indicate that previous estimates of the prevalence of unwanted (nonconsensual) sexual experiences may actually represent a confound of nonconsensual and consensual forms.
This article examines talk about sex and heterosexual relationships, based on a study of 12 women and 13 men who participated in semi-structured interviews, in order to identify the `discourses' of sexuality which inform talk about heterosexual sex. One theme in talk about heterosexuality can be understood through the `pseudo-reciprocal gift discourse': women are described as `giving' themselves to men, whereas men `give' women orgasms, reproducing dominant norms of male activity and female passivity, — and thereby reinforcing the oppression of women. Men talk more graphically about sex than women — we suggest the resources of meaning concerning sex suit men's interests rather than women's, and reflect men's dominance in a (hetero)sexist society.
It is proposed that masculine gender role socialization affects whether men appraise specific situations as stressful. Behavioral research on stress and coping has remained relatively blind to the possibility of significant gender role differences in appraising events as stressful. Therefore, a new scale was developed to measure masculine gender role stress (MGRS). Data were presented to substantiate hypotheses that MGRS scores (1) significantly distinguish men from women, (2) are unrelated to global measures of sex-typed masculinity, and (3) are significantly associated with at least two measures of self-reported stress (i.e., anger and anxiety). Stressful situations represented on the MGRS scale include cognitive, behavioral, and environmental events associated with the male gender role. Factor analysis demonstrates that these concerns cluster in five particular domains reflecting physical inadequacy, emotional inexpressiveness, subordination to women, intellectual inferiority, and performance failures involving work and sex. The findings are discussed in terms of cognitive-behavioral concepts of stress and coping.
Desire is the core element in healthy, vital sexuality. The majority of professional and public focus has been on female desire problems. Although male hypoactive sexual desire is a common problem, there is a paucity of research on this stigmatized disorder. This clinically oriented paper discusses understanding, assessment, treatment, and relapse prevention for both lifelong and acquired male hypoactive sexual desire disorder.
Introduction. Traditionally, sexual desire is understood to occur spontaneously, but more recent models propose that desire responds to sexual stimuli.
Aims. To experimentally assess whether sexual stimuli increased sexual desire; to compare how sexual arousal and desire responded to three modalities of sexual stimuli: erotic story, unstructured fantasy, and the Imagined Social Situation Exercise (ISSE).
Methods. In an online study, participants (128 women, 98 men) were randomly assigned to one of four arousal conditions (ISSE, story, fantasy, or neutral), and then completed desire measures. In the ISSE, participants imagined and wrote about a positive sexual encounter with a self-defined attractive person.
Main Outcome Measures. Sexual arousal (perceived genital, psychological, and perceived autonomic), anxiety, positive and negative affect, and state sexual desire via self-report measures pre- and post-condition; “trait” desire via the Sexual Desire Inventory post-condition.
Results. All three sexual conditions significantly increased sexual arousal and positive affect compared with the neutral condition, with trends for higher arousal to unstructured fantasy than the ISSE or story conditions. Sexual conditions significantly increased scores on state measures of sexual desire. In addition, sexual context influenced measurement of “trait” solitary sexual desire in women, such that women reported significantly higher trait desire after the neutral and ISSE conditions vs. fantasy.
Conclusion. Results highlight the responsiveness of sexual desire, problems with measurement of desire as a long-term trait, trade-offs of using the ISSE and other stimuli in sexuality research, and the need to address context in discussions of women's and men's desire. Goldey KL and van Anders SM. Sexual arousal and desire: Interrelations and responses to three modalities of sexual stimuli. J Sex Med 2012;9:2315–2329.
Testosterone (T) is generally theorized within a trade-off framework that contrasts parenting and low T with competitive challenges and high T. Paradoxically, baby cues increase T, prompting questions of whether T or its behavioral expression has been mischaracterized. We tested 55 men using a novel interactive infant doll paradigm, and results supported our hypotheses: We showed for the first time that baby cries do decrease T in men, but only when coupled with nurturant responses. In contrast, baby cries uncoupled from nurturant responses increased T. These findings highlight the need to partition infant cues and interactions into nurturant versus competitive-related contexts to more accurately conceptualize T, as per the Steroid/Peptide Theory of Social Bonds. This experiment also supports the utility of this paradigm for studying effects of infant interactions on hormonal responses, which may provide critical insights into ameliorating the darker sides of caregiving (e.g. anger, frustration, violence) and enhancing the positive sides (e.g. intimacy, nurturance, reward).
Previous research suggests that sexual stimuli increase testosterone (T) in women and shows inconsistent effects of sexual arousal on cortisol (C), but effects of cognitive aspects of arousal, rather than behaviors or sensory stimuli, are unclear. The present study examined whether sexual thoughts affect T or C and whether hormonal contraceptive (HC) use moderated this effect, given mixed findings of HC use confounding hormone responses. Participants (79 women) provided a baseline saliva sample for radioimmunoassay. We created the Imagined Social Situation Exercise (ISSE) to test effects of imagining social interactions on hormones, and participants were assigned to the experimental (sexual) or one of three control (positive, neutral, stressful) conditions. Participants provided a second saliva sample 15 min post-activity. Results indicated that for women not using HCs, the sexual condition increased T compared to the stressful or positive conditions. In contrast, HC using women in the sexual condition had decreased T relative to the stressful condition and similar T to the positive condition. The effect was specific to T, as sexual thoughts did not change C. For participants in the sexual condition, higher baseline T predicted larger increases in sexual arousal but smaller increases in T, likely due to ceiling effects on T. Our results suggest that sexual thoughts change T but not C, baseline T levels and HC use may contribute to variation in the T response to sexual thoughts, and cognitive aspects of sexual arousal affect physiology.
Note: Thesis now published. Potts, Annie (2002). The Science/Fiction of sex: feminist deconstruction and the vocabularies of heterosex. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 04152567312. Whole document restricted, see Access Instructions file below for details of how to access the print copy. This research conducts a feminist poststructuralist examination of the vocabularies of heterosex: it investigates those terms, modes of talking, and meanings relating to sex which are associated with discourses such as scientific and popular sexology, medicine and psychiatry, public health, philosophy, and some feminist critique. The analysis of these various representations of heterosex involves the deconstruction of binaries such as presence/absence, mind/body, inside/outside and masculine/feminine, that are endemic to Western notions of sex. It is argued that such dualisms (re)produce and perpetuate differential power relations between men and women, and jeopardize the negotiation of mutually pleasurable and safer heterosex. Particular attention is paid to the ways in which sexological discourse deploys such dualisms as normal/abnormal, natural/unnatural, and healthy/unhealthy sex, and produces specifically gendered 'experiences' of sexual corporeality. The thesis examines a variety of written texts and excerpts from film and television; it also analyzes transcript material from individual and group interviews conducted by the researcher with heterosexual women and men, as well as sexual health and mental health professionals, in order to identify cultural pressures influencing participation in risky heterosexual behaviours, and also to identify alternative and safer pleasurable practices. Some of these alternative practices are suggested to rely on a radical reformulation of sexual relations which derives from the disruption of particular dualistic ways of understanding and enacting sex. The overall objective of the thesis is to deconstruct cultural imperatives of heterosex and promote the generation and acceptance of other modes of erotic pleasure. It is hoped that this research will be of use in the future planning and implementation of sex education and safer sex campaigns in Aotearoa/New Zealand which aim to be non-phallocentric and non-heterosexist, and which might recognize a feminist poststructuralist politics of sexual difference.
Research shows that many women pretend or "fake" orgasm, but little is known about whether men pretend orgasm. The purpose of this study was to investigate (a) whether, how, and why men pretend orgasm and (b) what men's and women's reports of pretending orgasm reveal about their sexual scripts and the functions of orgasms within these scripts. Participants were 180 male and 101 female college students; 85% of the men and 68% of the women had experienced penile-vaginal intercourse (PVI). Participants completed a qualitative questionnaire anonymously. Both men (25%) and women (50%) reported pretending orgasm (28% and 67%, respectively, for PVI-experienced participants). Most pretended during PVI, but some pretended during oral sex, manual stimulation, and phone sex. Frequently reported reasons were that orgasm was unlikely, they wanted sex to end, and they wanted to avoid negative consequences (e.g., hurting their partner's feelings) and to obtain positive consequences (e.g., pleasing their partner). Results suggest a sexual script in which women should orgasm before men, and men are responsible for women's orgasms.
Men and women in national surveys from four countries, the United States, Canada, Great Britain, and Norway, give mutually inconsistent reports of numbers of opposite-gender sexual partners. In all cases the number of female partners reported by men exceeds the number of male partners reported by women. Gender difference in reporting bias seems to be the most plausible explanation for the discrepancies.
PIP
It is extremely difficult to collect data on sexual behavior, because this behavior is considered private and intimate, it is connected to self-image and personality, and some sexual behaviors are illegal or taboo. In addition, researchers have scant experience in collecting these data, and even less methodological research has been done on optimal collection procedures. A comparison of surveys of the number of opposite gender sex partners reported by men and women can shed light on the reliability of these data. In a closed sample, these figures should be identical, so discrepancies indicate either deviation from the closed sample or inaccurate reporting. Examination of data from 5 US surveys and 1 each from Canada, the UK, and Norway provided an opportunity to consider possible adjustments and to discern a general pattern. The pattern which emerged from this study showed that men report more female partners than women report male partners. The ratio ranged from a low of 1.16:1 to 8.45:1, with discrepancies increasing as the reference period increased. Nonresponse levels were similar for men and women, and there is little evidence that this is linked to sexual behavior. The discrepancies are reduced by truncation, but this only produces small differences which are not necessarily more valid than raw data. The ratios are decreased when adjustments made for the gender distribution of the target population include the elderly, but they increase when the elderly are excluded. The possible explanations for the discrepancies are noncoverage, nonresponse, and misreports. Analysis points to intentional misreports as the most likely culprit, with men overreporting and women underreporting. Reference periods which include a greater portion of premarital life will likely be the most distorted. Until more methodological research isolates and minimizes measurement error, any analysis should assume that either the rates reported by men or those reported by women might be correct.
To more clearly characterize the patterns of cognitive-affective and physiological responses concomitant with male sexual dysfunction, the present study compared 14 sexually dysfunctional and 16 sexually functional men. All individuals listened to two sexually explicit tapes and engaged in a self-generated fantasy, while genital, heart rate and scaled cognitive affective responses were recorded. Two types of instructions, a performance demand set and a non-demand sensate focus set, preceded the erotic tapes in counterbalanced order. As predicted, dysfunctional men showed less genital tumescence to tapes preceded by the demand than the non-demand instructions. Contrary to expectation, functional men showed greater penile tumescence to the tapes preceded by demand instructions. Self-reported sexual arousal did not follow the penile tumescence pattern but instead indicated that the dysfunctional sample was significantly less subjectively aroused to the tapes and fantasy. There were other significant differences between the groups. Dysfunctional men showed greater general psychological distress, as measured by the SCL-90, including elevated somaticism, anxiety and depression scores. During the experimental session, dysfunctional men also evidenced greater awareness of a variety of physiological responses, as well as more negative and fewer positive cognitive-affective states. These data are discussed in terms of the interaction of affective and physiological responses, differences in contextual meanings of instructional sets given the presence of a dysfunction, and theoretical and clinical conceptualizations of male sexual functioning.
This paper challenges the rapidly re-emerging medicalised model of women's sexual problems, or female sexual dysfunction, particularly those concerned with problems of orgasm. It reports a qualitative in-depth interview study of 33 women between the ages of 19 and 60 years (mean age 28.6 years) where the data analysis particularly focused upon their subjective perceptions of what constituted 'normal' sexual satisfaction for themselves and other women. The data comprised taped interviews which were fully transcribed and analysed using an interpretive framework based on both symbolic interactionist and psychodynamic concepts. The results indicated that these women's desires and expectations differed appreciably from those reported in the typical clinical and sexological literature. Women interviewed here seemed less concerned with achieving orgasm through heterosexual intercourse for themselves than the literature suggested they might be. There was however, evidence of a strong desire to experience orgasm in this way for the sake of their male partners. Thus, it is suggested that there is probably a closer relationship between popular beliefs about what is 'normal' based upon the medical model with women placing themselves in a dysfunctional category, than there is between the everyday enjoyment of sex and women identifying themselves as being sexually healthy.
Wimp or gladiator: Contradictions in acquiring masculine sexuality
- J Holland
- C Ramazanaglu
- S Sharpe
The social dimension of sex
- R F Baumeister
- D M Tice