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Public Health Risk of Arsenic Species in Chicken Tissues from Live Poultry Markets of Guangdong Province, China
Abstract
Arsenic-based feed additives, such as roxarsone (ROX), are still legally and widely used in food animal production in many countries. This study was conducted to systematically characterize the content and speciation of arsenic in chicken tissues from live poultry markets and in commercial chicken feeds in Guangdong, a major poultry production and consumption province in China, and to assess the corresponding public health risk. The total arsenic contents in the commercial feeds could be modeled as a mixture of two log-normal distributions (geometric means: 0.66 and 17.5 mg/kg), and inorganic arsenic occurred at high levels (0.19-9.7 mg/kg) in those with ROX detected. In general, chicken livers had much higher contents of total arsenic compared to the muscle tissues (breast and drumstick), and chicken muscle from the urban markets contained arsenic at much higher levels than that from the rural markets. The incremental lifetime cancer risk (bladder and lung cancer) from dietary exposure to arsenic contained in chicken meat products on local markets was above the serious or priority level (10-4) for 70 and 30% of the adult populations in Guangzhou and Lianzhou, respectively. These findings indicate the significant need to phase out the use of arsenic-based feed additives in China.
... However, in the present study, total As concentration in raw chicken is much less than the total As concentration of both raw and cooked chicken from ten capital cities of China (Zhao et al. 2020). Similarly, Hu et al. (2017) also reported higher level of total As in 32 raw chicken meat from Guangzhou, China. This higher level of total As in Chinese chicken is perhaps due to extensive use of organoarsenicals in Chinese poultry production (Zhao et al. 2020). ...
... They also demonstrated that various inorganic arsenic compounds exist in the chicken muscles. A similar study report was presented by Hu et al. (2017). Hu et al. (2017) reported a higher level of inorganic arsenic in chicken liver than in muscle tissues (breast and drumstick). ...
... A similar study report was presented by Hu et al. (2017). Hu et al. (2017) reported a higher level of inorganic arsenic in chicken liver than in muscle tissues (breast and drumstick). As this particular metal is a nonessential element like Pb, Cd, and Hg, therefore, continuous exposure to heavy metals in low concentrations may biologically accumulate in poultry birds and ultimately may be transferred to higher animals through food chain (Chale 2002;Surtipanti et al. 2018). ...
Organoarsenic compounds are widely used in chicken feed for control of coccidial parasite, quick weight gain, and for imparting attractive color to the chicken flesh. A study was conducted to assess the level of arsenic in both chicken feed and flesh. Chicken feed was collected from 10 farm houses and total arsenic was estimated. The quantitative estimation suggests that the four levels of chicken feed contain different quantities of arsenic load. The results demonstrated that feed at stages III and IV levels contain 0.01 mg/g and 0.018 mg/g of arsenic respectively. However, at stages I and II levels, the feed contains 0.005 mg/g and 0.0052 mg/g of arsenic respectively. Proceeding similarly, chicken flesh was collected from ten vendors in the local markets of Burdwan. The experimental results revealed that deposition of arsenic in different parts of chicken body is not same. The highest accumulation was recorded in the flesh of chest followed by stomach, whereas flesh of the legs and heart showed lower levels of arsenic accumulation. A comprehensive calculation was thereafter done to assess the total amount of arsenic ingestion through consumption of chicken. If a person takes 60.0 g of chicken flesh (leg, breast, muscles, and stomach) everyday, then the person may consume 0.186–0.372 μg of arsenic per day. This study therefore clearly suggests that excessive consumption of poultry chicken may prove to be fatal. However, further research is necessary to confirm the present findings. To the best of our knowledge, this is probably the first report on the likelihood of arsenic contamination in the flesh of different body parts of poultry chicken from Eastern India.
... Besides mining/smelting activities, unintentional agricultural practices, such as the use of metal-containing pesticides and fertilizers are also a potentially important source of metal/metalloid contamination in food. Arsenic compounds such as roxarsone and nitarsone have been used in poultry production for years to treat coccidiosis and promote growth, leading to elevated As in chicken meat [109][110][111]. Even though some forms of these As-containing pesticides have been phased out in countries including the US, Canada, Europe, and China, these pesticides are still being used in many other countries, resulting in As contaminated food [109,111]. ...
... Arsenic compounds such as roxarsone and nitarsone have been used in poultry production for years to treat coccidiosis and promote growth, leading to elevated As in chicken meat [109][110][111]. Even though some forms of these As-containing pesticides have been phased out in countries including the US, Canada, Europe, and China, these pesticides are still being used in many other countries, resulting in As contaminated food [109,111]. Furthermore, application of phosphate fertilizers has resulted in elevated Cd in soil, since phosphate fertilizers are produced from phosphate rocks, which contain Cd as a natural contaminant. Nziguheba and Smolders [112] collected 196 phosphate fertilizers from 12 European countries, with the concentrations of Cd being < 0.2-275 mg/kg. ...
Purpose of Review
Exposure to toxic metals/metalloids, such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb), through food consumption is a global public health concern. This review examines the contamination status of these metals/metalloids in food, assesses dietary intake across different populations, and proposes strategies to reduce metal/metalloid exposures throughout the food chain.
Recent Findings
For the general population, dietary intake of metals/metalloids is generally lower than health-based guidance values. However, for vulnerable populations, such as infants, children, and pregnant women, their dietary intake levels are close to or even higher than the guidance values. Among different food categories, seafood shows higher total As, but largely present as organic species. Rice accumulates higher As concentration than other cereals, with inorganic As (iAs) and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) being the main As species. Methylated thioarsenate species, such as dimethylmonothioarsenate, have also been detected in rice. The distribution of iAs and DMA in rice shows geographical variation. Additionally, seafood and cocoa products generally contain more Cd than other food, but seafood consumption does not significantly increase in adverse health effects due to its high zinc and iron content. Compared to As and Cd, Pb concentrations in food are generally lower. To minimize the health risks of metal/metalloid exposure, several strategies are proposed.
Summary
Food contamination with toxic metals/metalloids poses significant concerns for human health, particularly for vulnerable populations. This review provides scientific evidence and suggestions for policy makers to reduce human exposure of metals/metalloids via dietary intake.
... The feed As content was below the national standard in this study, however, a nationwide survey of animal feeds in China conducted in 2012 showed that As had the highest over-limit rate among the tested indicators, and around 50% of the unqualified feed samples contained As exceeding the allowable limit (Ministry of Agriculture, 2012). Hu et al. (2017) reported that over 30% of commercial feed samples collected from Guangdong Province, China had total As contents exceeding 2.0 mg kg À1 . ...
... In a similar survey conducted in Guangdong Province, 6 out of 18 (33.3%) chicken feed samples were detected with ROX (range: Hu et al., 2017). The feeds in which ROX was detected were all taken from southern China. ...
Arsenic is frequently found in poultry waste, most of which is transformed from feed additive organoarsenicals, resulting in arsenic pollution of soils and water around poultry farms. The North China Plain, an important area for livestock breeding of China, was chosen to investigate the pollution characteristics and assess the health risk of arsenic around chicken farms. Among the 138 chicken farms sampled, almost no roxarsone, a common organoarsenical, was detected in chicken feeds, manure, and surface soils, while the detection rate of other arsenic species was high. Because of long-term enrichment, the concentrations of arsenic species in manure were generally higher than that in feed. As(III) was the main inorganic arsenic species in the manure, where is reducing environment. In surface soils beneath the accumulated manure, As(V) was the predominant arsenic species with 100% detection rate. The detection rate and average concentrations at 0 cm were generally higher than those at 25 cm depth, indicating that arsenic accumulated in the surface soils. In addition, a typical conceptual diagram of arsenic was developed to clarify the pollution process from feed to soil. Through health risk assessment of inorganic arsenic, the carcinogenic risk (CR) and non-carcinogenic risk (non-CR) were both negligible. The city of Jiaozuo had the highest CR and non-CR, which was 11 times higher than that of the city with the lowest risks. This study presents a clear picture and evaluation of arsenic pollution on chicken farms, inspiring future studies assessing arsenic pollution after the ban of organoarsenicals.
... Organic As-based drugs, for example roxarsone, have been used in poultry production for decades to treat coccidiosis and improve feed conversion. In Australia, roxarsone has not been used by the chicken industry since 2012 (ACMF, 2018), and As-based feed additives are not allowed in the US and EU (EFSA, 2009b; Nigra et al., 2017), although it is still legally used for chicken production in many countries (Hu et al., 2017). ...
... Arsenic bioaccumulates in liver, heart, and kidneys of poultry (Desheng and Niya, 2006;Gul Kazi et al., 2013;Hu et al., 2017). In an experiment with Japanese quail fed a diet supplemented with 50 ppm and 100 ppm 4arsanilic acid and drinking water containing 0.008 mg/ l As found that the concentration of As in drumstick and breast meat did not exceed 0.64 mg/kg of dry matter, whereas content in liver, heart, and kidneys was significantly higher, ranging from 0.81 to 2.82 mg/kg of dry matter, and the highest amounts were recorded in the liver (Desheng et al., 2006). ...
Bedding material or litter is an important requirement of meat chicken production which can influence bird welfare, health, and food safety. A substantial increase in demand and cost of chicken bedding has stimulated interest in alternative bedding sources worldwide. However, risks arising from the use of alternative bedding materials for raising meat chickens are currently unknown. Organic chemicals, elemental, and biological contaminants, as well as physical and management hazards need to be managed in litter to protect the health of chickens and consequently that of human consumers. This requires access to information on the transfer of contaminants from litter to food to inform risk profiles and assessments to guide litter risk management. In this review, contaminants and hazards of known and potential concern in alternative bedding are described and compared with existing standards for feed. The contaminants considered in this review include organic chemical contaminants (e.g., pesticides), elemental contaminants (e.g., arsenic, cadmium, and lead), biological contaminants (phytotoxins, mycotoxins, and microorganisms), physical hazards, and management hazards. Reference is made to scientific literature for acceptable levels of the above contaminants in chicken feed that can be used for guidance by those involved in selecting and using bedding materials.
... Although p-ASA shows low toxicity at low doses, it can be transformed into more mobile and hypertoxic inorganic arsenic species within about a month through biological and abiotic pathways, causing more serious arsenic contamination in natural environment Tian et al., 2018). Hence, p-ASA, as a major phenylarsonic feed additive, had been outright forbidden to be used in livestock sector by European Union in 1999 and United States in 2013 (Hu et al., 2017a(Hu et al., , 2017bNachman et al., 2013). Nevertheless, these organoarsenic feed additives still appeared in the markets of lots of countries all over the world, especially in China (D'Angelo et al., 2012;Liu et al., 2017). ...
... Remarkably, the relative amounts of OH group decreases from 62.3% to 44.2%, which is attributed to the adsorption of inorganic arsenic species. This observation was high consistence with the results of FTIR analysis (Hu et al., 2017a(Hu et al., , 2017b. The adsorption of the released inorganic arsenic species on CuFe 2 O 4 surface was well authenticated in Section 3.2. ...
para-arsanilic acid (p-ASA), as a major phenylarsonic feed additive, was used annually in many countries. Once it enters the water environment, p-ASA would be transformed into hypertoxic inorganic arsenic species, causing severe arsenic pollution. In this study, magnetic copper ferrite (CuFe2O4) was applied to activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS) for p-ASA removal and synchronous control of the released inorganic arsenic species. Results showed that CuFe2O4/PMS system presented favorable oxidation ability and close to 85% of 10 mg/L p-ASA was eliminated under the condition of simultaneous dosing 0.2 g/L CuFe2O4 and 1 mM PMS. The rapid decomposition of p-ASA resulted from homogeneous PMS oxidation and the attack of reactive oxygen species (i.e., SO4⁻, HO and O2⁻), which was involved the heterogeneous PMS activation through the cycles between Fe(II)/Fe(III) and Cu(II)/Cu(I). Meanwhile, the released inorganic arsenic species during p-ASA degradation were found to be controllable via the adsorption on CuFe2O4 surface and metal hydroxyl groups played the crucial role. CuFe2O4/PMS system exhibited the stable and efficient performance within the broad range of pH 3.0–11.0. The existence of common anions (Cl⁻, NO3⁻, HCO3⁻, SO4²⁻) and humic acid presented the slight inhibition for p-ASA degradation. The reduction of initial p-ASA concentration favored the p-ASA removal. Besides, the catalyst retained a favorable reactivity and stability even after four successive cycles and almost no metal leaching was observed. The rational degradation pathway was mainly involved in the cleavage of AsC bond, oxidation of amino group, substitution and oxidation of hydroxyl group. The transformation of arsenic species could be divided into the release of inorganic arsenic species, the oxidation of As(III) into As(V) and the adsorption of As(V) by CuFe2O4.
... Antimicrobial usage in animals: Antimicrobials have been widely used to prevent, treat, and manage disease. In animal husbandry, they have also been essential growth promoters [74,75]. For over 50 years, the United States and other wealthy nations have utilized antimicrobial growth promoters (AGPs) in animal agriculture. ...
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the biggest problems facing the scientific and medical
communities. According to WHO, this growing issue might make once-effective antibiotics obsolete and
pose a substantial risk to public health. Estimates indicate that multimillion deaths were either directly or
indirectly caused by AMR, making it one of the most substantial risks to public health and development in
the world. The issue of AMR is primarily caused by healthcare workers’ excessive and inappropriate use of
antimicrobial agents. Dentists are believed to prescribe a considerable portion of all antibiotics globally. The
emergence of AMR, its causes, and its effects on human health are examined in this article, with special
attention to dental offices and medical facilities. It draws attention to the rising issue of antibiotic
overprescription and abuse, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, where improper antibiotic
use is an everyday practice around the globe. The article discusses the role of antimicrobial stewardship
programs and the importance of implementing precise, evidence-based practices in preventing AMR. Since
antibiotic abuse in livestock greatly accelerates the spread of resistance, the role of antibiotics in animal
agriculture is also investigated. To address AMR, the paper highlights the necessity of a global, coordinated
response that bolsters surveillance systems, cuts back on needless antibiotic use, and expands access to
alternative treatments. Recent research has called into question the efficacy of preventive antibiotic
medication in these situations. According to other researchers, it might not help avoid surgical site
infections. However, other experts say disrupting deeper tissues and local mucosal defenses during an
intraoral surgical operation may raise the risk of infection even when antibiotics are used.
... Antimicrobial usage in animals: Antimicrobials have been widely used to prevent, treat, and manage disease. In animal husbandry, they have also been essential growth promoters [74,75]. For over 50 years, the United States and other wealthy nations have utilized antimicrobial growth promoters (AGPs) in animal agriculture. ...
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the biggest problems facing the scientific and medical
communities. According to WHO, this growing issue might make once-effective antibiotics obsolete and
pose a substantial risk to public health. Estimates indicate that multimillion deaths were either directly or
indirectly caused by AMR, making it one of the most substantial risks to public health and development in
the world. The issue of AMR is primarily caused by healthcare workers’ excessive and inappropriate use of
antimicrobial agents. Dentists are believed to prescribe a considerable portion of all antibiotics globally. The
emergence of AMR, its causes, and its effects on human health are examined in this article, with special
attention to dental offices and medical facilities. It draws attention to the rising issue of antibiotic
overprescription and abuse, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, where improper antibiotic
use is an everyday practice around the globe. The article discusses the role of antimicrobial stewardship
programs and the importance of implementing precise, evidence-based practices in preventing AMR. Since
antibiotic abuse in livestock greatly accelerates the spread of resistance, the role of antibiotics in animal
agriculture is also investigated. To address AMR, the paper highlights the necessity of a global, coordinated
response that bolsters surveillance systems, cuts back on needless antibiotic use, and expands access to
alternative treatments. Recent research has called into question the efficacy of preventive antibiotic
medication in these situations. According to other researchers, it might not help avoid surgical site
infections. However, other experts say disrupting deeper tissues and local mucosal defenses during an
intraoral surgical operation may raise the risk of infection even when antibiotics are used.
... Over the decades, these drugs have been extensively used in animals for disease control, prevention, and treatment, as well as growth promotion in animal husbandry. 24 Antimicrobial growth promoters (AGPs) have been employed in the United States and other developed countries for over 50 years, with their introduction dating back to the mid-1950s. Moore and Stokstad first documented the benefits of AGPs . ...
Background
Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae is a critical priority pathogen for which there is a need for new antimicrobials and poses a great public health threat to many parts of the world including sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). This study aims to determine the prevalence of ESBL-resistant K. pneumoniae in SSA and the predominant ESBL genes in the region.
Methods
Databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Africa Journal Online, and Google Scholar were searched for eligible articles based on preset eligibility criteria. After screening of titles, abstracts, and full texts, a meta-analysis using a random-effect model was conducted on the eligible studies to determine the overall and subgroup prevalence of ESBL-producing K. pneumoniae in SSA.
Findings
This meta-analysis included 119 eligible studies from 25 SSA countries in all SSA subregions. The overall prevalence of ESBL-resistant K. pneumoniae in SSA is estimated to be 8.6% [95% CI: 6.4-11]. South Africa (18.5%) and Central Africa (4.6%) subregions have the highest and lowest prevalence of ESBL-producing K. pneumoniae in the region, respectively. Additionally, South Africa (23.3%), Kenya (23%), and Nigeria (11.1%) are countries with the top three prevalence of ESBL-resistant K. pneumoniae in the region. Animal samples were also seen to have the highest prevalence compared to clinical and environmental samples in this study. Lastly, CTX-M-15 was the most reported ESBL gene in SSA.
Interpretation
Although this study reports a low pooled prevalence of ESBL-resistant K. pneumoniae in SSA, some countries in the region have a high burden of this drug-resistant strain. Additionally, some countries in the region lack data on this drug-resistant strain, thus putting other parts of the region at risk due to the porous borders and immigration between the countries in the region.
Funding
There was no funding for this study
... Infectious Coryza can affect egg production in laying hens and growth in broilers worldwide, thus hindering the economic development of the chicken industry. Guangdong Province is one of the major provinces that raises and consumes chicken in China (Hu et al., 2017). However, there are limited comprehensive studies that have been conducted investigating IC in chickens, as well as its pathogen, A. paragallinarum. ...
Infectious coryza (IC) is an acute infectious respiratory disease in chickens that is caused by Avibacterium paragallinarum (A. paragallinarum). A. paragallinarum poses a significant threat to poultry health due to its virulence and multidrug resistance. This study isolated and identified 21 A. paragallinarum isolates from Guangdong between 2022 and 2023. Biochemical tests showed that 100% of A. paragallinarum isolates fermented glucose but did not ferment alginate and galactose, and only YZ18 was nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide independent. To determine the genetic relatedness between these isolates and NCBI reference strains, whole-genome-based phylogenetic analysis was employed. In addition, analysis of the 2,000 bp-length hmtp210 gene showed that the hmtp210 gene was strongly associated with A. paragallinarum serotypes. Meanwhile, a PCR assay for serotyping A. paragallinarum was developed based on the hmtp210 gene, this assay has high sensitivity and specificity. The antimicrobial susceptibility of isolates was assessed using the disk diffusion method. The antibiotic resistance genes of isolates were analyzed using the genomic method. Phenotypic resistance to ampicillin (95.2%), streptomycin (95.2%), methotrexate-sulfamethoxazole (90.5%), and tetracycline (85.7%) was most frequent among the isolates. All of the isolates exhibited resistance to multiple drugs, and furthermore, the isolates possessed a collective total of 14 genes associated with antibiotic resistance. This study will contribute to advancing our knowledge of A. paragallinarum antibiotic resistance and provide a scientific basis for the prophylaxis and treatment of IC, and the subsequent rational design of potential clinical therapeutics.
... Roxarsone is considered benign in its original form. However, in chickens, it can be converted to more toxic inorganic arsenic under anaerobic conditions [37]. A withdrawal period is required prior to process animals for human use to reduce tissue levels of arsenic. ...
The poultry farm industry is growing quickly and tremendously contributing to meeting the increasing protein demand of the rapidly growing population through eggs and meat supplementation. It is a good and cheap source of low cholesterol and high protein meat and provides essential amino acids, vitamins and minerals. The poultry industry is big and developing worldwide.
... Numerous studies have documented that China consumes approximately one thousand tons of organic arsenic in feed additives annually (Wang et al., 2010;Fei et al., 2018). Using organic arsenic can cause high concentrations in animals and their feces, increasing the risk of human exposure to arsenic in food and leading to arsenic accumulation in the environment (D'Angelo et al., 2012;Wu et al., 2015;Wu et al., 2016;Hu et al., 2017). In addition, more than 90% of organic arsenic is excreted in its original form because organic arsenic additives are not metabolized by animals (Morrison, 1969;Webb, 1975;Fei et al., 2018;Di Zhao, 2020). ...
Arsenic (As) is a highly toxic heavy metal and has been widely concerned for its hazardous environmental impact. Aromatic organic arsenic (AOCs) has been frequently used as an animal supplement to enhance feed utilization and prevent dysentery. The majority of organic arsenic could be discharged from the body and evolve as highly toxic inorganic arsenic that is hazardous to the environment and human health via biological conversion, photodegradation, and photo-oxidation. Current environmental issues necessitate the development and application of multifunctional porous materials in environmental remediation. Compared to the conventional adsorbent, such as activated carbon and zeolite, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) exhibit a number of advantages, including simple synthesis, wide variety, simple modulation of pore size, large specific surface area, excellent chemical stability, and easy modification. In recent years, numerous scientists have investigated MOFs related materials involved with organic arsenic. These studies can be divided into three categories: detection of organic arsenic by MOFs, adsorption to remove organic arsenic by MOFs, and catalytic removal of organic arsenic by MOFs. Here, we conduct a critical analysis of current research findings and knowledge pertaining to the structural characteristics, application methods, removal properties, interaction mechanisms, and spectral analysis of MOFs. We summarized the application of MOFs in organic arsenic detection, adsorption, and catalytic degradation. Other arsenic removal technologies and conventional substances are also being investigated. This review will provide relevant scientific researchers with references.
... As(III) is approximately 60 times as toxic as A S (V). Previous studies have shown that many thousands of tons of aromatic arsenic compounds are used in veterinary drugs and in feed additives in poultry and swine farms, and released into the environment via solid waste and wastewater discharging [11]. Although the compounds are not highly toxic, they can transform into carcinogenic and highly mobile inorganics containing As(III) and As(V) and threaten the biosafety of the ecosystem [12][13][14]. ...
Although the removal ability of potassium ferrate (K2FeO4) on aqueous heavy metals has been confirmed by many researchers, little information focuses on the difference between the individual and simultaneous treatment of elements from the same family of the periodic table. In this project, two heavy metals, arsenic (As) and antimony (Sb) were chosen as the target pollutants to investigate the removal ability of K2FeO4 and the influence of humic acid (HA) in simulated water and spiked lake water samples. The results showed that the removal efficiencies of both pollutants gradually increased along the Fe/As or Sb mass ratios. The maximum removal rate of As(III) reached 99.5% at a pH of 5.6 and a Fe/As mass ratio of 4.6 when the initial As(III) concentration was 0.5 mg/L; while the maximum was 99.61% for Sb(III) at a pH of 4.5 and Fe/Sb of 22.6 when the initial Sb(III) concentration was 0.5 mg/L. It was found that HA inhibited the removal of individual As or Sb slightly and the removal efficiency of Sb was significantly higher than that of As with or without the addition of K2FeO4. For the co-existence system of As and Sb, the removal of As was improved sharply after the addition of K2FeO4, higher than Sb; while the latter was slightly better than that of As without K2FeO4, probably due to the stronger complexing ability of HA and Sb. X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray diffractometer (XRD), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) were used to characterize the precipitated products to reveal the potential removal mechanisms based on the experimental results.
... where RfD is the reference dose for oral exposure (0.3 μg/kg bw/day for iAs). No significant risk exists with THQ < 1. Conversely, potential noncarcinogenic effects may occur (Hu et al., 2017). The potential carcinogenic health risks associated with long-term exposure to iAs from seaweed consumption were calculated according to the following equation (USEPA, 2016): ...
Edible seaweeds with a relatively high total arsenic concentration have been a global concern. As the largest seaweed producer, China contributes about 60 % of the global seaweed production. The present study investigated 20 seaweed species collected from representative seaweed farming sites in the six provinces along the Chinese Coastline, of which Saccharina japonica, Undaria pinnatifida, Neopyropia spp., Gracilaria spp., Sargassum fusiforme were listed as the most consumed seaweeds in Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The inorganic arsenic (iAs) concentration in most of the seaweeds was below maximum limits (0.3 mg iAs/kg) as seaweed additives for infant food in the National Food Safety Standard of Pollutants in China (GB2762-2017, 2017), except for the species Sargassum, in which the iAs concentration significantly exceeded the limit and ranged from 17.1 to 83.7 mg/kg. Arsenic speciation in 4 cultivated seaweeds grown in both temperate and subtropical zones is reported for the first time. No significant differences in total As and iAs concentration were identified, except slightly higher total As concentration were found in Saccharina japonica growing in the temperate zone. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of toxic iAs via seaweed consumption was generally below the EFSA CONTAM Panel benchmark dose lower confidence limit (0.3 μg/kg bw/day) except for all Sargassum species where the EDI was significantly higher than 0.3 μg/kg bw/day. Moreover, the first-ever reported data on As speciation indicated very high iAs concentrations in Sargassum hemiphyllum and Sargassum henslowianum. To minimize the food chain iAs exposure, reducing both human intake of Sargassum spp. and the used of Sargassum spp. for animal feed is highly recommended.
Capsule
This study showed that edible seaweed Sargassum spp. consumption may pose a health risk related to inorganic arsenic (iAs) exposure. The risk of iAs exposure via seaweed consumption or livestock is a concern that needs to be monitored. The arsenic accumulation and speciation may be predominantly species-dependent rather than environmental-dependent.
... To summarise, anaerobic digestion significantly reduced As bioavailability in pig manure, while its bioavailability in chicken manure increased, which may be related to the fact that As-containing feed is mainly used in poultry production, so a large amount of As from feed residual remains in chicken manure initially (Hu et al., 2017b). However, the increase in inorganic As in biogas residue renders it considerably toxic than its organic counterpart in the substrate (Zhai et al., 2017). ...
Anaerobic digestion and composting are attracting increasing attention due to the increased production of animal manure. It is essential to know about the fate and bioavailability of heavy metals (HMs) for further utilisation of animal manure. This review has systematically summarised the migration of HMs and the transformation of several typical HMs (Cu, Zn, Cd, As, and Pb) during anaerobic digestion and composting. The results showed that organic matter degradation increased the HMs content in biogas residue and compost (with the exception of As in compost). HMs migrated into biogas residue during anaerobic digestion through various mechanisms. Most of HMs in biogas residue and compost exceeded relevant standards. Then, anaerobic digestion increased the bioavailable fractions proportion in Zn and Cd, decreased the F4 proportion, and raised them more than moderate environmental risks. As (III) was the main species in the digester, which extremely increased As toxicity. The increase of F3 proportion in Cu and Pb was due to sulphide formation in biogas residue. Whereas, the high humus content in compost greatly increased the F3 proportion in Cu. The F1 proportion in Zn decreased, but the plant availability of Zn in compost did not reduce significantly. Cd and As mainly converted the bioavailable fractions into stable fractions during composting, but As (V) toxicity needs to be concerned. Moreover, additives are only suitable for animal manure treated with slightly HM contaminated. Therefore, it is necessary to combine more comprehensive methods to improve the manure treatment and make product utilisation safer.
... Roxarsone is considered benign in its original form. However, in chickens, it can be converted to more toxic inorganic arsenic under anaerobic conditions [37]. A withdrawal period is required prior to process animals for human use to reduce tissue levels of arsenic. ...
The poultry farm industry is growing quickly and tremendously contributing to meeting the increasing protein demand of the rapidly growing population through eggs and meat supplementation. It is a good and cheap source of low cholesterol and high protein meat and provides essential amino acids, vitamins and minerals. The poultry industry is big and developing worldwide.
... Roxarsone (ROX) and nitarsone are arsenic based feed additives widely incorporated in poultry feed. A China based study has -1 reported 0.19-9.7 mg kg of inorganic arsenic in ROX incorporated feed for poultry industries (Hu et al., 2017). Research conducted at the Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins Centre suggested that although cooking reduces the level of roxarsone, it also increases the iAs concentration in cooked meat (JHBSPH, 2013). ...
The metalloid arsenic is one of the persistent toxic elements that has affected a vast population of human being across the globe. Its lethal and unsafe levels in drinking water have been witnessed by more than 100 million people in the South and South-east Asia alone. Literatures suggest that contaminated groundwater is the potential source for arsenicosis. Widespread arsenic contamination in surface water, soil and sediments-either of geogenic or anthropogenic origin-has resulted in presence of this carcinogenic pollutant in plant and animal produce such as rice, vegetables, milk, meat, fish, etc. Further, the arsenic mediated stress to all living organisms is of great concern. Thus, the entire biome is under massive threat of arsenic. The extent and severity of arsenic contamination in human diet has challenged the safety aspect of human nutrition and health. The chronic arsenicism in human is of greater concern and demands immediate implementation of mitigative measures. The risk of arsenic toxicity through water as well as food and possible way-out have been discussed in this review.
... Only a small fraction of these additives are metabolized in animal bodies, while a major part does not undergo any metabolism and is excreted through manure (Gupta et al., 2018). Degradation of phenylarsonics releases inorganic arsenic species (iAs) both in vivo and in the environment Wang and Cheng, 2015;Hu et al., 2017). Although As in animal tissues was generally lower than the tolerance level given by the World Health Organization (WHO) (0.5 mg/kg), the total As and iAs in phenylarsonic-fed animal tissues were higher than those in non-fed animal tissues Nachman et al., 2013Nachman et al., , 2017. ...
Phenylarsonics are present as additives in animal feed in some countries. As only a small fraction of these additives is metabolized in animals, they mostly end up in the environment. A comprehensive investigation of the fate of these additives is crucial for evaluating their risks. This review aims to provide a clear understanding of the transformation and reactive mechanism of phenylarsonics in vivo and in vitro and to evaluate their fate and associated risks. Degradation of phenylarsonics releases toxic As species [mainly as inorganic arsenic (iAs)]. Trivalent phenylarsonics are the metabolites or biotic degradation intermediates of phenylarsonics. The cleavage of As groups from trivalent phenylarsonics catalyzed by C-As lyase or other unknown pathways generates arsenite [As(III)]. As(III) can be further oxidized to arsenate [As(V)] and methylated to methyl-arsenic species. The half-lives associated with abiotic degradation of phenylarsonics ranged from a few minutes to tens of hours, while those associated with biotic degradation ranged from several days to hundreds of days. Abiotic degradation resulted in a higher yield of iAs than biotic degradation. The use of phenylarsonics led to elevated totbn al As and iAs levels in animal products and environmental matrices, resulting in As exposure risk to humans. The oxidation of phenylarsonics to As(V) facilitated the sorptive removal of As, which provides a general approach for treating these compounds. This review provides solid evidence that the use of phenylarsonics has adverse effects on both human health and environmental safety, and therefore, supports their withdrawal from the global market.
... The cumulative probability distribution of HQ is shown in Figure 7A, and the related statistical information is presented in Supplementary Table S6. The HQ values for Chinese adults for consuming MV ranged from 0.03 to 4.32, with 1.6% having a risk above the serious or priority level (HQ 1) (Hu et al., 2017), whereas that of MM, VP, SC, and CS ranged from 0.22 to 1.11, 0.02 to 1.82, 0.01 to 0.91, and 0.02 to 2.17, respectively, with only 0.002, 0.03, 0, and 0.08% having a health risk above the serious or priority level. Based on the USEPA's proposed cancer slope factor of 25.7 cases for an iAs dose of 1 mg kg-1 BW/d, the average daily consumption of MV may result in a mean of 16.5 cases of bladder and lung cancer per 100,000 Chinese adults with lifetime exposure (Supplementary Table S7). ...
Marine clam is one of the main sources of arsenic (As), and the tidal flats of Jiangsu Province are considered major culturing areas for clams in mid-eastern China. In view of increasingly severe pollution in this region, concerns have been raised by the consumers with the safety of clams they purchased or may purchase. To address these concerns, we conducted a multi-year survey to determine the levels of As and As species in five major clam species cultivated in eight production areas of this region. Based on the above analysis data, Bayesian statistics used a Markov Chain Monte Carlo approach was applied to predict the toxic As residue distributions in clams produced in this region and their health risks to Chinese adults. It was found that the bioaccumulation ability of total As (tAs) and inorganic As (iAs) was species-specific, while Mactra veneriformis (MV) had the strongest accumulation capacity for toxic iAs (0.22–2.85 mg/kg dw). Up to 6.7% of the tested MV samples exceeding the iAs limit of China Food and Drug Administration. The content of iAs was also found to be related significantly to the harvest seasons, with clam in the spawning period (June) having the lowest iAs concentrations. The non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risk from dietary exposure to iAs associated with MV consumption was rather high, which suggested that specific attention should be paid to the safety of clam consumption in this region.
... Concerning animals used for human consumption, the effect of chronic contamination by As through food intake is still not entirely clear in chickens (Ghosh et al., 2012). The organs usually have a more significant amount of contaminant than the muscles, especially the skin and the liver (Ghosh et al., 2012;Islam et al., 2013;Caldas et al., 2016;Hu et al., 2017). Organoarsenic stimulants, used in poultry farms due to their antibiotic functions, aid in developing and enhancing meat color (Fu et al., 2016). ...
This review presents a holistic overview of the occurrence, mobilization, and pathways of arsenic (As) from predominantly geogenic sources into different near-surface environmental compartments, together with the respective reported or potential impacts on human health in Latin America. The main sources and pathways of As pollution in this region include: (i) volcanism and geothermalism: (a) volcanic rocks, fluids (e.g., gases) and ash, including large-scale transport of the latter through different mechanisms, (b) geothermal fluids and their exploitation; (ii) natural lixiviation and accelerated mobilization from (mostly sulfidic) metal ore deposits by mining and related activities; (iii) coal deposits and their exploitation; (iv) hydrocarbon reservoirs and co-produced water during exploitation; (v) solute and sediment transport through rivers to the sea; (vi) atmospheric As (dust and aerosol); and (vii) As exposure through geophagy and involuntary ingestion. The two most important and well-recognized sources and mechanisms for As release into the Latin American population's environments are: (i) volcanism and geothermalism, and (ii) strongly accelerated As release from geogenic sources by mining and related activities. Several new analyses from As-endemic areas of Latin America emphasize that As-related mortality and morbidity continue to rise even after decadal efforts towards lowering As exposure. Several public health regulatory institutions have classified As and its compounds as carcinogenic chemicals, as As uptake can affect several organ systems, viz. dermal, gastrointestinal, peptic, neurological, respiratory, reproductive, following exposure. Accordingly, ingesting large amounts of As can damage the stomach, kidneys, liver, heart, and nervous system; and, in severe cases, may cause death. Moreover, breathing air with high As levels can cause lung damage, shortness of breath, chest pain, and cough. Further, As compounds, being corrosive, can also cause skin lesions or damage eyes, and long-term exposure to As can lead to cancer development in several organs.
... Also according to their results, ROX concentrations decreased and i-As concentrations increased when the samples were cooked which showed that the cooking process had influence on arsenic forms [27,28]. Hu et al. used HPLC-ICP-MS for speciation analysis of inorganic and organic arsenic species in chicken meat and both roxarsone and inorganic arsenic were detected at notably high amounts in chicken samples [29]. In an another study, cigarette filter was utilized as an adsorbent and coupled with HG-AFS for determination of total arsenic in various food samples such as vegetables, rice, chicken and fish [20]. ...
A simple, cost effective hydride generation atomic florescence spectrometry (HG-AFS) method was used for determination of total arsenic (As) in poultry and calf meat samples. The samples were digested in long necked glass digestion tubes using concentrated HNO3, HClO4 and H2SO4 as a mixture. The volume of acids (HNO3, HClO4) and the amount of sample to be used for digestion were optimized to achieve appropriate digestion. The accuracy of the proposed HG-AFS method was tested with certified reference material (DOLT 3 Dogfish Liver, NRC, Canada) and obtained results were in good agreement with certified value. The method limit of detection (LOD) value was calculated as 0.3 ng/g and dynamic range was 25 – 5000 pg/ml. Arsenic concentrations of poultry and calf meat samples were determined accurately by using aqueous calibration standards. Totally 31 samples (calf, chicken and turkey) obtained from local markets were analyzed. It was found that the average As concentration in calf meat (12.1 ± 3.9 ng/g) was significantly higher than the poultry samples whereas the arsenic concentrations were similar in turkey (3.1 ± 1.2 ng/g) and chicken (2.8 ± 1.1 ng/g) samples. In addition, dietary intake estimation of arsenic through consumption of calf and poultry meat was calculated and according to the gathered results daily intake of arsenic via calf meat was almost two times higher than poultry meat.
... 7 It is the only arsenical animal drug marketed in the United States after the suspension of the sales of roxarsone, arsanilic acid, and carbarsone in the U.S. in 2013. Although the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) withdrew the approval of using nitarsone in animal feeds at the end of 2015, they are still widely used in many other countries, including China, India, Brazil, Australia, etc. 7,8 The wide use of nitarsone and repeated land application of poultry litter increase human beings' health risks associated with exposure to inorganic arsenic. Thus, effective removal of nitarsone from the poultry manure is essential. ...
Nitarsone, the extensively used organoarsenical in poultry production has resulted in the elevated level of arsenic in aquatic environments, further influencing the arsenic cycling and increasing the carcinogenic risk. The electron-withdrawing property of nitro-group makes nitarsone high resistance to direct oxidative degradation, while anaerobic degradation by microbes is an ideal candidate. However, so far, no microbial degradation of nitarsone under anaerobic conditions has been reported yet. In this work, Shewanella oneidensis MR-1, a model and widespread strain in aquatic environments, is demonstrated to be able to anaerobically respire on nitarsone. The extracellular electron transfer pathways play essential roles in anaerobic nitarsone reduction. Modularity exists among MtrA, MtrB, and MtrC paralogues in the anaerobic nitarsone reduction by S. oneidensis MR-1. Dosing anthraquinone-2,6-disulfonate as a mediator considerably raises the nitarsone reduction rate. Reduction products analysis and density functional theory (DFT) calculations suggest that reducing equivalents first go to the nitro group of nitarsone, followed by the cleavage reaction of C·As bond of reduction products by a novel C·As lyase. This work sheds new lights on the roles of dissimilatory metal-reducing bacteria like Shewanella in nitarsone biotransformation, elucidates the mechanism behind such a biotransformation process at molecular level and provides useful information about bioremediation of nitarsone-contaminated aquatic environments.
... For blackhead disease prevention, the dosage of Histostat-50, a commercially prepared NIT, can even reach 375 mg kg − 1 . Of the dietary organoarsenic additives, very limited portion makes its way into animal meats (Fisher et al., 2015;Hu et al., 2017), and > 90% is excreted by animals without any change in chemistry (Gupta et al., 2018). It was estimated that 1.3 × 10 8 metric tons of poultry dung and 2.1 × 10 8 metric tons of pig manure were annually produced in China (Fei et al., 2018), and arsenic concentration in animal manure was reported to range from undetectable level to 315.1 mg kg − 1 (Fisher et al., 2015;Huang et al., 2014). ...
Aromatic organoarsenicals are widely used in animal feeding operations and cause arsenic contamination on livestock wastewater and manure, thereby raising the risk of surface water pollution. Biological wastewater treatment processes are often used for livestock wastewater treatment. Organoarsenic removal and biotransformation under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, and the associated impacts have received extensive attention due to the potential threat to water security. The removal efficiency and biotransformation of organoarsenicals in biological treatment processes are reviewed. The underlying mechanisms are discussed in terms of functional microorganisms and genes. The impacts associated with organoarsenicals and their degradation products on microbial activity and performance of bioreactors are also documented. Based on the current research advancement, knowledge gaps and potential research in this field are discussed. Overall, this work delivers a comprehensive understanding on organoarsenic behaviors in biological wastewater treatment processes, and provides valuable information on the control of arsenic contamination from the degradation of organoarsenicals in biological wastewater treatment processes.
... Since their advent in the 1940s, antimicrobials have made an indelible contribution to human and animal health. Over these decades, antimicrobials have been widely used in animals for disease control, prevention, and treatment, and have played a vital role as growth promoters in animal husbandry [5,6]. ...
Antimicrobial resistance leads to failure of clinical antimicrobial therapy, and has raised urgent global public health concern. Humans can acquire antimicrobial resistance from drugs through the food chain or the environment (contaminated water, air, soil, or manure). While antimicrobials have been regular supplements in animal feed that maintain health and improve productivity of livestock, their over-use in feeding forage has led to a rise in antibacterial resistance. This review summarizes the current use of antimicrobials in livestock, the harmful effects of antimicrobial resistance, and the comprehensive combat measures.
... mg As kg À1 dry mass (Makris et al., 2008), equivalent to 0e2.3 mg L À1 arsenic. Once manure is used for land application or wastewater is discharged into water body, arsenic in the manure or wastewater may enter into human food chain, i.e. drinking water (Mangalgiri et al., 2015), crops and vegetables (Fu et al., 2016;Huang et al., 2014), raising concerns on public health (Fisher et al., 2015;Hu et al., 2017). ...
Roxarsone, an extensively used organoarsenical feed additive, is often pooled in livestock wastewater. Sulfate exists ubiquitously in livestock wastewater and is capable for arsenic remediation. However, little is known about impacts of sulfate on roxarsone biotransformation during anaerobic digestion of livestock wastewater. In this study, the biodegradation of 5.0 mg L⁻¹ roxarsone, and the accumulation and volatilization of the generated arsenical metabolites in a sulfate-spiked upflow anaerobic granular blanket reactor were investigated. Based on the analysis of degradation products, the nitro and arsenate groups of roxarsone were successively reduced to amino and arsenite groups before the C–As bond cleavage. Effluent arsenic concentration was ∼0.75 mg L⁻¹, of which 82.9–98.5% were organoarsenicals. The maximum arsenic volatilization rate reached 32.6 μg-As kg⁻¹-VS d⁻¹. Adding 5.0 mg L⁻¹ sulfate enabled 66.7% and 45.9% decrease in inorganic arsenic concentration and arsenic volatilization rate, respectively. Arsenic content in the anaerobic granular sludge (AGS) was accumulated to 1250 mg kg⁻¹ within 420 days. Based on the results of FESEM-EDS and XPS, sulfate addition induced arsenic precipitation in the AGS through the formation of orpiment. Arsenic in the effluent, biogas and AGS accounted for 52.9%, 0.01% and 47.1% of the influent arsenic when the reactor operated stably. The findings from this study suggest that sulfate has effectively regulatory effects on arsenic immobilization and volatilization during anaerobic digestion of organoarsenic-contaminated livestock wastewater.
p-arsanilic acid (p-ASA) contamination in highly saline environments has received increasing attention; however, p-ASA removal by salt-tolerant Mn(II)-oxidizing bacteria (MnOB) has not yet been reported. In this study, a salt-tolerant Mn(II)-oxidizing bacterium, Pseudomonas sp. KW-2, was isolated, and its capacity to efficiently oxidize Mn(II), form biogenic Mn oxides (BMO) and remove p-ASA was evaluated. Batch experiments indicated that KW-2 had good Mn(II) oxidation capacity (BMO∼100 μM) when the salinity of the medium ranged from 15.00 g/L to 55.00 g/L. Strain KW-2 exhibited strong p-ASA removal efficiency (80.38 %) via in situ-formed BMO when the initial concentration of p-ASA was 5.00 mg/L. p-ASA removal by strain KW-2 was driven primarily by the oxidation of BMO (84.45 %), and the released inorganic arsenic major entered the crystal structure of the BMO precipitates. This study provides a feasible method for the bioremediation of p-ASA in high-salt environments.
Bivalves, such as oysters and mussels, are exposed to environmental pollutants, like microplastics (MPs) and arsenic (As). This study investigated co-existence and interaction of MPs and As (total As and As species) in two bivalve species from the Chinese coastline. Smaller MPs (20–100 μm) averaged 30.98 items/g, while larger MPs (100–500 μm) averaged 2.98 items/g. Oysters contained more MPs (57.97 items/g) in comparison to mussels (11.10 items/g). In Contrast, mussels had a higher As concentrations (8.36–23.65 mg/kg) than oysters (4.97–11.02 mg/kg). The size and composition of MPs influenced As uptake and speciation in bivalves, with inorganic arsenic (iAs) and methylated arsenic (MMA and DMA) correlating with larger-sized MPs. Polyethylene (PE) may interact with the formation of arsenobetaine (AsB) in oyster. This study provides valuable insights into the interaction of MPs and As in marine ecosystems and highlights their implications for food safety.
Although alternatives to mercury (Hg) are available in most products and industrial activities, Hg continues to be an ingredient in some products, including fluorescent lamps and electrical and electronic equipment (EEE). In this work, low-cost passive air samplers (PASs) were used to investigate the atmospheric Hg pollution in Zhongshan, a large industrial city and major hub of mercury-added product manufacturing in South China. The GEM concentrations in the atmosphere were measured for two weeks during the summer of 2019 at a total of 144 sites across Zhongshan. Comparison with the results of active sampling confirmed that the PASs yielded accurate and reliable gaseous elemental mercury (GEM) concentrations and were thus well-suited for multi-site field monitoring. The mean GEM concentrations in the areas with mercury-added product manufacturing activities (5.1 ± 0.4 ng m-3) were significantly higher than those in other parts of Zhongshan (1.5 ± 0.4 ng m-3), indicating that local releases, rather than regional transport, were responsible for the atmospheric Hg pollution. Elevated GEM concentrations (up to 11.4 ng m-3) were found in the vicinity of fluorescent lamp and EEE factories and workshops, indicating significant Hg vapor emissions, presumably from the outdated production technologies and non-standard operation by under-trained workers. The Hg emissions from mercury-added product manufacturing were estimated to be 0.06 and 7.8 t yr-1 for Zhongshan and China based on the scales of fluorescent lamp and EEE production. The non-carcinogenic health risk of Zhongshan residents from inhalation and ingestion was judged acceptable, whereby the inhalation exposure in Hg-polluted areas exceeded that of dietary ingestion. These findings demonstrate that mercury-added product manufacturing still contributes notably to anthropogenic gaseous Hg releases in the industrial areas with intense mercury-added product manufacturing activities.
In environmental systems, the soil is a principal route of contamination by various potentially toxic species. Roxarsone (RX) is an arsenic (V) organic compound used to treat parasitic diseases and as an additive for animal fattening. When the animal excretes RX, the residues may lead to environmental contamination. Due to their physicochemical properties, the soil's humic substances (HS) are important in species distribution in the environment and are involved in various specific interaction/adsorption processes. Since RX, an arsenic (V) compound, is considered an emerging contaminant, its interaction with HS was evaluated in simulated environmental conditions. The HS-RX interaction was analyzed by monitoring intrinsic HS fluorescence intensity variations caused by complexation with RX, forming non-fluorescent supramolecular complexes that yielded a binding constant Kb (on the order of 103). The HS-RX interaction occurred through static quenching due to complex formation in the ground state, which was confirmed by spectrophotometry. The process was spontaneous (ΔG < 0), and the predominant interaction forces were van der Waals and hydrogen bonding (ΔH < 0 and ΔS < 0), with an electrostatic component evidenced by the influence of ionic strength in the interaction process. Structural changes in the HS were verified by synchronized and 3D fluorescence, with higher variation in the region referring to the protein-like fraction. In addition, metal ions (except ions Cu(II)) favored HS-RX interaction. When interacting with HS, the RX epitope was suggested by 1H NMR, which indicated that the entire molecule interacts with the superstructure. An enzyme inhibition assay verified the ability to reduce the alkaline phosphatase activity of free and complexed RX (RX-HS). Finally, this work revealed the main parameters associated with HS and RX interaction in simulated environmental conditions, thus, providing data that may help our understanding of the dynamics of organic arsenic-influenced soils.
en Food supply chains worldwide are under threat from food adulteration and food fraud during various stages of production and storage, and the incidence of such fraudulent practices has been increasing. Many food regulatory authorities have been established over the years on either side of the globe, contributing to food safety and the creation of awareness regarding food frauds. One of the world's most populous countries, Pakistan is home to a multicultural and multiethnic society, and the people across the country consume a variety of processed and non-processed foods. In this regard, multiple food safety and food quality control standards are in place, aimed at alleviation of food fraud, and production and provision of safe food in Pakistan. Moreover, many regulatory bodies such as the Pakistan Standards and Quality Control Authority, apart from providing food consultation, testing, and certification services, are working to regulate and enforce quality standards, ensuring safe food production and distribution, and correct labeling. At the provincial level, regulatory bodies are actively working to achieve similar objectives, and their portfolio includes inspections of food establishments throughout their respective jurisdictions and the imposition of penalties for violations.
RESUMEN
es Las cadenas de suministro de alimentos en todo el mundo están amenazadas por la adulteración de alimentos y el fraude alimentario durante varias etapas de producción y almacenamiento, y la incidencia de tales prácticas fraudulentas ha ido en aumento. A lo largo de los años, se han establecido muchas autoridades reguladoras de alimentos en ambos lados del mundo, lo que contribuye a la seguridad alimentaria y a la creación de conciencia sobre los fraudes alimentarios. Pakistán, uno de los países más poblados del mundo, alberga una sociedad multicultural y multiétnica, y las personas de todo el país consumen una variedad de alimentos procesados y no procesados. En este sentido, existen múltiples estándares de control de calidad y seguridad alimentaria, destinados a aliviar el fraude alimentario y la producción y suministro de alimentos seguros en Pakistán. Además, muchos organismos reguladores, como la Autoridad de Control de Calidad y Normas de Pakistán, además de proporcionar servicios de consulta, análisis y certificación de alimentos, están trabajando para regular y hacer cumplir las normas de calidad, asegurando la producción y distribución de alimentos seguros y el etiquetado correcto. A nivel provincial, los organismos reguladores están trabajando activamente para lograr objetivos similares, y su cartera incluye inspecciones de establecimientos de alimentos en sus respectivas jurisdicciones y la imposición de sanciones por infracciones.
摘要
zh 全球食品供应链在生产和储存的不同阶段都受到食品掺假和食品欺诈的威胁, 并且此类欺诈行为的发生率一直在上升。多年来, 全球建立了许多食品监管机构, 为食品安全和提高对食品欺诈的认识作贡献。巴基斯坦是世界上人口最多的国家之一, 并且是一个多元文化和多族群社会的家园, 全国人民消费各种加工食品和非加工食品。在这方面, 巴基斯坦制定了多项食品安全和食品质量控制标准, 旨在减少食品欺诈以及生产和提供安全食品。此外, 许多监管机构, 如巴基斯坦标准和质量控制局, 除了提供食品咨询、检测和认证服务外, 还致力于监管和执行质量标准, 确保安全食品生产和分销以及正确的食品标签。省级监管机构正在积极努力实现类似的目标, 其职责包括检查各自管辖范围内的食品企业并对违规行为实施处罚。
Roxarsone (3-nitro-4-hydroxyphenylarsonic acid, ROX), widely used as a livestock feed additive, is excreted untransformed in large concentrations. Accumulation of this manure in the open environment increases dissolved organic matter (DOM) and ROX in soil within the aeration zone. And microbial action plays a dominant role in the transformation of ROX. However, the specific effect of DOM on the biotransformation of ROX is not known. In this paper, we investigated the transformation rate, metabolite content, and microbial community response of ROX in soils with different DOM concentrations (71.61, 100, 200, 500, and 800 mg L⁻¹). Transformation of ROX was consistent with first-order transformation kinetics: DOM promoted the transformation of ROX, and with high DOM (DOM ≥200 mg L⁻¹), ROX was transformed almost completely within two days. In this case, DOM provided nutrients to microorganisms and promoted their growth, accelerating the transformation of ROX. Also, the solubility of ROX was enhanced by DOM to increase its bioavailability. The microbial diversity was negatively correlated with DOM concentration and ROX transformation time; during the transformation of ROX, Bacillus, Arthrobacter, Enterococcus, Acinetobacter, and Pseudomonas became dominant in the soil with anomalously high levels of DOM. This study demonstrates the transformation process of ROX under actual environmental conditions where organic matter coexists with ROX, and this understanding is important for the prevention and control of arsenic pollution in soil within the aeration zone with anomalously high levels of DOM.
While the electron-shuttling properties of (hydro)quinones can facilitate the redox cycling of iron species (Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺), the impact of in situ formed (hydro)quinones from degradation of non-phenolic aromatic pollutants in Fenton-type processes has not been reported. This study investigated the catalytic effect of (hydro)quinone intermediates produced from degradation of p-arsanilic acid (p-ASA) and roxarsone (ROX) in Fenton and photo-Fenton processes, and its chemical kinetic modeling. The bimolecular rate constants of the reactions of OH with p-ASA and ROX were determined to be (2.79 ± 0.29) × 10⁹ and (2.03 ± 0.07) × 10⁹ M⁻¹·s⁻¹, respectively. However, ROX degraded faster than p-ASA in Fenton process under the same conditions, which was attributed to the greater catalytic effect of the in situ formed (hydro)quinone intermediates. p-Hydroquinone, p-benzoquinone, and 1,2,4-benzenetriol were identified among the oxidation intermediates of p-ASA, while 2-nitrohydroquinone, 2-nitrobenzoquinone, 1,2,4-benzenetriol, and 2-hydroxy-benzoquinone were found for ROX oxidation. The autocatalytic degradation of p-ASA and ROX in Fenton and photo-Fenton processes could be well described by a chemical kinetic model after accounting for the reactions of the (hydro)quinone intermediates. Both experimental and modeling results consistently showed that the redox cycling of iron promoted by the in situ formed (hydro)quinone intermediates was critical for the oxidation of p-ASA and ROX in Fenton process. Chemical kinetic modeling revealed that (hydro)quinone-related reactions and photo-reduction of Fe³⁺-complexes were responsible for producing the vast majority of OH that sustained the continuous degradation of p-ASA and ROX in photo-Fenton process with the presence of limited amount of Fe²⁺. The autocatalytic effect observed for phenylarsonic acid compounds and the chemical kinetic model developed in this study could guide the development of Fenton and solar photo-Fenton treatment for other non-phenolic aromatic pollutants.
Roxarsone, an organoarsenic compound used in poultry industry to increase weight gain, is widely used as a feed additive in some developing countries. Roxarsone has a low absorption rate and is mostly excreted with feces, which could pose a risk to human health through environmental and animal food routes. Roxarsone has been demonstrated to have tumor-promoting and proangiogenic effects. Herein, we report the role of VEGFR2/mTOR/S6K1 signaling in roxarsone-promoted vessel endothelial cell growth and angiogenesis in the Matrigel plug model and the mouse B16 cell tumor transplantation model. In angiogenesis-related experiments in vitro, 1.0 μM roxarsone significantly increased the activity, proliferation, migration, and tube formation of rat vascular endothelial cells. In addition, 1.0 μM roxarsone upregulated the protein levels of mTOR, phosphorylated mTOR, S6K1, and phosphorylated S6K1 and significantly increase the expression of Mtor and S6k1 mRNA. Rapamycin and SU5416 significantly inhibited the effects of 1.0 μM roxarsone on cell growth. Furthermore, the weight, volume, and CD31 expression of B16-F10 xenografts and Matrigel plugs in mice were upregulated by 25 mg/kg roxarsone. The protein and mRNA levels of mTOR, S6K1 and its phosphorylated protein were significantly increased in the roxarsone treatment group in xenografts. SU5416 and a short hairpin RNA targeting Vegfr2 significantly reduced roxarsone-promoted xenograft and Matrigel plug growth. In summary, this study indicated that the VEGFR2/mTOR/S6K1 signaling plays a regulatory role in roxarsone-mediated promotion angiogenesis and enhanced tumor growth.
Roxarsone (ROX) is used extensively in the broiler chicken industry, and most is excreted in poultry litter. ROX degradation produces inorganic arsenic, which causes arsenic contamination of soil and aquatic environment. Furthermore, elevated arsenic concentrations are found in livers of chickens fed ROX. Microorganisms, light, and ions are the main factors that promote ROX degradation in the environment. The adsorption of ROX on different substances and its influencing factors have also been studied extensively. Additionally, the remediation method, combining adsorption and degradation, can effectively restore ROX contamination. Based on this, the review reports the ecological hazards, discussed the transformation and adsorption of ROX in environmental systems, documents the biological response to ROX, and summarizes the remediation methods of ROX contamination. Most previous studies of ROX have been focused on identifying the mechanisms involved under theoretical conditions, but more attention should be paid to the behavior of ROX under real environmental conditions, including the fate and transport of ROX in the real environment. ROX remediation methods at real contaminated sites should also be assessed and verified. The summary of previous studies on the environmental behavior and remediation methods of ROX is helpful for further research in the future.
In this cross-sectional study, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was used to determine the levels of Cu, Pb, Cd, and As in 55 chicken breast samples collected in Shenyang, China. The estimated daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ), total hazard index (HI), and target cancer risk (TCR) were calculated to evaluate potential health risks from broiler breast consumption in different age groups. Heavy metal concentration in broiler breast samples was below the maximum residue limit (MRL) set by national and international regulations. Principal component analysis (PCA) results were similar to those of the hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), mutually validating the two distinct groups of Pb-Cd-As and Cu, which indicated that there were similar sources for Pb, Cd and As but differ from that of Cu. EDI values for these metals in broiler breasts were far below the corresponding provisional tolerable daily intake values. THQ and HI were well below 1, indicating that there were no non-carcinogenic health risks for residents. The TCR from Pb was negligible in different age groups and the TCR of children exposed to As and Cd were acceptable. However, due to the non-degradability and bioaccumulation of metals, it is recommended that children, especially female children, should be the focus of future long-term surveillance when assessing the carcinogenicity of these metals.
In this study, a novel Co3O4-La2O2CO3@C composite was fabricated via the calcination of Co-La bimetallic MOFs at 500 °C, and was employed to efficiently activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS) for simultaneous oxidation of roxarsone (ROX) and adsorption of concomitant inorganic arsenic. Approximately 100% of ROX (50 μmol L⁻¹) was degraded by PMS (0.5 mmol L⁻¹) activated with Co3O4-La2O2CO3@C (0.2 g L⁻¹) at initial pH 6 within 10 min. Meanwhile, the produced inorganic arsenic was almost completely adsorbed within 90 min. The maximum adsorption capacity of As(V) by Co3O4-La2O2CO3@C was determined to be high up to 275.4 mg g⁻¹. Co3O4-La2O2CO3@C also exhibited superior stability. During 6 rounds, the degradation efficiency of ROX and the removal efficiency of the total As maintained almost 100% and more than 97%, respectively. SO4•− and •OH were confirmed to be the reactive oxygen species (ROS) in charge of the degradation of ROX and the conversion of As(III) to As(V). The investigation of the adsorption mechanism revealed that the As species were combined with La species via ligand and anion exchange, resulting in the formation of La-O-As bond. Furthermore, the practical application potential of Co3O4-La2O2CO3@C in the ROX degradation and the in-situ adsorption of the released arsenic were further evaluated in a continuous flow column reactor. The Co3O4-La2O2CO3@C composite as catalyst and adsorbent may offer a feasible strategy for the implementation of organoarsenic degradation and produced inorganic arsenic adsorption.
This study evaluated the dispersion of arsenic (As) in the environment due to the use of contaminated groundwater for the irrigation of vegetables and chicken watering in two small farms located in a rural and urban zone in southeastern Brazil. ICP-AES was used to perform As determinations in groundwater, soil and vegetables samples while ICP-OES was used for chicken meat and offal. The As concentrations in the groundwater of the urban and rural farms were above the limit allowed (0.01 mg L−1) by Brazilian regulations (0.040 ± 0.019 and 0.017 ± 0.007 mg L−1, respectively), while the concentrations found in the soil for the same locations were below the limit allowed (15 mg kg−1) (1.071 ± 0.538 and 1.366 ± 0.141 mg kg−1, respectively). Vegetable samples were within the legal limits (0.3, 0.2 and 0.1 mg kg−1 for roots, leaves and fruits, respectively), with the exception of beet fruit (0.114 ± 0.031 mg kg−1) in the urban farm and cassava leaf (0.339 ± 0.374 mg kg−1) in the rural farm. As a general trend, roots accumulated more As compared to fruits and leaves, in that order. With the exception of chicken meat, liver and lung, all other offal analyzed (roe, gizzard, heart and skin) had As concentrations above 1.0 mg kg−1, the maximum allowed limit. The As concentration’ ratio between the evaluated environmental compartments indicated that (1) irrigation acts as a point source of As for the farms; (2) the soil acts as an As accumulator compartment and (3) the plant roots act as a barrier to prevent As translocation to its aerial part. Since the highest As concentrations were found in the least consumed chicken offal, we can conclude that this does not pose a risk to the community in the surrounding study area, but they were warned about our data and its implications to their health.
A most widely used organoarsenical compound known as Roxarsone is used as chicken feed additive which consists of both arsenic (III) and arsenic (V) including many other forms of arsenic. The present study highlighted a comprehensive evaluation of chicken litter with respect to the leaching of arsenic under a different pH, contamination of agricultural soil, and accumulation of arsenic in different parts of Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan). Study results revealed that arsenic leaching from chicken litter is highly pH dependent and alkaline pH is a favourable condition for leaching of arsenic from litter. Depthwise arsenic distribution results indicate litter-mediated arsenic distributed in different layers through leaching process. Moreover, a pot experiment was conducted to investigate the uptake, translocation and distribution of total arsenic in Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) using different doses of poultry litter. Pot experiment results revealed that maximum arsenic is accumulated in the shoot than root and leaf (p < 0.05) at lower dose. However, at higher dose, root accumulation is significantly (p < 0.05) higher than shoot and leaf. Moreover, results also revealed that the translocation factor of Cajanus cajan is less than 1. Finally, it can be concluded that Roxarsone-mediated arsenic can discharge from the chicken body through litter and ultimately pollute our environment.
Roxarsone (ROX) has been widely used as an organoarsenic additive in animal feeding operations and poses a risk to the environment. Here, we first report the efficient degradation of ROX by UV/chlorine, where the kinetics, removal of total arsenic (As), and cytotoxicity were investigated. The kinetics study presented that reactive chlorine species (RCS) and HO• were the dominant species to react with ROX. Furthermore, the degradation rate of ROX can reach the maximum value at pH 7.5 due to the formation of more RCS. The degradation of ROX was affected by the amount of chlorine, pH, and water matrix. Through product analysis and Gauss theoretical calculation, two possible ROX degradation pathways were proposed. The free radicals attacked the As-C bond of ROX and resulted in releasing arsenate (As(V)). It was the reason that for an enhancement of the removal of total As by ferrous appeared after UV/chlorine, and over 98% of the total As was removed. In addition, cytotoxicity studies indicated that the cytotoxicity significantly enhanced during the degradation of ROX by UV/chlorine. However, by combination of UV/chlorine and adsorption, cytotoxicity can be greatly eliminated, probably due to the removal of As(V) and chlorinated products. These results further demonstrated that UV/chlorine treatment could be an effective method for the control of the potential environmental risks posed by organoarsenic.
Although already eliminated in most industrial processes, mercury, as an essential ingredient in all energy-efficient lighting technologies, is still used in fluorescent lamp manufacturing. This study was conducted to investigate the atmospheric pollution caused by fluorescent lamp production and assess the associated public health risk in a large industrial and commercial city of south China, Zhongshan, which is a major production hub of lighting products. Concentrations of total gaseous mercury (TGM) in the atmosphere were measured over a total of 342 sites in the industrial, commercial, and residential areas. The average levels of TGM in the industrial, commercial, and residential areas prior to the landing of a typhoon were 12 ± 11, 3.6 ± 2.1, and 2.7 ± 1.3 ng⋅m⁻³, respectively. TGM concentrations in the industrial areas exhibited significant diurnal variation, with levels in the working hours being much higher than those in the non-working hours, which indicates that the high atmospheric mercury concentrations were contributed by local emissions, instead of regional transport. Most fluorescent lamp manufacturing activities in the city were shut down during a typhoon event, which resulted in a significant reduction in the average TGM level (down to 1.6 ± 1.8 ng⋅m⁻³) and rendered the difference in the average TGM levels in the industrial areas no longer significant between the working and non-working hours. Elevated TGM levels (up to 49 ng⋅m⁻³) were found near clusters of small-scale fluorescent lamp workshops in both industrial and commercial areas, which is indicative of significant emissions of mercury vapor resulting from obsolete equipment and production technologies. No significant non-carcinogenic risk was found for the general residents in the sampling area over the study period, while the risk for the workers in the fluorescent lamp manufacturing facilities and workshops could be higher. These findings indicate that fluorescent lamp manufacturing in the developing countries is a major source of atmospheric mercury.
Liquid phase produced by the subcritical hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) of livestock manure is extensively used in agronomic and environmental applications, but the potential risks caused by inherent pollutants (e.g., roxarsone, ROX) of the livestock manure have not been considered. This study shows that less toxic ROX is completely converted into highly toxic As(III) and As(V) in the HTL reaction with temperature more than 240 °C. Moreover, more than 81.5% of As is distributed in the liquid phase generated by the livestock manure HTL reaction. Notably, the hydrothermal products of livestock manure facilitate the conversion of As(V) to As(III). The resulting hydrochar and aldehydes act as electron donors for As(V) reduction, thus resulting in the formation of As(III). Furthermore, the dissociated As promotes the depolymerization and deoxygenation of the macromolecular compounds to produce more small oxygen-containing compounds such as aldehydes, further boosting the As(V) reduction to As(III). These results indicate that the liquid phase of the livestock manure has potential risks in applications as a fertilizer. Such findings have substantial implications in biomass utilization and redox reactions of envirotechnical and biogeochemical relevance.
A bifunctional membrane modified by BiOCl0.875Br0.125 and polydopamine (PDA) was developed in the current study and employed for the photocatalytic degradation of roxarsone (ROX) under visible light and simultaneous immobilization of the released inorganic arsenic by sorption. Characterization techniques, such as FESEM, XRD, FTIR-ATR, DRS and XPS were used to characterize as-prepared membranes so as to analyze their structural and functional attributes. Dynamic cyclic experiments indicated that a satisfactory degradation efficiency of ROX (∼100%) could be achieved by the photocatalytic process within 5 h. Simultaneously, the released inorganic arsenic could be completely converted to As(V) and eventually immobilized onto the surface of membrane. The critical reactive oxidation species (ROS) including ·O2–, h⁺ and ·OH contributed to the photodegradation of ROX, and the PDA coating played multiple roles as an adhesive interface, an electron transfer layer, and an active adsorptive layer. Additionally, based on the HPLC-HG-AFS and GC-MS analysis, the major degradation products were detected and the mechanism of ROX degradation and simultaneous arsenic immobilization by BiOCl0.875Br0.125/PDA functionalized PVDF membranes (BPMs) was given, and the reaction pathway of ROX during the photocatalytic/filtration process was also taken into consideration. Combined with the exceptional photocatalytic property and high adsorption capacity of arsenic, the fabricated BPMs may open new opportunities for the control of ROX in water treatment.
Roxarsone is a feed additive widely used in the broiler and swine industries that has the potential to contaminate the environment, mainly via the use of poultry manure as fertilizer, which results in release of inorganic arsenic to the soil and water. This study was conducted to investigate roxarsone degradation and the response of the microbial community under different culture conditions using high-throughput sequencing technology. Poultry litter was incubated for 288 h in the presence of roxarsone under light aerobic, dark aerobic, or dark anaerobic conditions. The results showed that roxarsone was completely degraded after 48 h of dark anaerobic incubation, while 79.9% and 94.5% of roxarsone was degraded after 288 h of dark aerobic and light aerobic incubation, respectively. Under dark aerobic conditions with microbial inhibitor sodium azide, roxarsone was rarely degraded during the 288 h of incubation, illustrating that microorganisms play an important role in roxarsone degradation. Microbial community structure was significantly different among various culture conditions. Olivibacter, Sphingobacterium, and Proteiniphilum were the top 3 genera in the control samples. Sphingobacterium and Alishewanella dominated the light aerobic samples, while the dominant microflora of the dark aerobic samples were Acinetobacter spp. Pseudomonas and Advenella were the predominant genera of dark anaerobic samples. This study emphasizes the potential importance of microbes in roxarsone degradation and expands our current understanding of microbial ecology during roxarsone degradation under different environmental conditions.
Arsenobetaine (AsB) is a non-toxic organoarsenical identified as a major arsenic species in marine animals and a number of terrestrial mushrooms. Since its first identification nearly 40 years ago, numerous studies investigating the biosynthesis and function of AsB have been carried out, although molecular mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. Where and how is AsB formed? Why do marine animals acquire high concentrations of AsB? This review briefly summarizes the current progress of AsB research toward understanding its origin, function, and the putative pathways for its biosynthesis. This paper also suggests potential future studies in the attempt to solve the AsB mystery.
Background:
Chicken meat has the highest per capita consumption among all meat types in North America. The practice of feeding 3-nitro-4-hydroxyphenylarsonic acid (Roxarsone, Rox) to chickens lasted for over 60 years. However, the fate of Rox and arsenic metabolites remaining in chicken are poorly understood.
Objectives:
We aim to determine the elimination of Rox and metabolites from chickens and quantify the remaining arsenic species in chicken meat, providing necessary information for meaningful exposure assessment.
Methods:
We have conducted a 35-day feeding experiment involving 1600 chickens, of which half were control and the other half were fed a Rox-supplemented diet for the first 28 days and then the Rox-free diet for the final seven days. We quantified the concentrations of individual arsenic species in the breast meat of 229 chickens.
Results:
Rox, arsenobetaine, arsenite, monomethylarsonic acid, dimethylarsinic acid, and a new arsenic metabolite, were detected in breast meat from chickens fed Rox. The concentrations of arsenic species, except arsenobetaine, were significantly higher in the Rox-fed than in the control chickens. The half-lives of elimination of these arsenic species were 0.4-1 day. Seven days after termination of Rox feeding, the concentrations of arsenite (3.1 µg/kg), Rox (0.4 µg/kg), and a new arsenic metabolite (0.8 µg/kg) were significantly higher in the Rox-fed chickens than the control.
Conclusion:
Feeding of Rox to chickens increased the concentrations of five arsenic species in breast meat. Although most arsenic species were excreted rapidly when the feeding of Rox stopped, arsenic species remaining in the Rox-fed chickens were higher than the background levels.
The poultry industry has used organoarsenicals, such as 3-nitro-4-hydroxyphenylarsonic acid (Roxarsone®, ROX), to prevent disease and to promote growth. Although previous studies have analyzed arsenic species in chicken litter after composting or after application to agricultural lands, it is not clear what arsenic species were excreted by chickens before biotransformation of arsenic species during composting. We describe here the identification and quantitation of arsenic species in chicken litter repeatedly collected on days 14, 24, 28, 30, and 35 of a Roxarsone-feeding study involving 1600 chickens of two strains. High performance liquid chromatography separation with simultaneous detection by both inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry provided complementary information necessary for the identification and quantitation of arsenic species. A new metabolite, N-acetyl-4-hydroxy-m-arsanilic acid (N-AHAA), was identified, and it accounted for 3-12% of total arsenic. Speciation analyses of litter samples collected from ROX-fed chickens on days 14, 24, 28, 30, and 35 showed the presence of N-AHAA, 3-amino-4-hydroxyphenylarsonic acid (3-AHPAA), inorganic arsenite (AsIII), arsenate (AsV), monomethylarsonic acid (MMAV), dimethylarsinic acid (DMAV), and ROX. 3-AHPAA accounted for 3-19% of the total arsenic. Inorganic arsenicals (the sum of AsIII and AsV) comprised 2-6% (mean 3.5%) of total arsenic. Our results on the detection of inorganic arsenicals, methylarsenicals, 3-AHPAA, and N-AHAA in the chicken litter support recent findings that ROX is actually metabolized by the chicken or its gut microbiome. The presence of the toxic metabolites in chicken litter is environmentally relevant as chicken litter is commonly used as fertilizers.
Response surface methodology was applied to optimize the parameters for microwave-assisted extraction of six major inorganic and organic arsenic species (As(III), As(V), dimethyl arsenic acid, monomethyl arsenic acid, p-arsanilic acid, and roxarsone) from chicken tissues, followed by detection using a high-performance liquid chromatography with inductively coupled mass spectrometry detection method, which allows the simultaneous analysis of both inorganic and organic arsenic species in the extract in a single run. Effects of extraction medium, solution pH, liquid-to-solid ratio, and the temperature and time of microwave-assisted extraction on the extraction of the targeted arsenic species were studied. The optimum microwave-assisted extraction conditions were: 100 mg of chicken tissue, extracted by 5 mL of 22% v/v methanol, 90 mmol L(-1) (NH4 )2 HPO4 , and 0.07% v/v trifluoroacetic acid (with pH adjusted to 10.0 by ammonium hydroxide solution), ramping for 10 min to 71°C, and holding for 11 min. The method has good extraction performance for total arsenic in the spiked and non-spiked chicken tissues (104.0±13.8% and 91.6±7.8%, respectively), except for the ones with arsenic contents close to the quantitation limits. Limits of quantitation (S/N = 10) for As(III), As(V), dimethyl arsenic acid, monomethyl arsenic acid, p-arsanilic acid, and roxarsone in chicken tissues using this method were 0.012, 0.058, 0.039, 0.061, 0.102, and 0.240 mg kg(-1) (dry weight), respectively. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Roxarsone is included in chicken food as anticoccidial and mainly excreted unchanged in faeces. Microorganisms biotransform roxarsone into toxic compounds that leach and contaminate underground waters used for human consumption. This study evaluated roxarsone biotransformation by underground water microorganisms and the toxicity of the resulting compounds. Underground water from an agricultural field was used to prepare microcosms, containing 0.05 mM roxarsone, and cultured under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. Bacterial communities of microcosms were characterized by PCR-DGGE. Roxarsone degradation was measured by HPLC/HG/AAS. Toxicity was evaluated using HUVEC cells and the Toxi-ChromoTest kit. Roxarsone degradation analysis, after 15 days, showed that microcosms of underground water with nutrients degraded 90 and 83.3 % of roxarsone under anaerobic and aerobic conditions, respectively. Microcosms without nutrients degraded 50 and 33.1 % under anaerobic and aerobic conditions, respectively. Microcosms including nutrients showed more roxarsone conversion into toxic inorganic arsenic species. DGGE analyses showed the presence of Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, Planctomycetes and Spirochaetes. Toxicity assays showed that roxarsone biotransformation by underground water microorganisms in all microcosms generated degradation products toxic for eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Furthermore, toxicity increased when roxarsone leached though a soil column and was further transformed by the bacterial community present in underground water. Therefore, using underground water from areas where roxarsone containing manure is used as fertilizer might be a health risk.
The health impacts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most concerning organic pollutants, depend not only on the locations and strengths of emission sources, but also on individual susceptibility. Moreover, trans-boundary transport makes them a global concern. In this study, a comprehensive analysis of the global health impacts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in ambient air is presented. Model resolution is critical in exposure modelling. Globally, incremental lifetime lung cancer risk (ILCR) induced by ambient PAH exposure is 3.1 × 10(-5). If the individual susceptibility was not taken into consideration, the overall risk would be underestimated by 55% and the proportion of highly vulnerable population would be underestimated by more than 90%. Emphasizing on individual susceptibility, our study provides an instrumental revision of current risk assessment methodology. In terms of lung cancer risk, the most important sources are combustion of biomass fuels (40%) and fossil fuels (14%) in the residential/commercial sector, coke (13%) and aluminium (12%) production, and motor vehicles (9%). PAHs can travel long distance globally especially within the Eurasian continent. Still, the risk is dominantly contributed by local.
A. We tested the chicken meat people most commonly eat—like breast meat, legs and thighs, as well as chicken strips and sandwiches from fast food restaurants. From Minnesota and California supermarkets we bought 151 packages of raw chicken from some of the nation's largest chicken producing companies, along with premium chicken products including organic and kosher. We also bought and tested 90 orders of chicken products from fast food restaurants including McDonald's, Wendy's, Arby's, Hardee's, Jack in the Box, Carl's Jr., Subway, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Church's and Popeyes. Those samples were then sent to West Coast Analytical Service, Inc., an independent commercial analytical chemistry laboratory in California. Q. Why do this testing? A. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) had not tested for arsenic in the chicken meat that Americans commonly eat. USDA typically tests for arsenic only in chicken livers. USDA scientists, using the agency's own data, have published scientifi c articles warning that average arsenic levels in chicken meat may be higher than previously thought. Before this report, there had been little if any actual data on how much arsenic is in chicken meat, besides liver, in the U.S. Q. What did you fi nd? A. We found arsenic in most (55 percent) of the uncooked chicken products purchased from supermarkets, and in all of the chicken purchased in fast food restaurants. Arsenic was more than twice as prevalent in conventional brands of supermarket chicken as in certifi ed organic and other "premium" brands.
Background: Inorganic arsenic (iAs) causes cancer and possibly other adverse health outcomes. Arsenic-based drugs are permitted in poultry production; however, the contribution of chicken consumption to iAs intake is unknown.
Objectives: We sought to characterize the arsenic species profile in chicken meat and estimate bladder and lung cancer risk associated with consuming chicken produced with arsenic-based drugs.
Methods: Conventional, antibiotic-free, and organic chicken samples were collected from grocery stores in 10 U.S. metropolitan areas from December 2010 through June 2011. We tested 116 raw and 142 cooked chicken samples for total arsenic, and we determined arsenic species in 65 raw and 78 cooked samples that contained total arsenic at ≥ 10 µg/kg dry weight.
Results: The geometric mean (GM) of total arsenic in cooked chicken meat samples was 3.0 µg/kg (95% CI: 2.5, 3.6). Among the 78 cooked samples that were speciated, iAs concentrations were higher in conventional samples (GM = 1.8 µg/kg; 95% CI: 1.4, 2.3) than in antibiotic-free (GM = 0.7 µg/kg; 95% CI: 0.5, 1.0) or organic (GM = 0.6 µg/kg; 95% CI: 0.5, 0.8) samples. Roxarsone was detected in 20 of 40 conventional samples, 1 of 13 antibiotic-free samples, and none of the 25 organic samples. iAs concentrations in roxarsone-positive samples (GM = 2.3 µg/kg; 95% CI: 1.7, 3.1) were significantly higher than those in roxarsone-negative samples (GM = 0.8 µg/kg; 95% CI: 0.7, 1.0). Cooking increased iAs and decreased roxarsone concentrations. We estimated that consumers of conventional chicken would ingest an additional 0.11 µg/day iAs (in an 82-g serving) compared with consumers of organic chicken. Assuming lifetime exposure and a proposed cancer slope factor of 25.7 per milligram per kilogram of body weight per day, this increase in arsenic exposure could result in 3.7 additional lifetime bladder and lung cancer cases per 100,000 exposed persons.
Conclusions: Conventional chicken meat had higher iAs concentrations than did conventional antibiotic-free and organic chicken meat samples. Cessation of arsenical drug use could reduce exposure and the burden of arsenic-related disease in chicken consumers.
Clostridial species predominate in both chicken gastrointestinal tract as well as litter where the organoarsenical roxarsone (3-nitro 4-hydroxybenzenearsonic acid) is anaerobically transformed releasing the more recognized toxic inorganic arsenic. 2D-gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry were used to evaluate the changes in protein expression of Alkaliphilus oremlandii in response to different growth conditions (e.g., terminal electron acceptors) in order to explore the mechanism of microbial biotransformation of roxarsone. Aldehyde ferredoxin oxidoreductase, the enzyme that belongs to the xanthine oxidase family of molybdoenzymes was significantly overexpressed in the presence of roxarsone suggesting a role in the anaerobic metabolism of this substituted nitrophenol.
Speciation analysis is essential when evaluating risks from arsenic (As) exposure. In an oral exposure scenario, the importance of presystemic metabolism by gut microorganisms has been evidenced with in vivo animal models and in vitro experiments with animal microbiota. However, it is unclear whether human microbiota display similar As metabolism, especially when present in a contaminated matrix.
We evaluated the metabolic potency of in vitro cultured human colon microbiota toward inorganic As (iAs) and As-contaminated soils.
A colon microbial community was cultured in a dynamic model of the human gut. These colon microbiota were incubated with iAs and with As-contaminated urban soils. We determined As speciation analysis using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.
We found a high degree of methylation for colon digests both of iAs (10 microg methylarsenical/g biomass/hr) and of As-contaminated soils (up to 28 microg/g biomass/hr). Besides the formation of monomethylarsonic acid (MMA(V)), we detected the highly toxic monomethylarsonous acid (MMA(III)). Moreover, this is the first description of microbial thiolation leading to monomethylmonothioarsonic acid (MMMTA(V)). MMMTA(V), the toxicokinetic properties of which are not well known, was in many cases a major metabolite.
Presystemic As metabolism is a significant process in the human body. Toxicokinetic studies aiming to completely elucidate the As metabolic pathway would therefore benefit from incorporating the metabolic potency of human gut microbiota. This will result in more accurate risk characterization associated with As exposures.
Ingestion of arsenic, both from water supplies and medicinal preparations, is known to cause skin cancer. The evidence assessed here indicates that arsenic can also cause liver, lung, kidney, and bladder cancer and that the population cancer risks due to arsenic in U.S. water supplies may be comparable to those from environmental tobacco smoke and radon in homes. Large population studies in an area of Taiwan with high arsenic levels in well water (170-800 micrograms/L) were used to establish dose-response relationships between cancer risks and the concentration of inorganic arsenic naturally present in water supplies. It was estimated that at the current EPA standard of 50 micrograms/L, the lifetime risk of dying from cancer of the liver, lung, kidney, or bladder from drinking 1 L/day of water could be as high as 13 per 1000 persons. It has been estimated that more than 350,000 people in the United States may be supplied with water containing more than 50 micrograms/L arsenic, and more than 2.5 million people may be supplied with water with levels above 25 micrograms/L. For average arsenic levels and water consumption patterns in the United States, the risk estimate was around 1/1000. Although further research is needed to validate these findings, measures to reduce arsenic levels in water supplies should be considered.
Arsenic exposure is a likely cause of blackfoot disease and a potential risk factor for atherosclerosis. The authors performed a systematic review of the epidemiologic evidence on the association between arsenic and cardiovascular outcomes. The search period was January 1966 through April 2005. Thirteen studies conducted in general populations (eight in high-arsenic areas in Taiwan, five in other countries) and 16 studies conducted in occupational populations were identified. Exposure was assessed ecologically in most studies. In Taiwan, relative risks comparing the highest arsenic exposure category with the lowest ranged from 1.59 to 4.90 for coronary disease, from 1.19 to 2.69 for stroke, and from 1.66 to 4.28 for peripheral arterial disease. In other general populations, relative risks ranged from 0.84 to 1.54 for coronary disease, from 0.69 to 1.53 for stroke, and from 0.61 to 1.58 for peripheral arterial disease. In occupational populations, relative risks ranged from 0.40 to 2.14 for coronary disease mortality and from 0.30 to 1.33 for stroke mortality. Methodologic limitations, however, limited interpretation of the moderate-to-strong associations between high arsenic exposure and cardiovascular outcomes in Taiwan. In other populations or in occupational settings, the evidence was inconclusive. Because of the high prevalence of arsenic exposure, carefully performed studies of arsenic and cardiovascular outcomes should be a research priority.
Chronic arsenic exposure has been suggested to contribute to diabetes development. We performed a systematic review of the experimental and epidemiologic evidence on the association of arsenic and type 2 diabetes. We identified 19 in vitro studies of arsenic and glucose metabolism. Five studies reported that arsenic interfered with transcription factors involved in insulin-related gene expression: upstream factor 1 in pancreatic beta-cells and peroxisome proliferative-activated receptor gamma in preadipocytes. Other in vitro studies assessed the effect of arsenic on glucose uptake, typically using very high concentrations of arsenite or arsenate. These studies provide limited insight on potential mechanisms. We identified 10 in vivo studies in animals. These studies showed inconsistent effects of arsenic on glucose metabolism. Finally, we identified 19 epidemiologic studies (6 in high-arsenic areas in Taiwan and Bangladesh, 9 in occupational populations, and 4 in other populations). In studies from Taiwan and Bangladesh, the pooled relative risk estimate for diabetes comparing extreme arsenic exposure categories was 2.52 (95% confidence interval, 1.69-3.75), although methodologic problems limit the interpretation of the association. The evidence from occupational studies and from general populations other than Taiwan or Bangladesh was inconsistent. In summary, the current available evidence is inadequate to establish a causal role of arsenic in diabetes. Because arsenic exposure is widespread and diabetes prevalence is reaching epidemic proportions, experimental studies using arsenic concentrations relevant to human exposure and prospective epidemiologic studies measuring arsenic biomarkers and appropriately assessing diabetes should be a research priority.
We recently reported results of a cross-sectional investigation of intellectual function in 10-year-olds in Bangladesh, who had been exposed to arsenic from drinking water in their home wells.
We present results of a similar investigation of 301 randomly selected 6-year-olds whose parents participated in our ongoing prospective study of the health effects of As exposure in 12,000 residents of Araihazar, Bangladesh.
Water As and manganese concentrations of tube wells at each home were obtained by surveying all study region wells. Children and mothers were first visited at home, where the quality of home stimulation was measured, and then seen in our field clinic, where children received a medical examination wherein weight, height, and head circumference were assessed. We assessed children's intellectual function using subtests drawn from the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, version III, by summing weighted items across domains to create Verbal, Performance, Processing Speed, and Full-Scale raw scores. Children provided urine specimens for measuring urinary As and were asked to provide blood samples for blood lead measurements.
Exposure to As from drinking water was associated with reduced intellectual function before and after adjusting for water Mn, for blood lead levels, and for sociodemographic features known to contribute to intellectual function. With covariate adjustment, water As remained significantly negatively associated with both Performance and Processing Speed raw scores; associations were less strong than in our previously studied 10-year-olds.
This second cross-sectional study of As exposure expands our concerns about As neurotoxicity to a younger age group.
Animal feeding practices in the United States have changed considerably over the past century. As large-scale, concentrated production methods have become the predominant model for animal husbandry, animal feeds have been modified to include ingredients ranging from rendered animals and animal waste to antibiotics and organoarsenicals. In this article we review current U.S. animal feeding practices and etiologic agents that have been detected in animal feed. Evidence that current feeding practices may lead to adverse human health impacts is also evaluated.
We reviewed published veterinary and human-health literature regarding animal feeding practices, etiologic agents present in feed, and human health effects along with proceedings from animal feed workshops.
Data were extracted from peer-reviewed articles and books identified using PubMed, Agricola, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Drug Administration, and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention databases.
Findings emphasize that current animal feeding practices can result in the presence of bacteria, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, prions, arsenicals, and dioxins in feed and animal-based food products. Despite a range of potential human health impacts that could ensue, there are significant data gaps that prevent comprehensive assessments of human health risks associated with animal feed. Limited data are collected at the federal or state level concerning the amounts of specific ingredients used in animal feed, and there are insufficient surveillance systems to monitor etiologic agents "from farm to fork."
Increased funding for integrated veterinary and human health surveillance systems and increased collaboration among feed professionals, animal producers, and veterinary and public health officials is necessary to effectively address these issues.
The purpose of this study was to estimate mean concentrations of total arsenic in chicken liver tissue and then estimate total and inorganic arsenic ingested by humans through chicken consumption. We used national monitoring data from the Food Safety and Inspection Service National Residue Program to estimate mean arsenic concentrations for 1994-2000. Incorporating assumptions about the concentrations of arsenic in liver and muscle tissues as well as the proportions of inorganic and organic arsenic, we then applied the estimates to national chicken consumption data to calculate inorganic, organic, and total arsenic ingested by eating chicken. The mean concentration of total arsenic in young chickens was 0.39 ppm, 3- to 4-fold higher than in other poultry and meat. At mean levels of chicken consumption (60 g/person/day), people may ingest 1.38-5.24 microg/day of inorganic arsenic from chicken alone. At the 99th percentile of chicken consumption (350 g chicken/day), people may ingest 21.13-30.59 microg inorganic arsenic/day and 32.50-47.07 microg total arsenic/day from chicken. These concentrations are higher than previously recognized in chicken, which may necessitate adjustments to estimates of arsenic ingested through diet and may need to be considered when estimating overall exposure to arsenic.
For much of the world's population, food is the major source of exposure to arsenic. Exposure to this non-essential metalloid at relatively low levels may be linked to a wide range of adverse health effects. Thus, evaluating foods as sources of exposure to arsenic is important in assessing risk and developing strategies that protect public health. Although most emphasis has been placed on inorganic arsenic as human carcinogen and toxicant, an array of arsenic-containing species are found in plants and animals used as foods. Here, we 2evaluate the contribution of complex organic arsenicals (arsenosugars, arsenolipids, and trimethylarsonium compounds) that are found in foods and consider their origins, metabolism, and potential toxicity. Commonalities in the metabolism of arsenosugars and arsenolipids lead to the production of di-methylated arsenicals which are known to exert many toxic effects. Evaluating foods as sources of exposure to these complex organic arsenicals and understanding the formation of reactive metabolites may be critical in assessing their contribution to aggregate exposure to arsenic.
Although banned in some developed countries, p-arsanilic acid (p-ASA) is still used widely as a feed additive for swine production in many countries. With little uptake and transformation in animal bodies, nearly all the p-ASA administered to animals is excreted chemically unchanged in animal wastes, which can subsequently release the more toxic inorganic arsenic species upon degradation in the environment. For safe disposal of the animal wastes laden with p-ASA, we proposed a method of leaching the highly water-soluble p-ASA out of the manure first, followed by treatment of the leachate using the Fenton process to achieve fast oxidation of p-ASA and removal of the inorganic arsenic species released (predominantly arsenate) from solution simultaneously. The effects of solution pH, dosages of H2O2 and Fe(2+), and the presence of dissolved organic matter (DOM) on the treatment efficiency were systematically investigated. Under the optimum treatment conditions (0.53 mmol L(-1) Fe(2+), 2.12 mmol L(-1) H2O2, and initial pH of 3.0), p-ASA (10 mg-As L(-1)) could be completely oxidized to As(V) within 30 min in pure water and 4 natural water samples, and at the final pH of 4.0, the residual arsenic levels in solution phase were as low as 1.1 and 20.1-43.4 μg L(-1) in the two types of water matrixes, respectively. The presence of humic acid significantly retarded the oxidation of p-ASA by scavenging HO, and inhibited the As(V) removal through competitive adsorption on ferric hydroxide. Due to the high contents of DOM in the swine manure leachate samples (TOC at ∼500 mg L(-1)), much higher dosages of Fe(2+) (10.0 mmol L(-1)) and H2O2 (40.0 mmol L(-1)) and a longer treatment time (120 min) were required to achieve near complete oxidation of p-ASA (98.0%), while maintaining the levels of residual arsenic in the solution at <70.0 μg L(-1). The degradation pathway of p-ASA in the Fenton process was proposed based on the major degradation products detected. Together, the results demonstrate that the Fenton process is promising as an efficient, robust, and low-cost treatment method for controlling the risk of p-ASA in the animal wastes generated at factory farms.
Humans are exposed to arsenic (As) from many sources, such as food, water, air, and soil. Most foods contain both organic and inorganic forms of As and the inorganic compounds are generally considered to be more toxic. Although fish and shellfish are major contributors to dietary As among seafood consumers, over 90% of the As in seafood is generally organic rather than inorganic. Thus, it is important to know the relative levels of various As species in fish and shellfish when estimating risks from seafood consumption. Data were collected from published and unpublished literature on the concentrations of total, inorganic and organic As present in fish and shellfish. Distributions were skewed with median concentrations, in this instance, a better representation of central tendency than mean concentrations. The data were used to estimate total exposure to inorganic As from consumption of fish/shellfish for several exposure scenarios applicable to seafood-consuming populations, including subsistence groups. Data on fish and shellfish consumption patterns were derived from the 1989–1991 U.S. Department of Agriculture Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals. Organic As in ocean and estuarine fish and shellfish is primarily present as arsenobetaine (AsB) with smaller amounts as arsenocholine (AsC) or other organic compounds. Less is known about the identity of the organic As in freshwater fish. Data on the toxicokinetics of AsB and AsC demonstrate that the As in these compounds is apparently not bioavailable for interaction with other biological molecules.
Phylogenetically diverse microorganisms metabolize arsenic despite its toxicity and are part of its robust iogeochemical cycle. Respiratory arsenate reductase is a reversible enzyme, functioning in some microbes as an arsenate reductase but in others as an arsenite oxidase. As(III) can serve as an electron donor for anoxygenic photolithoautotrophy and chemolithoautotrophy. Organoarsenicals, such as the feed additive roxarsone, can be used as a source of energy, releasing inorganic arsenic.
The field of environmental research has benefited greatly from the concept of biomarkers, which originally expanded our thinking by opening the “black box” between environmental exposures and manifestations of disease and dysfunction in exposed populations, as laid out in a highly influential article published in 1987 by an expert committee convened by the National Research Council. Advances in biomedical research now challenge us to revise this concept to include the microbiome as a critical stage in the progression from exposure to outcome. Incorporating the microbiome into the basic 1987 model can spur new advances and understanding in environmental health. The human microbiome as a whole comprises the majority of cells and genes of the super-organism (host and microbiome). Site-specific microbiomes are the first to encounter xenobiotics, prior to absorption across gut, skin, or respiratory system. A growing literature indicates that these microbial communities may participate in biotransformation and thus constitute a compartment to add to the original biomarker schematic. In addition, these microbiomes interact with the “niche” in which they are located and thus transduce responses to and from the host organism. Incorporating the microbiome into the environmental health paradigm will enlarge our concepts of susceptibility as well as the interactions between xenobiotics and other factors that influence the status and function of these barrier systems. This article reviews the complexities of host:microbiome responses to xenobiotics in terms of redefining toxicokinetics and susceptibility. Our challenge is to consider these multiple interactions between and within the microbiome, the immune system, and other systems of the host in terms of exposure to exogenous agents, including environmental toxicants.
p-Arsanilic acid (p-ASA), is a widely used animal feed additive in many developing countries, and is often introduced to agricultural soils with animal wastes. A common soil metal oxide, birnessite (delta-MnO2), was found to mediate its degradation with fast rates under acidic conditions. Experimental results indicate that adsorption and degradation of p-ASA on the surface of delta-MnO2 were highly pH dependent, and the overall kinetics for p-ASA degradation and formation of precursor complex could be described by a retarded first-order rate model. For the reaction occurring between pH 4.0 and 6.2, the initial rate equation was determined to be: {equation not be displayed here}. p-ASA first forms a surface precursor complex on delta-MnO2 during degradation, followed by formation of p-ASA radicals through single-electron transfer to delta-MnO2. The p-ASA radicals subsequently undergo cleavage of arsenite group (which is further oxidized to arsenate) or radical-radical self-coupling. Instead of full mineralization (with respect to arsenic only), about one-fifth of the p-ASA "couples" to form an arsenic-bearing azo compound that binds strongly on delta-MnO2. The fast transformation of p-ASA to arsenite and arsenate mediated by delta-MnO2 significantly increases the risk of soil arsenic pollution and deserves significant attention in the animal farming zones still using this feed additive.
FOR ENVIRONMENTALISTS and some public health experts, one of the most puzzling practices of modern agriculture is the addition of arsenic-based compounds to most chicken feed. The point of the practice is to promote growth, kill parasites that cause diarrhea, and improve pigmentation of chicken meat. But Tyson Foods, the U.S.'s largest poultry producer, stopped using arsenic compounds in 2004, and many high-end and organic growers raise chickens quite successfully without them. What's more, McDonald's has asked its suppliers not to use arsenic additives, and the European Union banned them in 1999. Roxarsone—4-hydroxy-3-nitrobenzenearsonic acid—is by far the most common arsenic-based additive used in chicken feed. It is mixed in the diet of about 70% of the 9 billion broiler chickens produced annually in the U.S. In its original organic form, roxarsone is relatively benign. It is less toxic than the inorganic forms of arsenic—arsenite [As(III)] and arsenate [As(V)]. However some of ...
Arsenic is the most prevalent environmental toxic element and causes health problems throughout the world. The toxicity, mobility, and fate of arsenic in the environment are largely determined by its speciation, and arsenic speciation changes are driven, at least to some extent, by biological processes. In this article, biotransformation of arsenic is reviewed from the perspective of the formation of Earth and the evolution of life, and the connection between arsenic geochemistry and biology is described. The article provides a comprehensive overview of molecular mechanisms of arsenic redox and methylation cycles as well as other arsenic biotransformations. It also discusses the implications of arsenic biotransformation in environmental remediation and food safety, with particular emphasis on groundwater arsenic contamination and arsenic accumulation in rice.
Arsenic contamination in groundwater has endangered the health and safety of millions of people around the world. One less studied mechanism for arsenic introduction into the environment is the use of organoarsenicals in animal feed. Four organoarsenicals are commonly employed as feed additives: arsanilic acid, carbarsone, nitarsone, and roxarsone. Organoarsenicals are composed of a phenylarsonic acid molecule with substituted functional groups. This review documents the use of organoarsenicals in the poultry industry, reports analytical methods available for quantifying organic arsenic, discusses the fate and transport of organoarsenicals in environmental systems, and identifies toxicological concerns associated with these chemicals. In reviewing the literature on organoarsenicals, several research needs were highlighted: advanced analytical instrumentation that allows for identification and quantification of organoarsenical degradation products; a greater research emphasis on arsanilic acid, carbarsone, and nitarsone; identification of degradation pathways, products, and kinetics; and testing/development of agricultural wastewater and solid treatment technologies for organoarsenical-laden waste.
Roxarsone is an organoarsenic feed additive which can be finally degraded to other higher toxic metabolites after excreted by animal. In this work, the uptake of As species by vegetables treated with chicken manure bearing roxarsone and its metabolites was investigated. It was showed that more than 96% of roxarsone added in chicken feed was degraded and converted to arsenite, monomethylarsonic acid, dimethylarsinic acid, arsenate, 4-hydroxyphenylarsonic acid and other unknown As species. Arsenite and arsenate could be found in roots of vegetables but only arsenite transported up to shoots. Chicken manure bearing roxarsone and its metabolites increased 33-175% of arsenite and 28%∼seven times of arsenate in vegetable roots, 68-175% of arsenite in edible vegetable shoots. Arsenite, the most toxic As form, was the major extractable As species in vegetables accounted for 79-98%. The results reflected that toxic element As could be absorbed by vegetables via the way: roxarsone in feed→animal→animal manure→soil→crop and the uptake of As species would be enhanced by using chicken manure bearing roxarsone and its metabolites as organic fertilizer.
Concerning the residual organoarsenical feed additives, an effective method has been developed for the separation and determination of organoarsenic species including p-arsanilic acid (ASA), nitarsone (NIT) and roxarsone (ROX) in the food of animal tissue origin by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to ultraviolet oxidation hydride generation atomic fluorescence spectrometry using a C18 column with 50 mM KH2PO4, 0.1 % v/v trifluoroacetic acid at pH 2.43 as the mobile phase. Accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) as an effective sample preparation method was used to deal with animal meat to extract organoarsenic species. The ASE conditions, including extraction solvent, temperature, static extraction time, flush volume and cycle time, were investigated in terms of extraction yield and species stability. In this paper, aimed to separate these species efficiently, the conditions of the mobile phase and HG system were also investigated. The methodology developed allows us limits of detection and quantification of 0.24, 0.74, 0.41 and 0.72, 2.24, 1.24 ng mL−1 for ASA, NIT and ROX, respectively. This method was used to separate and determine three organoarsenic species in porcine and chicken liver samples that were purchased at a supermarket in China. At the optimized conditions, the ranges of concentrations of the three arsenic species were found to be varied from 3 to 9 ng mL−1. The results of recovery rates and RSDs, which were higher than 94 % and lower than 5 %, respectively, approved it to be a convenient, fast and efficient method for the determination of organoarsenic species in animal tissue.
Dietary intake of inorganic arsenic, previously assumed to be an insignificant source of arsenic exposure in humans, was estimated for Canadian and United States populations. Input data included arsenic contents of various food groups, a limited historical database from the Ontario Ministry of the Environment measuring the percent inorganic arsenic in food groups, and food consumption data. Estimated daily dietary intake of inorganic arsenic ranges from 8.3 to 14 µg/day in the United States and from 4.8 to 12.7 µg/day in Canada for various age groups. These data suggest that between 21% to 40% of total dietary arsenic occurs in inorganic forms. Uncertainties regarding total arsenic in dairy products in the data set applied here may account for observed differences between United States and Canadian estimates. While estimates provided here are preliminary because of limitations in data on the proportion of inorganic arsenic in foods, this analysis suggests that dietary intake of inorganic arsenic is higher than is currently assumed. Additional research is needed to more fully characterize inorganic arsenic concentrations in foods. Future study is also needed on the variability of total and inorganic arsenic in foods and the bioavailability of dietary inorganic arsenic.
Organoarsenics are widely used as excellent feed additives in animal production in the world. Roxarsone (ROX) and arsanilic acid (ASA) are two organoarsenics permitted to be used in China. We collected 146 animal feed samples to investigate the appearance of ROX, ASA and potential metabolites including 3-amino-4-hydroxyphenylarsonic acid (3-A-HPA), 4-hydroxyphenylarsonic acid (4-HPA), As(V), As(III), monomethylarsonic acid (MMA) and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) in feeds. The stability of ROX in both ROX additives and animal feeds was also examined. The results show that 25.4% of the 146 animal feeds contained organoarsenics, with average contents of ROX and ASA as 7.0 and 21.2 mg As/kg, respectively. Unexpectedly, As(III) and MMA frequently occurred as As impurities in feeds bearing organoarsenics, with higher contents than organoarsenics in some samples. 3-A-HPA, 4-HPA and DMA were not detected in all samples. ROX and As impurities in both ROX additives and feeds stayed unchanged in the shelf life. It suggests that As impurities in animal feeds bearing organoarsenics should generate from the use of organoarsenics containing As impurities. This constitutes the first report of As impurities in organoarsenics.
The effect of the presence of organoarsenicals from feed additives in poultry house litter was investigated with respect to the distribution of arsenic in chickens raised on this litter, to the distribution of arsenic in soil fertilized with this litter, and to the distribution of arsenic in crops raised on soil fertilized with this type litter. Although measurable amounts of arsenic (15-30 p.p.m.) were found in litter, the arsenic content of soil and crops was unaffected by the use of poultry litter as fertilizer. Similarly, the arsenic content of birds was unaffected when raised on this type litter.
Manure and bedding material (litter) generated by the broiler industry (Gallus gallus domesticus) often contain high levels of arsenic (As) when organoarsenical roxarsone and p-arsanilic acid are included in feed to combat disease and improve weight gain of the birds. This study was conducted to determine As levels and species in litter from three major broiler producing companies, and As levels in soils, corn tissue (Zea mays L.), and groundwater in fields where litter was applied. Total As in litter from the three different integrators ranged between <1 and 44mgkg(-1). Between 15 and 20% of total As in litter consisted of mostly of arsenate, with smaller amounts of roxarsone and several transformation products that were extractable with phosphate buffer. Soils amended with litter had higher levels of bioavailable As (extractable with Mehlich 3 solution and taken up by corn leaves). Arsenic concentrations in plant tissue and groundwater, however, were below the World Health Organization thresholds, which was attributed to strong sorption/precipitation of arsenate in Fe- and Al-rich soils. Ecological impacts of amending soils with As-laden litter depend on the As species in the litter, and chemical and physical properties of soil that strongly affect As mobility and bioavailability in the environment.
Roxarsone, (4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl)arsonic acid, is an arsenic-containing compound that has been approved as a feed additive for poultry and swine since the 1940s; however, little information is available regarding residual arsenic species present in edible tissues. We developed a novel method for the extraction and quantification of arsenic species in chicken liver. A strongly basic solution solubilized the liver, and ultrafiltration removed macromolecules and particulate material. Ion chromatography separated the species [arsenite, arsenate, monomethylarsonic acid, dimethylarsinic acid, (4-hydroxy-3-aminophenyl)arsonic acid, (4-hydroxy-3-acetaminophenyl)arsonic acid, and roxarsone] in the extracts, which were then detected by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. The extraction oxidized most arsenite to arsenate. For fortification concentrations at 2 μg kg(-1) and above, recoveries ranged from 70 to 120%, with relative standard deviations from 7 to 34%. We detected roxarsone, its 3-amino and 3-acetamido metabolites, inorganic arsenic, and additional unknown arsenic species in livers from roxarsone-treated chickens. Both the originating laboratory and a second laboratory validated the method.
In this study, we examined the effects of a high dosage of roxarsone in the diet on the performance, liver function, and its residue in liver, eggs and excreta of laying hens. Seventy-five 32-week-old layers were selected and randomly allocated into five dietary treatments with three replications for each treatment. Feeding periods were 4 weeks with an additional week for withdrawal. The experimental diets included 0, 11, 22, 44 or 88 mg kg-1 arsenic from roxarsone, respectively. Dietary arsenic above 44 mg kg-1 significantly decreased the egg production and feed intake of the layer (P < 0·05). Layers ceased to produce eggs after two weeks of feeding the 88 mg kg-1 arsenic supplement diet. Where the enzyme activities in the serum, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine kinase (CK) significantly increased. Also, the liver weight did not only significantly decrease (P < 0·05), but was also damaged on histological examination. Moreover, arsenic residues in the liver, eggs and the excreta significantly increased as dietary arsenic level was increased (P < 0·05). The serum enzyme activities of AST, LDH, CK returns to normal after a week of the drug withdrawal. Arsenic residues in liver, egg and excreta also significantly declined in the withdrawal period (P < 0·05). Furthermore, the hepatic cells were vacuolised from layers treated with 88 mg kg-1 of arsenic. © 1997 SCI.
Arsenic exposures contribute significantly to the burden of preventable disease worldwide, specifically related to increased risks of cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Most exposures are associated with natural contamination of groundwater, which is difficult to mitigate when these sources are used for drinking water. An anthropogenic source of arsenic exposure stems from the widespread use of arsenical drugs in food-animal production in the United States and China, among many countries. This use results in residual contamination of food products from animals raised with the drugs, as well as environmental contamination associated with disposal of wastes from these animals. Land disposal of these wastes can contaminate surface and ground water, and the conversion of animal wastes into fertilizer pellets for home use as well as the introduction of animal waste incinerators may increase opportunities for exposure. As an intentional additive to animal feed, use of arsenical drugs is a preventable source of human exposure. The domestic practice of using these drugs in poultry production has been the subject of media attention and limited research, though the use of these drugs in domestic swine production and in the rapidly growing foreign animal production industry remains largely uncharacterized. This continued expansion of arsenical drug use may likely increase the burden of global human arsenic exposure and risk.
An arsenic specific detection system utilizing on-line microwave digestion and hydride generation atomic absorption spectrometry (MD/HGAAS) is described for arsenic speciation by using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Both ion exchange chromatography and ion pair chromatography have been studied for the separation of arsenite, arsenate, monomethylarsonic acid (MMAA), dimethylarsinic acid (DMAA), and arsenobetaine (AB). When the commonly used mobile phases, phosphate and carbonate buffers at pH 7.5, are used on an anion exchange column, arsenite and AB co-elute. However, selective determination of these two arsenic compounds can be achieved by using the new detection system. Partial separation between arsenite and AB can be achieved by increasing the mobile phase pH to 10.3 and by using a polymer based anion exchange column. The detection limit obtained by using anion exchange chromatography with MD/HGAAS detection is approximately 10 ng/ml (or 200 pg for a 20-mul sample injection) for arsenite, DMAA and AB, 15 ng/ml (or 300 pg) for MMAA, and 20 ng/ml (or 400 pg) for arsenate. Complete separation of the five arsenic compounds is achieved on a reversed phase C18 column by using sodium heptanesulfonate as ion pair reagent. Comparable resolution between chromatographic peaks is obtained by using MD/HGAAS detection and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) detection.
A tabulation of LD50 values for newborn and adult mammals has been compiled from the literature and from the files of the Food and Drug Administration.
This study evaluated the bioaccumulation and biotransformation of arsenic species in chicken heart and meat tissues. The experimental study was carried out using two sets of samples. In the first one, 10-d-old chickens were exposed to sodium arsenate, using spiked drinking water. These chickens grew normally and were killed after 50 d of arsenic exposure. The second set were edible chickens used as blanks for a parallel study. The total arsenic and arsenic species content in the exposed samples were at least twice those in the normal edible chicken. It has been demonstrated that sodium arsenate is biotransformed to arsenite and an unknown species and its distribution varies among the different cardiac and meat tissues. One important aspect is the capability of the auricle to preconcentrate the most toxic species, arsenite, in the exposed chicken. A nonidentified arsenic species from the edible chicken was detected. Arsenobetaine was also detected in several tissues. This article shows that chicken can be used as a representative animal when considering inorganic arsenic exposure in humans.
Arsenic (As) distribution and toxicology in the environment is a serious issue, with millions of individuals worldwide being affected by As toxicosis. Sources of As contamination are both natural and anthropogenic and the scale of contamination ranges from local to regional. There are many areas of research that are being actively pursued to address the As contamination problem. These include new methods of screening for As in the field, determining the epidemiology of As in humans, and identifying the risk of As uptake in agriculture. Remediation of As-affected water supplies is important and research includes assessing natural remediation potential as well as phytoremediation. Another area of active research is on the microbially mediated biogeochemical interactions of As in the environment. In 2005, a conference was convened to bring together scientists involved in many of the different areas of As research. In this paper, we present a synthesis of the As issues in the light of long-standing research and with regards to the new findings presented at this conference. This contribution provides a backdrop to the issues raised at the conference together with an overview of contemporary and historical issues of As contamination and health impacts.
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