Content uploaded by Michael James Winkelman
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Michael James Winkelman on Feb 21, 2017
Content may be subject to copyright.
Würzburg, den 18.09.2012
Korrekturfahnen Ihres Beitrages aus der Publikation
Ekstasen: Kontexte – Formen – Wirkungen
Sehr geehrter Herr Winkelmann,
hiermit übersende ich Ihnen die Korrekturfahnen Ihres Beitrages aus der o.g. Publikation.
Bitte bringen Sie evtl. notwendige Korrekturen unter Verwendung der gängigen Korrekturzeichen
(DIN 16 511) gut les- und eindeutig zuordenbar am Rand der Fahnen an (möglichst mit rotem Fine-
liner, Bleistiftkorrekturen können nicht berücksichtigt werden!) und senden Sie uns dann bitte den
kompletten Ausdruck so rasch wie möglich wieder zurück.
Bitte beachten Sie, dass sich Korrekturen beim gegenwärtigen Stand der Verarbeitung nicht
mehr auf den Seitenumbruch auswirken dürfen, sich also auf kleinere Verbesserungen (Orthogra-
phie, Interpunktion usw.) beschränken müssen. Änderungen bzw. Überarbeitungen in Form größe-
rer Streichungen oder Ergänzungen sind nicht mehr möglich.
Die Seitenzahlen im Inhaltsverzeichnis sollten wegen des neuen Umbruchs auf Stimmigkeit über-
prüft werden.
Wenn während der Durchsicht Fragen auftauchen, wenden Sie sich bitte jederzeit an mich.
Könnten Sie mir bitte den Erhalt der Fahnen per Email (matthias.wies@ergon-verlag.de) kurz bes-
tätigen und mir evtl. schon sagen, bis wann etwa wir mit dem Rücklauf der Korrekturen rechnen kön-
nen?
Mit herzlichen Grüßen aus dem Ergon Verlag,
Matthias Wies
Herstellung
The Integrative Mode of Consciousness:
Evolutionary Origins of Ecstasy
Michael Winkelman
What is the origin of the “ecstatic” altered states of consciousness that are
experienced by people around the world? The world-wide distribution of
experiences such as the soul journey and possession indicates that they are
part of our human nature, while the cross-cultural differences in their mani-
festations indicate that they are strongly influences by social factors. This
paper outlines the biological nature of ASC related to the activities of the
autonomic nervous system and serotonergic system. The features of sero-
tonergic systems which modulate other neurotransmitter systems and con-
tribute to coordination of brain wave discharges across the neuraxis provide
a justification for the a reconceptualization of ecstasy as involving an inte-
grative mode of consciousness which reflects a systemic pattern of brain func-
tioning. An evolutionary perspective on the integrative mode of conscious-
ness is illustrated by an examination of the origins of a variety of capabili-
ties that induce these integrative states. These include activities and agents
that induce extreme variation in the functioning of autonomic nervous sys-
tem such as long-distance running, extreme trauma, fasting, psychedelic
drugs and meditation.
The Biological Bases of Ecstasy
Alterations of consciousness induced through such diverse means as fasting
and pain induction, sleep deprivation and ritualized sleep, drumming,
chanting, singing, dancing, sensory stimulation and deprivation, heat and
cold extremes, exhausting exercise and psychedelic and other drugs all pro-
duce similar effects in the brain: synchronized slow brain wave patterns
(Mandell 1980; also see Winkelman 2010 for updates and review). These are
typified in responses to drumming, psychedelics and meditation which
produce coordinated theta wave (3-6 cycles per second) discharges that
originate in the serotonergic circuitry linking the paleomammalian and the
reptilian brains (Mandel 1980; also see Winkelman 2000, 2010). These theta
wave patterns ascend in integrated brain wave discharges that synchronize
the frontal cortex with slow wave patterns.
A number of researchers (Fischer 1971, 1992;; Laughlin, McManus and
d’Aquili 1992; Winkelman 2000) have examined the causal dynamics of
ASC and the associated ecstatic experiences in terms of the relationships
MICHAEL WINKELMAN
66
between the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), the
sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The
paleomammalian brain, especially the hippocampal-septal system, regulates
these relationships. It is possible to induce experiences of ecstasy with ex-
treme stimulation of either division, as well as both divisions simultane-
ously. The common physiological effects of many rituals involve activation
of sympathetic nervous system to the point of exhaustion, collapse, and a
rebound in the parasympathetic nervous system. Other techniques for in-
ducing ASC such as meditation do so in ways that directly lead to a para-
sympathetic dominant condition with relaxed skeletal muscles and syn-
chronized cortical rhythms.
Laughlin, McManus, and d’Aquili (1992) review literature illustrating
how the different dynamics of activation of the autonomic nervous system
by the somatic nervous system and its ergotrophic and trophotropic divi-
sions, which encompass the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, re-
spectively. Extreme activation of the ergotropic or trophotropic system, or
their combined manifestations, are seen as producing a variety of recog-
nized mystical or psychic experiences. The extreme ergotropic activation
(“hyperergotropic tuning”) produces the ecstatic sense of endless energy,
the quintessential “flow experience,” that can result from extreme motor ac-
tivity such as long-distance running. Extreme trophotropic activation (“hy-
pertrophotropic tuning”) produces extraordinary relaxation and a sense of
peacefulness and “oceanic tranquility”. These two extremes may be com-
bined in other mystical experiences, such as the “active bliss experiences”
produced during hyperergotropic tuning with ergotrophic eruption; and
the orgasmic rapture and ecstatic rush, produced by trophotropic eruption
during hyperergotropic tuning. Any of these experiences may be perceived
as “ecstatic,” reflecting the powerful activation of basic the stimulatory
and/or relaxation features of the nervous system.
Ecstatic Consciousness and the Brain
Central to these ASC is the activation of the paleomammalian brain areas
that control the balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic di-
visions of the autonomic nervous system. These areas of the brain are key
to the production and management of emotional experiences, which add
an additional dimension to the qualities of the variant types of ecstatic ex-
perience. This area is also key to the elicitation of the serotonergic nervous
system and its integrating properties which are experienced in ASC.
Mandell (1980) suggested that the specific physiological mechanisms un-
derlying the regularities in ASC or “transcendent states” involve the tempo-
THE INTEGRATIVE MODE OF CONSCIOUSNESS 67
ral lobe limbic circuitry based in serotonergic pathways that extend from the
basal areas of the brain (raphe nucleus and reticular formation that regulates
the ascending flow of information and arousal) upwards to the septum and
hippocampus area of the paleomammalian brain. When activated, this cir-
cuitry produces slow wave hypersynchronous discharges across the hippo-
campal-septal-reticular-raphe circuit, which is manifested in powerful coher-
ent theta production that then ascends the neuraxis to synchronize the
hemispheres of the frontal cortex (Mandell 1980; also see Winkelman 2010).
That this hypersynchronous theta discharge pattern is basic to human
nature is illustrated by the wide variety of agents and procedures that can
induce this integrative mode of consciousness. These include activities such
as long distance running; auditory stimuli such as drumming, singing, and
chanting; extreme conditions such as sensory deprivation, hunger, thirst,
and lack of sleep; a variety of psychophysiological imbalances or sensitivi-
ties resulting from injury, trauma, disease or hereditarily transmitted nerv-
ous system liabilities; dream states and meditation; as well as exogenous
chemicals such as the psychedelic drugs and their analogs that we produce
in our own bodies (neurotransmitters and hormones). Mandell proposed
that all of these different agents and activitiesl have similar final effects on
serotonergic mechanisms that result in disinhibiting temporal lobes struc-
tures, producing synchronous brain wave discharges which release ecstatic
affectual and cognitive processes. The loss of inhibitory regulation by sero-
tonin results in a reduction in the “gating” or control of emotional re-
sponses. This loss of regulatory control combined with the hippocampal-
septal synchronous discharges results in experience of emotional flooding
that is central to altered states of consciousness. The many different agents
and activities that can produce this pattern indicate that it is a fundamental
aspect of human neurology and consciousness.
Dietrich (2003) proposes what appears to be a complementary model of
ASC as caused by a temporary deregulation of the prefrontal cortex. He re-
views psychological and neurological studies on the effects of endurance
running, dreaming, hypnosis, drug induced states, and meditation to illus-
trate their commonality in the disruption of the higher order functions as-
sociated with the prefrontal cortex. He emphasizes that the common effects
of this disruption are manifested in the loss of the roles of the frontal lobes
and prefrontal cortex involved in highly-integrated aspects of neural infor-
mation processing and higher cognitive functions. The different agents and
activities that lead to this deregulation (extensive exercise, food-deprivation,
induced dreaming, drugs, meditation) do so in distinct ways that give dif-
ferent religious experiences their unique phenomenological characteristics.
Underlying these difference, however, are significant commonalities in
MICHAEL WINKELMAN
68
stimulation of the balance in the autonomic nervous system and the activa-
tion of the paleomammalian brain structures that enables the dynamics of
these lower centers of the brain to dominate consciousness.
Integrative Mode of Consciousness
The functions of the hippocampal-septal system that leads to these effects il-
lustrates why these ASC conditions should be characterized as an integrative
mode of consciousness. The hippocampal-septal circuits that produce theta brain
wave activity receive the terminal projections from the somatic and auto-
nomic nervous systems, forming part of an extensive system of innervation
connecting areas of the brain, in particular, linking the frontal cortex with the
limbic system. The limbic system (the paleomammalian brain) is that part of
the brain where emotions are integrated with memories. The limbic cortex
receives all of the brain’s internal (interoceptive) and external (exteroceptive)
information, with the hippocampus, amygdala, and related structures serving
as the point of information convergence in route to the frontal cortex. The
hippocampal-septal system functions as an association area, and is directly
involved in the formation and mediation of memory and emotions and their
integration into behavior. The hippocampal-septal system plays a central role
in integrating novel sensory information and is central to learning, memory,
recall, memory processing, orienting, and attention.
Religious experiences have been characterized in terms of understanding,
enlightenment, integration, awareness, cosmic connection, and connected-
ness. I hypothesize that a neurophenomenological perspective helps to un-
derstand these experiences as reflecting the underlying psychophysiological
dynamics of the integrative mode of consciousness. Theseintegrative prin-
ciples directly reflect the theta wave dynamics of altered states. Religious
experiences are integrative, enlightening, and meaningful because they
stimulate the centers of the brain where information integration and a sense
of certainty about the truth of what we know are produced.
Origins of the Integrative Mode of Consciousness
If the ANS alone were sufficient for ecstatic and mystical experiences, they
would not be the uniquely human capacities that they appear to be. Spiri-
tual experience has been long regarded as a uniquely human capacity. If so,
there should be evolved capacities of humans that make this so.
What are the evolutionary sources of mystical experiences and other al-
tered states of consciousness?
The universality of these unusual experiences illustrate that they are by
necessity a part of the human nature. Specific evolutionary adaptation
THE INTEGRATIVE MODE OF CONSCIOUSNESS 69
made them possible for humans. These are specifically illustrated in the
characteristics of: extreme running and the runner’s high; physical trauma
and near-death experiences; effects of fasting and starvation; features of
dreams, particularly lucid dreams; and effects of natural substances such as
the psychedelic Psilocybe mushrooms.
Bipedalism and Mystical Experience: The Runner’s High
The path to one of the human line’s most unique features begins with up-
right posture, manifested in bipedal locomotive characteristics seen in Aus-
tralopithecus almost 4 million years ago. While full bipedalism and capaci-
ties of upright posture and running were not achieved until millions of
years later in a new genus, our own—Homo—we nonetheless have in these
ancient ancestors the roots of a new set of potentials that may underlie our
capacities for ecstatic experiences. A natural basis for inducing ASC and ec-
static experiences involves what is called endurance running, long-distance
running, and ultraruning (see Bramble and Lieberman, [2004]; Jones
[2005]; Noakes [1991]). The runner's high is associated with features typical
of mystical and ecstatic experiences such as: positive emotions such as hap-
piness, joy, and elation; a sense of inner peacefulness and harmony; a sense
of timelessness and cosmic unity and a connection of oneself with nature
and the Universe (Dietrich, 2003).
While humans are not considered as effective runners as many other
mammals, humans are remarkably effective at endurance running, a
uniquely human capability: The human capacity for long-distance running
emerged around 2 million years ago in the genus Homo and contributed to
human evolution (see Bramble and Lieberman, 2004). Although running
has generally been considered a by-product of the ability to walk, there are
several features of Homo that suggest there were specific adaptations over
walking that improved Homo's abilities for long-distance running, includ-
ing structural adaptation for weight distribution and impact, and thermo-
regulation and dissipation of the heat generated by intense activity. There
are a variety of adaptive advantages in predator-prey relationships and scav-
enging of carcasses that may have helped offset the higher costs of running
in unstable bipedal bodies (Bramble and Lieberman, 2004). Long-distance
running abilities undoubtedly have adaptive roles in the ability to escape
predators and provided structural changes that underlie another unique
human ability, that of dance.
The production of ecstatic experiences in running are illustrated in Jones’
(2005) ethnographic research which reveals that mystical experiences motivate
contemporary ultrarunners. These ultrarunners outdo standard 26 mile mara-
thon in feats that involve standard training runs of 30-50 miles as preparation
MICHAEL WINKELMAN
70
for a 100-mile event typically run in a 24-hour period. The motivation for
such extreme feats goes beyond the classic “runner's high” produced by long
running distance through the release of endorphins (see Noakes 1991). The
“runner's high” that results from the saturation of the sympathetic-ergotropic
system becomes habituated and lost in long-distance runners; this experience
is superseded by a more rare experience of the “zone.” This “ultrarunning”
experience is a mystical state referred to by d’Aquili and Newburg (2000) as
“Absolute Unitary Being” (AUB), associated with peacefulness, connection
with the ineffable aspects of the Universe, and an experience of energy and
flow. This experience, normally first encountered during a race or practice
run that went far beyond their ordinary endurance, produces a profound ex-
perience similar to what mystics have described-- a sense of peace, connec-
tion, feeling, and knowing that motivates the ultrarunner to continue to run
in order to re-experience this transformative phenomena (Jones 2005). These
ultraruning experiences produce life-changing encounters that keep partici-
pants motivated, seeking this sense of flow and a unitary connection with a
boundless energy of the Universe.
Why should mystical experiences be induced by running? Running in-
duces activation in many body systems, including extreme activation of the
sympathetic nervous system. Jones places the ultrarunning high in the con-
text of the extreme activation of the ANS and the consequential rebound
effects that have been known in physiological psychology since the
groundbreaking work of Pavlov (1927) early in the 20th century. Extensive
running or other physically or psychologically stressful conditions can lead
to a saturation or overload of the SNS and associated structures of the hy-
pothalamus and amygdala (particularly the left hemispheric). This can pro-
duce a “spillover” effect that leads to the simultaneous activation of the
PNS and the amygdala and hippocampus areas of the right hemisphere.
This results in the simultaneously activation of what are usually separate
functions and areas of the brain, saturating both sides of the brain respon-
sible for general orientation and attention, visual integration, emotional
processing, and expression of verbal-conceptual phenomena (Jones, p. 44).
This produces a general overload of both the sympathetic and parasympa-
thetic nervous systems and associated structures (hypothalamus, amygdala,
and hippocampus) leading to a cessation of the normal attention, emo-
tional processing, and comprehension. These complementary mechanisms
of the ANS were the basis of a general model of the features of altered
states of consciousness proposed by Sargent (1974). Vaitl et al. (2005) pro-
vide a more recent review and update of the rebound effects associated with
the exhaustive stimulation of the body through many different procedures
(drumming, dancing, singing, painful asuterities, fasting, sleeplessness and
emotional challenges). These extreme activations and overloading of the di-
THE INTEGRATIVE MODE OF CONSCIOUSNESS 71
visions of the ANS can produce a sense of ineffability and a disintegration
of the self, which is generally experienced as a condition of profound
peacefulness (Jones, p. 44). Prolonged running also forces a kind of medita-
tive breathing in the regular methodic inhalation and exhalation. Physical
stress activated by long-distance running provokes the release of the opioid,
adrenaline, and noradrenaline neurotransmitters, and elevated body tem-
peratures, oxygen depletion, and chemical and neuronal imbalances that
can create unusual states of awareness.
Trauma and Near-Death Experiences
Extreme physical trauma also produces a natural transformations of con-
sciousness are illustrated in the features of the widely studied near-death or
clinical death experiences (Greyson, 2000; Ring, 1981, 1986; Moody, 1975).
These involve circumstances where, according to clinical evidence, the per-
son is dead, but are eventually resuscitated and returned to life. They often
offer an incredible story of the death experience. This near-death experience
(NDE) generally involves a number of common features, including: a sense
of their soul separating from their body and moving upward; an observa-
tion of their physical body in a different location than their point of view;
a movement away into a hole, tunnel, and eventually another world; en-
countering a bright light, spiritual beings, and perhaps God and deceased
relatives and profoundly positive emotions, a joyous entry into the afterlife.
The person is, however, told to return it to the physical world where they
then re-enter their bodies and return to life. Alive again, they remained
convinced of the reality of their death experience, of the eternal immortal-
ity of their soul, and their eventual return to the afterlife.
In addition to these features, there are a variety of common mystical
themes that may occur in NDEs, including: ineffability, a sense of an in-
ability to explain the experience in words;
feelings of , positive affective features of peace, tranquility, calm, and
joy; a panoramic review of one's life and other dramatic visual images and
memories; an experience of being all-knowing or experiencing the realm of
Universal knowledge; a sense of hyper alertness or awareness;
a deep depersonalization, including a sense of complete separation from
the body; detachment and loss of emotion; a sense of cosmic unity; tran-
scendence of the physical world and an engagement with supernatural reali-
ties and an experience of a void, nothingness, a realm of total non-existence.
These NDE also tend to have profound effects on the persons day to day
dispositions and interactions with others. NDE typically have profound and
beneficial psychological impact on the person, transforming their personal-
MICHAEL WINKELMAN
72
ity to one with an increased concern with spirituality. They often manifest
dramatic increases in selfless behaviors, focusing on the importance of per-
sonal relationships, helping others, and experiencing a profound engage-
ment with spirituality and the afterlife. They almost await death, but engage
vigorously with life in overcoming challenges and exhibiting a spiritual pur-
pose in their compassionate behavior towards others (Greyson).
NDEs are not merely a product of the ability of modern medicine to
bring people back from the brink of death. The NDE was a well-described
clinical phenomena in the 19th century, provided by people who had re-
covered from drowning, accidents, war wounds, and other traumas. The in-
herent nature of NDEs is reflected in reports from a large percentage of
contemporary people who nearly die; there are reported by about half of all
children who survived potentially fatal illness (Greyson, 2000). While the
severity of the health crisis may contribute to evoking these experiences,
they can also be provoked by a fear of death rather than the actual physical
threat or debilitation, being reported by individuals without trauma or or-
ganic brain malfunctions (Greyson, 2000).
Mystical experiences may also be induced by deliberate wounding of the
body. Kroll and Backrach (2005) note that self wounding, a frequent activity
in heroic asceticism, can be understood it in the broader context of its ef-
fects in eliciting healing and care responses from others. Ritual activities that
induce the release of endogenous opiates-- including self-mutilation and
other painful experiences, including emotions- -have intrinsically rewarding
properties. They not only reduce the firing of pain networks, leading to a re-
duction in pain experiences, but the neurohormones released also directly
stimulate areas of the paleomammalian brain involved in reward functions
and pleasure. Although the reward pathways are separate from the pain
pathways, they utilize the same opiate peptides as neurotransmitters, ena-
bling stimulation in one area (pain) to produce rewards in another (pleasure
and bonding). The occurrence of the NDE experiences is natural, a part of
our biology, and a response of the organism to threats to its well-being.
Sincethe NDE have been reported across cultures and time, they provide an
important point of reference for investigation of the biological bases of ec-
stasy, as well as understanding as well as other ASC such as those associated
with shamanism, mysticism and drug-induced altered states of conscious-
ness, since they often incorporatee many of the central features of NDEs.
Fasting and Starvation as a Natural Inducer of ASC
This same pattern of experience is illustrated in other natural sources of
mystical ASC, those associated with fasting (see fessler 2002). The mystical
traditions are well-known for inducing ASC through the reduction of nutri-
THE INTEGRATIVE MODE OF CONSCIOUSNESS 73
tion (fasting), activities such as self mortification-- intentionally inducing
pains and wounding-- as well as using pain and prayers to prolong sleep-
lessness. All three of these mystical activities--fasting, pain, and sleep depri-
vation-- are also natural consequences of physical trauma, food scarcity, and
needs for prolonged vigilance in the interest of survival. They also have
physiological effects with direct consequences for the induction of ASC.
Winkelman (2010) reviews research that shows how fasting and nutritional
restrictions increase slow wave brain discharges through indirect effects on
the hypothalamus and hippocampal-septal system. These physiological ef-
fects are independent of culture expectation, as illustrated in the worldwide
use of such activities for inducing a spiritual consciousness. Activities ritu-
ally used to induce ASC such as fasting, pain, and sleep deprivation all oc-
cur as natural consequences of human adaptation, and likely induced simi-
lar ASC when occurring naturally.
In addition to the studies of fasting in the context of inducing mystical
traditions, Fessler (2002) reviews a variety of studies that illustrate the ef-
fects of semi-starvation in producing ASC, neurotic and hysterical features,
dissociation, and hypochondria, a paranoid belief that one is ill. Other as-
sociated features of extreme food reductions include auditory hallucina-
tions, paranoia, and megalomania.
Fessler (2002) suggests that evolutionary perspectives can help us under-
stand the occasional human propensity towards voluntary restriction of
diet. Fessler proposes that severe dietary constriction results in an adaptive
reduction of serotonin activity in order to promote increased risk-taking
that could have the effect of improving current circumstances and future
survival. Reduced serotonin levels, which are associated with anorexia ner-
vosa, obsessive compulsive disorder, and self mutilation, result in enhanced
impulsivity. Food deprivation has established effects in producing deper-
sonalization experiences as well as dissociation, and such nutritional restric-
tion may cause sleep disruption due to reduced levels of melatonin precur-
sors and serotonin levels and serotonin synthesis (Fessler 2002). These dis-
ruptions can produce the visionary experiences associated with mystical
and shamanistic ASC.
Psychoactive Substances and the Integrative Mode of Consciousness
A wide variety of drugs induce ecstatic ASC. While they differ in specific
effects, many natural psychoactive substances share commonalities in in-
ducing a slowing and enhanced coherence of the brain waves.. Dietrich
(2003) notes drugs share commonalities with other techniques for inducing
ASC in hypofrontality, a change of the control by the frontal brain.
MICHAEL WINKELMAN
74
Psychoactive substances can also produce a number of typical features of
mystical experiences such as: experiences of timelessness; distortions in the
experience of the self; limited cognitive flexibility; a reduction of attention
and working memory; detachment from reality; and a separation of some
aspect of the self from the body.
The ability of drugs to induce mystical states, however, is primarily asso-
ciated with a category referred to as hallucinogens, psychedelics, entheo-
gens, and psychointegrators. There are thousands of plants, fungi, and ani-
mals that can have psychoactive effects on humans. As our foraging ances-
tors explored the possible food items in their environments, they would
have occasionally encountered these substances, particularly mushrooms.
Hundreds of cultures have been recorded in which a wide variety of psy-
choactive substances are used in religions, particularly shamanistic tradi-
tions (See Schultes and Hofmann, 1979; Ratsch, 2005). The religious impli-
cations of these substances are clearly noted by some of the names they
have been given: “voices of the Gods,” “plants of the Gods,” “saintly chil-
dren,” “flesh of the Gods”, and “plant teachers”.
The objective ability of the psychedelics to induce mystical and spiritual
experiences is attested to not only by cultural traditions around the world,
but also by carefully controlled clinical studies. Since the famous “Good Fri-
day” experiment by Pankhe, there has been good clinical evidence as well. In
this classic experiment, seminary students at Harvard Divinity School took
psilocybin or a placebo control. Most of the seminary students who received
psilocybin had the most profound spiritual experiences of their lives, and
remained convinced even decades later that it was the most profound spiri-
tual experience of their very religious lives. This ability of the chemical sub-
strate to produce spiritual experiences was recently confirmed in a replication
study carried out at John Hopkins University and published in the prestig-
ious journal Psychopharmacology (Griffiths et al. 2006). A carefully-designed
double blind study with hallucinogen-naïve participants showed that psilo-
cybin has the ability to induce mystical experiences, as measured by a formal
assessment of mystical experiences (Hood et al., 2001). Their study showed
that those taking psilocybin had spiritual and mystical experiences that in-
duced effects on participants' attitudes, moods, and their own experience of
spirituality that persisted for months. Of the 36 participants receiving psilo-
cybin, 22 of them had a complete mystical experience, a phenomena almost
completely lacking in the methylphenidate control group (only 4 of 36),
which received a non-psychedelic psychoactive drug and laid in the dark for
eight hours. Two-thirds of the psilocybin group rated the experience to be
among the most meaningful and spiritual experiences of their entire life, with
one-third of the total psilocybin group considering the experience to be the
single most significant spiritual experience of their life.
THE INTEGRATIVE MODE OF CONSCIOUSNESS 75
Objective third party observers noted substantial changes in participants’
behavior and attitudes in the weeks following the administration of psilo-
cybin. The comparison with the controls who blindly ingesting a psychoac-
tive control substance (methylphenidate) showed psilocybin-ingesters had a
significantly higher ratings on the scales used to assess mysticism and al-
tered states of consciousness, including introvertive mysticism, extrovertive
mysticism, internal and external unity, sacredness, intuitive knowledge,
transcendence of time and space, ineffability, positive mood, experiences of
oceanic boundlessness and visionary structuralization. There were also
higher levels of fear of ego dissolution and other dysphoric moods during
the psilocybin episode. There was not, however, a higher level of euphoria
for the psilocybin group, pointing to the distinct neural mechanisms in-
volved in these opioid-related experiences of euphoria. Nor were there any
increases in negative attitudes, moods, or anti social behaviors. Instead, the
psilocybin participants showed significantly higher levels of peace, har-
mony, joy, and intense happiness. In addition, there were persisting effects
noted on the participants' lives for the psilocybin groups, including an en-
hanced positive attitude about life and themselves, accompanied by a posi-
tive mood changes and positive out altruistic social behaviors.
These kinds of effects illustrate that psilocybin-induced mystical experi-
ences are not primarily the effect of context and expectations, but, rather,
something intrinsic to the biological properties of the substances and the
human brain. The endogenous basis of the psychedelic experience is re-
flected in the variety of non-drug mechanisms that induce the same kind of
experiences.
Neurotransmitter Bases of Psychedelic Effects
The major naturally occurring psychedelics (such as the peyote cactus, psilo-
cybin mushrooms, and ayahuasca) contain phenylalkylamine and indole al-
kaloids similar in chemical structure to the neural transmitter serotonin, and
effect consciousness through their interaction with serotonergic receptors.
Although the psychedelics are characterized by a number of different chemi-
cal structures and modes of action, they produce a number of common
physiological effects through their effects on the serotonergic neurotransmit-
ter system. Most research suggests that the principal effects of LSD-like sub-
stances results from action on 5-HT2A receptors, where they act as partial
agonists (Nichols 2004; Passie et al. 2008). The role of serotonin as a “neu-
romodulator,” the structural similarity of psychedelics and serotonin, and
the specific effects of the psychedelics on serotonergic transmission provide
a basis for their re-characterizations as “psychointegrators” (Winkelman
2002, 2007, 2010). This concept of psychointegrators is also a reason why
MICHAEL WINKELMAN
76
these ASC involve an aspect of the integrative mode of consciousness. They
induce the theta wave discharge pattern across the neuraxis of the brain. This
psychointegrative effect is manifested physiologically in the typical effects
on brain waves produced by these substances, the stimulation of coherent
theta wave synchronization along the neuraxis, the nerve bundle linking the
structural levels of the brain.
This involves an enhancement of consciousness provoked by increasing
the integrative information -processing, achieved by activation of the sero-
tonergic circuitry between the lower structures of the brain. Vollenweider’s
(1998; Vollenweider and Geyer 2001) research indicates that it is the cor-
tico-striato-thalamo-cortical networks of the brain which are affected by the
psychedelics, disrupting gatekeeping or filtering functions which normally
limit the ascending flow of information in the brain. Psychointegrators con-
sequently enhance the integration of information in the brain, an effect
enhanced by by stimulating areas central to managing processes related
emotions and memory. The effects are manifested psychologically in the
experiences of healing, wholeness, interconnectedness, cosmic conscious-
ness and other transpersonal experiences which these substances regularly
produce. Psychointegrative effects derive from the disinhibition of emo-
tional and social processes and the stimulation of systemic integration of
brain functions, particularly the integration of limbic system emotional
processes with the neocortical processes. These effects on the cortico-
striato-thalamo-cortical networks reported by Vollenweider illustrate that
the psychointegrators couple social-emotional dynamics with rational proc-
esses and functionally integrate different systems of the brain. These drug-
induced alterations of consciousness are a quintessential spiritual experi-
ence of “ecstasy”, providing a neurological basis for the role of chemical
agents as sources of spiritual experience and personal transformations.
The world-wide association of psychedelics with the origins of religious
traditions and the ability of these substances to produce profound spiritual
experiences gives strong support to the hypotheses that religious traditions
may have arisen because of the profound effects of these plants on con-
sciousness. The original spiritual experiences and the impulses underlying
shamanism may have been provoked by these substances that were ingested
in plants and fungi encountered in foraging activities.
Meditation as Integrative Consciousness
Meditative traditions are also associated with ecstatic ASC, often expressed
in terms of bliss. These experience also reflect an underlying physiological
processes associated with the integrative mode of consciousness. While dif-
THE INTEGRATIVE MODE OF CONSCIOUSNESS 77
ferent meditative disciplines may produce different psychophysiological re-
sponses (e.g., see Kasamatsu and Hirai 1966; Anand, China, and Singh
1961), there nonetheless appears to be physiological similarities across disci-
plines. These are manifested in: a shift toward parasympathetic dominance
(e.g., reductions in cortical arousal, in muscle tension, in skin conductance,
in cardiac function, and in respiration rate); an overall decrease in frequency
of the brain wave pattern to alpha and theta ranges; and an increase in alpha
and theta amplitude and regularity in the frontal and central regions of the
brain (Davidson 1976; Kasamatsu and Hirai 1966; Gellhorn and Kiely 1972;
Taylor, Murphy, and Donovan 1997; Wallace and Benson 1972).
This early evidence of commonalities in the effects of meditation involv-
ing a key element of the integrative mode of consciousness-- an increase in
slow-wave brain patterns—continues to be confirmed. The typical changes
in brain waves associated with meditation involve an increase in alpha
waves, which then decrease in frequency toward dominant theta rhythms.
Takahashi et al. (2005) reported that meditation produced significant in-
creases in fast theta power and slow alpha power. Cahn and Polich (2006)
provided a review of a studies illustrating enhanced alpha and theta during
meditation, as well as increased EEG coherence (the cross-correlation in the
power of a frequency band across different cortical areas). EEG measures
show that the overall levels of theta and alpha activation reflected profi-
ciency in meditation practice. The alpha enhancement involves both trait
and state EEG measures, including alpha slowing that is interpreted as evi-
dence of enhanced theta activity and power.
These alpha and theta EEG features of meditation are confirmed are
supplemented by more recent research that also implicates an additional
level of meditation-induced EEG: biphasic hypersynchronous high-
frequency gamma waves (35–44cps; see Lehmann et al. [2001]; Lutz et al.
[2004], Vialatte et al. [2008]). The presence of gamma is very significant for
the model of the IMC because gamma is associated with binding of diverse
signals within the brain and is associated with the same principle as integra-
tion, manifested in its roles in binding activities from diverse areas of the
brain. These gamma findings expand the theta-wave psychointegration
model of the IMC. “The strength of gamma-band synchronization is
modulated with the phase of lower-frequency rhythms, particularly the
theta rhythm . . . and the alpha rhythm” (Fries 2009, 217). Hebert et al
(2005) implicated alpha EEG during meditation as a form of “information
transfer and integration in the brain that leads to high-level cognitive proc-
esses.” They proposed that the enhanced alpha frequency phase synchrony
that occurs during meditation may have effects of improving functional in-
tegration of the brain. These are the same basic systemic physiological
MICHAEL WINKELMAN
78
changes associated with the IMC—a parasympathetic dominant state with
enhanced theta brain waves and systemic neural integration.
The physiological findings of increased interhemispheric synchroniza-
tion, a greater coherence or integration across cortical areas are consistent
with what the contemplative disciplines themselves consider to be the con-
sequences of meditation on the functioning of the human mind and con-
sciousness. These neurophenomenological correspondences illustrate the
importance of seeking the concordance between physical and phenome-
nological data in understanding ecstatic ASC.
Conclusions
These ancient shamanic practices of inducing ecstatic alterations of con-
sciousness are still with us today in a myriad of forms. These include the re-
surgence of shamanic practices in the modern world and abroad, as well as
the increasing levels of addiction as humans seek the transcendent—and
ANS stimulating- experiences via chemicals. We still find the ecstatic states
erupting in marathon runners, in meditators, and spontaneously in the
stressed and marginalized. These experiences are part of human nature. I
suggest we attempt to understand them not just as by-products of our nerv-
ous system, but as adaptations that produced an integration of conscious-
ness, a system that integrated the human brain physically, emotionally, psy-
chologically, and intellectually.
Literatur
Anand B, China G, Singh B (1961): Some aspects of electroencephalo-
graphic studies in yogis Electroencephalography and Clinical Neuro-
physiology 13: 452-456
Bramble DM, Lieberman DE (2004): Endurance running and the evolution
of homo. Nature 432: 345–52
Cahn B, Polich J (2006): Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP and neuro-
imaging. Psychological Bulletin 132: 180-211
d’Aquili, E, Newberg A (1999): The mystical mind. Minneapolis, MN
Davidson, J (1976): The physiology of meditation and mystical states of con-
sciousness. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine (Spring): 345-379
Dietrich, A (2003): Functional neuroanatomy of altered states of con-
sciousness: The transient hypofrontality hypothesis. Consciousness and
Cognition 12: 231-256
Fessler D (2002): Starvation, serotonin, and symbolism: A psychobiocul-
tural perspective on stigmata. Mind and Society 3: 81–96
THE INTEGRATIVE MODE OF CONSCIOUSNESS 79
Fischer R (1971): A cartography of ecstatic and meditative states. Science
174: 897-904
Fischer, R (1972): On creative, psychotic and ecstatic states. In: White J
(ed.): The highest state of consciousness. New York, pp. 175-194
Fischer R (1976): Transformations of consciousness II: The perception-
meditation continuum Confinia Psychiatrica 19: 1-23
Fries P (2009): Neuronal gamma-band synchronization as a fundamental
process in cortical computation. Annual Review of Neuroscience 32:
209-224
Gellhorn E, Kiely W (1972): Mystical states of consciousness: Neurophysi-
ological and clinical aspects. J Nervous and Mental Disease 154: 399–405
Greyson B (2000): Near-death experiences. In: Cardena E, Lynn SJ, Kripp-
ner S (eds.): Varieties of anomalous experience. Washington, pp. 315–352
Griffiths RR, Richards WA, McCann U, Jesse R (2006): Psilocybin can oc-
casion mystical-type experiences having substantial, sustained personal
meaning and spiritual significance. Psychopharmacology 187: 268–83
Hebert R, Lehmann D, Tan G, Travis F, Arenander A (2005): Enhanced
EEG alpha-time domain phase synchrony during transcendental medita-
tion: Implications for cortical integration theory. Signal Processing 85:
2213–2232
Hood RW, Ghorbani N, Watson PJ, Ghramaleki AF, Bing MN et al. (2001):
Dimensions of the mysticism scale: confirming the three-factor structure
in the United States and Iran. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion
40: 691–705
Jones P (2005): Ultrarunners and chance encounters with “absolute unitary
being”. Anthropology of Consciousness 15(2): 39–50
Kasamatsu A, Hirai T (1966): An electroencephalographic study on the Zen
meditation. Folia Psychiatrica Neurologica Japonica 20: 315–36
Kroll J, Bachrach (2005): The Mystic Mind. New York, London
Laughlin CJ, McManus, d’Aquili E (1992): Brain, symbol, and experience:
toward a neurophenomenology of consciousness. New York
Lehmann D, Faber P, Achermann P, Jeanmonod D, Gianotti L Pissagalli D
(2001): EEG brain sources of EEG gamma frequency during volitionally
meditation-induced, altered states of consciousness, and experience of
the self. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 108: 111-121
Lutz A, Greischar L, Rawlings N, Richard M, Davidson R (2004): Long-
term meditators self-induced high-amplitude gamma synchronization
during mental practice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci-
ences 101: 16369-16373
Mandell A (1980): Toward a psychobiology of transcendence: God in the
brain In: Davidson D, Davidson R (eds): The psychobiology of con-
sciousness. New York, pp. 379-464
MICHAEL WINKELMAN
80
Moody R (1975): Life after life. Atlanta
Nichols DE, Garcia, Sanders-Bush E (2003): Frontal cortex gene expression
following lysergic acid diethylamide administration. Molecular Brain Re-
search 111:182–8
Nichols D (2004): Hallucinogens. Pharmacology and Therapeutics 101:
131–81
Noakes T (1991): Lore of running: Discover the science and spirit of run-
ning. Champaign, Ill
Passie T, Halpern JH, Stichtenoth D, Emrich HM, Hintzen A (2008): The
pharmacology of lysergic acid diethylamide: a review. CNS Neurosci-
ence Therapeutics 14: 295–314
Pavlov IP (1927): Conditioned reflexes: an investigation of the physiologi-
cal activity of the cerebral cortex. London
Rätsch C (2005): The encyclopedia of psychoactive plants. Rochester, VT
Ring K (1981): Life at death. New York
Ring K (1986): Heading toward omega. New York
Sargant W (1974): The mind possessed Philadelphia: Lippincott
Schultes E, Hofmann A (1979): Plants of the gods. New York
Takahashi T, Murata T, Hamada T, Omori M, Kosaka H, Kikuchi M, Yo-
shida H, Wada Y (2005): Changes in EEG and autonomic nervous sys-
tem activity during meditation and their association with personality
traits. International Journal of Psychophysiology 55: 199–207
Taylor E, Murphy M, Donovan S (1997): The physical and psychological
effects of meditation: A review of contemporary research with a compre-
hensive bibliography: 1931–1996. Sausalito, CA
Vaitl D, Birbaumer N, Gruzelier J, Jamieson GA, Kotchoubey B, Kübler A,
Lehmann D, WH Miltner WH, Ott U, Pütz P, Sammer G, Strauch I,
Strehl U, Wackermann J,Weiss T (2005): Psychobiology of altered states
of consciousness. Psychological Bulletin 131: 98–127
Vialatte F, Bakardjian H, Prasad R, Cichocki A (2009): EEG paroxysmal
gamma waves during Bhramari Pranayama: A yoga breathing technique.
Consciousness and Cognition 18: 977-988
Vollenweider F (1998): Recent advances and concepts in the search for bio-
logical correlates of hallucinogen-induced altered states of consciousness.
Heffter Review of Psychedelic Research 1: 21–32
Vollenweider F, Geyer M (2001): A systems model of altered consciousness:
Integrating natural and drug psychoses. Brain Research Bulletin 56: 495-
507
Wallace R, Benson H (1972): The physiology of meditation. Scientific
American 226: 84–90
Winkelman M (2000): Shamanism: the neural ecology of consciousness
and healing. Westport, CT
THE INTEGRATIVE MODE OF CONSCIOUSNESS 81
Winkelman M (2001): Psychointegrators: Multidisciplinary perspectives on
the therapeutic effects of hallucinogens. Complementary Health Practice
Review 6: 219–37
Winkelman M (2007): Therapeutic bases of psychedelic medicines: psycho-
integrative effects. In: Winkelman M, Roberts TB (eds.): Psychedelic
medicine. Vol 1. Westport, CT, pp. 1-20
Winkelman, M (2010) Shamanism: A biopsychosocial paradigm of con-
sciousness and healing Santa Barbara, CA
MICHAEL WINKELMAN
82
vacat
