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Why people stay single: An evolutionary perspective
Abstract
People do not always look for mates, and frequently choose to stay single, at least for some time. This study puts forward an evolutionary framework in which people prefer to stay single because doing so either increases their future mating success or because they have traits which prevent them from being able to attract a mate. The study aims further to identify the specific reasons that drive people to stay single, to classify them in broader reason categories and to investigate their contingencies. Accordingly, by using a combination of qualitative research methods, Study 1 finds 76 different reasons. By using a sample of 1096 participants, Study 2 applied first order principal components analysis and classified these reasons to 16 reason factors. By using second order principal components analysis, it classified these 16 reason factors to three reason domains. Finally, it was found that sex, age and personality significantly predict the reasons that drive individuals to stay single.
... Singlehood refers to a state of being unmarried or not involved in a romantic relationship [24,25] and has been assumed to be an attitude and expression of choice to stay single [1]. Apostolou [26] has discussed individuals' singlehood decisions using the fitness-increasing strategy. Individuals are willing to stay single and invest in themselves for their improvement, thus becoming more attractive and having better qualities in attaining better mates in the future mating market. ...
... First, individuals who follow the lying flatism perspective prefer lives with minimum spending [11]. To achieve that goal, they avoid having romantic relationships, marriage, and children [11,21] which will cost them some resources like time and money [26]. In other words, staying single helps lying flatists to control their finance [43] by reducing expenses (i.e., retaining more resources for themselves) and living a minimum-spending lifestyle. ...
... Second, as reviewed above, staying single allows people to enjoy benefits such as having more freedom and a less financial burden [43]. Some young adults have different life priorities [26]; they are not interested in getting romantic partners because they can accomplish well-being (e.g., a sense of achievement) by focusing on their career paths [41]. ...
Background
Lying flatism, a new emerging lifestyle by refusing to participate in consumerist lifestyles, is anticipated to be related to singlehood. Based on the Theory of Reasoned Action, we proposed a mediation model to examine the indirect relationship between feelings towards lying flatism and attitudes toward singlehood via individuals’ belief in that happiness can be achieved without romantic relationships (happiness belief).
Methods
Using purposive and snowball sampling methods, 232 single Malaysian young adults participated in an online experiment consisting of a writing task (to manipulate feelings toward lying flatism), single-item measures of manipulation checking and happiness belief, Attitudes toward Singlehood Scale, Negative Stereotyping of Single Persons Scale (a measure of singlism) and Fear of Being Single Scale.
Results
T-Test results support the writing task that successfully induced positive feelings toward lying flatism. Mediation analysis showed that the feelings toward lying flatism measured before the writing task, but not the manipulation of lying flatism, has an indirect relationship with attitudes toward singlehood via happiness belief, after controlling for gender, singlism, and fear of being single.
Conclusions
The findings offer preliminary support to the hypothetical relationships among feelings towards lying flatism, happiness belief, and attitudes toward singlehood. Implications of the findings are discussed.
... Similarly, as they would face difficulties in attracting mates, they would experience longer spells of singlehood. Consistent with this hypothesis, qualitative and mixed methods studies have found that several participants indicated sexual difficulties as reasons for being single (Apostolou, 2017(Apostolou, , 2019Apostolou et al., 2021). The current study aimed to test directly the hypothesis that poorer sexual functioning is associated with higher probability to be involuntarily single than in an intimate relationship, and spending more years being single. ...
... Overall, it is hypothesized that higher BMI would be associated with increased likelihood to be involuntarily single. Consistent with this hypothesis, when asked why they were single, people frequently pointed toward their excessive weight (Apostolou, 2017(Apostolou, , 2019Apostolou et al., 2021). The current study aimed to test the hypothesis that higher BMI would be associated with increased probability to be involuntarily single than in an intimate relationship, as well as spending more years being single. ...
... Furthermore, being a single parent may result in having to devote considerable resources in raising one's children, leaving little to be allocated in attracting mates, which in turn, would increase the probability to be involuntarily single. In accordance with these arguments, in one study several singles indicated that having children from previous relationships constrained them from forming a new one (Apostolou, 2017). The current study aimed to test the hypothesis that people who have children from previous relationships are more likely to be involuntarily single than in an intimate relationship than people who do not, as well as to spend more years being single. ...
Singlehood that is, not having an intimate partner, constitutes a common state in contemporary post-industrial societies. The current research aimed to identify some of the factors that make people more likely to be involuntarily single, meaning that they want to be in an intimate relationship but they face difficulties in attracting a partner. More specifically, we investigated the effects of sexual functioning, BMI (Body Mass Index), and having children from previous relationships on singlehood status. Using a sample of 1,188 Greek-speaking participants, we found that poorer sexual functioning was associated with higher probability to be involuntarily single than in an intimate relationship, and more years spent as single. Higher BMI did not predict relationship status, but for women, it was associated with more years being single. We also found that, men who had children from previous relationships, were more likely to be in an intimate relationship than involuntarily single.
... Difficulties dealing with the challenges of mating are associated with an increased likelihood of being involuntarily single, that is, not being in an intimate relationship although one wishes to be so (Apostolou & Wang, 2019). People may also choose to be single to work on developing their strengths or become temporarily single when their relationship ends (Apostolou, 2017). Although singlehood appears to be a common state in contemporary societies, there is surprising little research in the area. ...
... Successful participation in the labor force is associated with the capacity to provide resources to one's family, which, in turn, is highly valued in the mating market (Buss, 2016). Accordingly, it has been argued that staying single for some time could be beneficial for people, as it allows them to focus on developing their strengths that, in turn, would enable them to attract better value mates at a future time (Apostolou, 2017). Thus, another reason why voluntary singlehood is predicted to be common in post-industrial societies is that people would opt out of the mating market to divert the bulk of their resources to advancing their studies and careers. ...
... However, as discussed above, the effect of age on mating performance was small. Moreover, it has been argued that staying single for a period of time could be beneficial, as it could enable people to build their strengths and subsequently re-enter the mating market with a better chance of success (Apostolou, 2017). Doing so would be more beneficial when young, as they have yet to develop their strengths. ...
Adult individuals frequently face difficulties in attracting and keeping mates, which is an important driver of singlehood. In the current research, we investigated the mating performance (i.e., how well people do in attracting and retaining intimate partners) and singlehood status in 14 different countries, namely Austria, Brazil, China, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Peru, Poland, Russia, Spain, Turkey, the UK, and Ukraine ( N = 7,181). We found that poor mating performance was in high occurrence, with about one in four participants scoring low in this dimension, and more than 57% facing difficulties in starting and/or keeping a relationship. Men and women did not differ in their mating performance scores, but there was a small yet significant effect of age, with older participants indicating higher mating performance. Moreover, nearly 13% of the participants indicated that they were involuntarily single, which accounted for about one-third of the singles in the sample. In addition, more than 15% of the participants indicated that they were voluntarily single, and 10% were between-relationships single. We also found that poor mating performance was associated with an increased likelihood of voluntary, involuntary, and between-relationships singlehood. All types of singlehood were in higher occurrence in younger participants. Although there was some cross-cultural variation, the results were generally consistent across samples.
... Following this reasoning, we would expect that most people would prefer to be in an intimate relationship. Yet, a long-term mating strategy may involve staying single for a period of time (Apostolou, 2017). In addition, sexual strategies theory suggests that humans have evolved a plethora of mating strategies, not all of which involve long-term mating (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). ...
... Doing so requires considerable resources such as time and money. Accordingly, it has been proposed that, in terms of reproductive success, it would pay for individuals to opt out from the mating market, and divert the bulk of their resources to developing their qualities and, at a later time, to reenter the mating market with better chances of attracting high-quality mates (Apostolou, 2017). Consistent with this argument, one common reason that people give for being single is to be able to focus on their careers (Apostolou, 2017;Apostolou et al., 2021). ...
... Accordingly, it has been proposed that, in terms of reproductive success, it would pay for individuals to opt out from the mating market, and divert the bulk of their resources to developing their qualities and, at a later time, to reenter the mating market with better chances of attracting high-quality mates (Apostolou, 2017). Consistent with this argument, one common reason that people give for being single is to be able to focus on their careers (Apostolou, 2017;Apostolou et al., 2021). ...
Many people do not have an intimate partner, one reason being that they prefer to be single. The current research aimed to address the question what makes single life appealing, that is, to identify the possible advantages of being single. More specifically, Study 1 employed open-ended questionnaires on a sample of 269 Greek-speaking participants, and identified 84 such advantages. By using quantitative research methods on a sample of 612 Greek-speaking participants, Study 2 classified these advantages into 10 broader categories. The “More time for myself,” followed by the “Focus on my goals,” and the “No one dictates my actions,” were rated as the most important. Men found the “Freedom to flirt around” more important than women, while women found the Focus on my goals and the “No tensions and fights” more important than men. In addition, younger participants rated the Focus on my goals as more important than older ones. Furthermore, low scorers in mating performance found the identified advantages more important than high scorers.
... Nevertheless, studies on singlehood did not distinguish between those who are voluntarily single and those who preferred to be single or were between relationships. One reasons for being single, is difficulties in attracting and retaining mates (Apostolou, 2017). Another reason is that people choose not to be in an intimate relationship (DePaulo & Morris, 2005). ...
... However, casual mating is also beneficial. More specifically, by engaging in casual relationships, individuals can obtain material (e.g., gifts) and non-material (e.g., favors) benefits from multiple mates (Buss & Schmitt, 1993;Greiling & Buss, 2000), gain relationship experience that would enable them to attract and retain long-term mates at a future time (Apostolou, 2017), and men to increase their reproductive success by having children with different women (Buss, 2000). Such benefits have favored the evolution of a short-term mating strategy, where individuals engage in casual relationships, without an interest in committing or investing in children that may come out of them (Buss, 2000;Buss & Schmitt, 1993). ...
... It has been argued that people are likely to opt out from the mating market in order to work on their strengths and advance their studies and careers (Apostolou, 2017). More specifically, the capacity to provide resources, is a trait which is highly valued in a prospective mate (Buss, 2016). ...
Although most people look for and eventually find long-term mates, many opt out from the mating market, preferring to be single instead. The current research aimed to identify some of the factors which are likely to be associated with increased likelihood to be voluntarily single. More specifically, we examined the effects of sociosexuality, Dark Triad, and career focus on relationships status. Our results indicated that men and women who tended toward unrestricted sociosexuality and who scored higher in the Dark Triad, were more likely to prefer to be single than in an intimate relationship. We also found a three-way interaction between career focus, sex and age. In particular, higher career focus was associated with higher probability to be voluntarily single than in an intimate relationship, among younger than older women. The implications of these findings for understanding singlehood were further discussed.
... Singlehood has become an important topic in contemporary psychology, attracting researchers (eg. Adamczyk, 2017;Apostolou, 2017;DePaulo, 2006;DePaulo andMorris, 2005, 2006;Kislev, 2020;Ochnik and Mandal, 2016) in various countries. Today, more men and women are experiencing a phase of singlehood with demographic trends such as the delay in marriage age, and the increase in divorce and separation (Bergström, Courtel and Vivier, 2019;Simpson, 2016). ...
... At the first stage of the development process for the Attitudes Toward Singlehood Scale (ATSS), an item pool of 35 statements covering attitudes toward singlehood was prepared as a result of the literature review on "singlehood and beliefs regarding singlehood" (Apostolou, 2017;Darrington et al., 2005;DePaulo and Morris, 2005;Pignotti and Abell, 2009;Spielmann et al. 2013;Whatley, 2014). Three faculty members' opinions about the statements in the item pool were received, whose expertise are in Psychological Counselling and Guidance. ...
... Bekârlık çağdaş psikolojide, çeşitli ülkelerde araştırmacıların ilgisini çeken önemli bir konu haline gelmiştir (örn. Adamczyk, 2017;Apostolou, 2017;DePaulo, 2006;DePaulo andMorris, 2005, 2006;Kislev, 2020;Ochnik ve Mandal, 2016). Evlilik yaşında gecikme, boşanma ve ayrılıkta artış gibi demografik eğilimlerle birlikte günümüzde daha fazla erkek ve kadın bekârlık dönemi yaşamaktadır (Bergström, Courtel ve Vivier, 2019;Simpson, 2016). ...
The aim of this research is to develop a scale that aims to determine the attitudes of single individuals towards singlehood. This study was conducted with 675 single individuals over the age of 18. Data is collected from two groups in this scale development process. Exploratory Factor Analysis was performed on the data collected from 351 single individuals in the first study group. The second research group consists of 324 singles who were reached for Confirmatory Factor Analysis. As a result of the factor analysis conducted to determine the construct validity of the scale, a two-factor structure was obtained. These two factors, which are called "reasons for preferring singlehood" and "feelings about singlehood" explain 53.41% of the total variance. Values for item factor load change between .52 and. 88. The results of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis showed that this two-factor model was validated. The Cronbanch’ alpha internal consistency coefficient of the scale was calculated as 93. Item-total test correlations range between .41 and .75. The Attitude Towards Singlehood Scale is a five-point Likert-type scale consisting of 25 items. It can be stated that the Attitude towards Singlehood Scale is a reliable and valid measurement tool in determining the attitudes of single individuals towards singlehood.
... Avoidance of repetition of mistakes was cited as one of the reasons why they were not interested in marriage (Chizomam & Isiugo-Abanihe, 2014). Moreover, observing incompatibilities between marriage and career, not finding the right man, commitment issues, and deprivation of freedom from other relationships further fueled this disinterest (Apostolou, 2017). ...
... This coincides with Nanik et al. (2018) who found women have different priorities at different points in their lives, exhibiting how singlehood and marriage are very dynamic concepts dependent on the woman's experiences and expectations for herself. In fact, as women accumulated more experiences, they found more factors that convinced themselves to stay single (Apostolou, 2017). ...
... To cope with this, many of the women we interviewed focused more on their careers and sources of livelihood to support themselves and their families. This resulted in these career-oriented women remaining single (Ali & Shoukry, 2017;Apostolou, 2017). Prior literature pointed out that highly educated women felt their successful careers would hinder their probability of finding a partner due to the lack of time as a result of focusing on work. ...
As one of the strongly devout Catholic countries in Southeast Asia, the Philippines recognizes marriage as a paramount social institution, where unmarried women face negative perceptions and social consequences. With the increasing populace of elderly people in the country, this study focused on the conditions of middle-aged (ages 45 to 65) never-married women and how the family-oriented society construes their self-perceptions. By interviewing 24 older never-married women over the age of 45, four key aspects were identified behind their lived experiences: interest in marriage, engagement in relationships, societal change, and ending in acceptance. Results open the discussion for social and individual implications.
... Finally, personal constraints, such as poor physical health, can also prevent people from attracting mates. Recent empirical work has found that reasons for being single classify to broader domains which are consistent with this theorization (Apostolou, 2017;Apostolou et al., 2020). ...
... Qualitative research employing interviews, open-ended questionnaires and unobtrusive data, has found that several people indicated that they were single because of their sexual orientation. When items on sexual orientation were used in quantitative studies, they loaded to the constraints factor (Apostolou, 2017;Apostolou et al., 2020). In turn, this finding suggests that, for several people, their homosexual orientation prevents them from forming an intimate relationship. ...
... With respect to being in a relationship, our hypothesis was not confirmed, as homosexual people were not less likely than people of other sexual orientations to fall in this category. This finding contradicts previous findings that homosexual orientation was one reason for being single (Apostolou, 2017;Apostolou et al., 2020). One possible explanation is that sexual orientation is constraining in forming an intimate relationship only for a small proportion of homosexual people. ...
The social stigma attached to same-sex attraction, along with the limited availability of same-sex outlets, are likely to cause difficulties to homosexual people in attracting intimate partners. Based on this reasoning, the current study aimed to test the hypothesis that homosexual people would be more likely to be involuntarily single, and would experience longer spells of singlehood than people of other sexual orientations. Evidence from a sample of 10,939 Greek-speaking participants, indicated that homosexual people were not less likely than people of other sexual orientations to be in a relationship than involuntarily single. However, homosexual people were considerably less likely to be married than people of other sexual orientations, with the effect being more pronounce for men than for women. In addition, male homosexuals experienced longer spells of singlehood than men of other sexual orientations, but no such effect was found for women.
... Previous studies have proposed four main reasons why people are single: (1) fitness advantages (i.e., singlehood could potentially increase one's reproductive success); (2) the result of evolutionary mismatch; (3) issues due to one's own constraints; (4) and because one is currently in between relationships (Apostolou, 2015(Apostolou, , 2017. In more detail, where one's fitness is concerned, it was theorized that it could potentially be beneficial for young people to divert their limited resources in acquiring a good education and a good job than in attracting and keeping a mate (Apostolou et al., 2020). ...
... As a consequence, several of these adaptations fail to produce fitness-enhancing outcomes. This mismatch problem (Crawford, 1998;Li et al., 2017) has been proposed to be one of the main reasons for singlehood (Apostolou, 2015(Apostolou, , 2017; see also Goetz et al., 2019). ...
... The first comprehensive study on this topic with Greek-speaking participants (Apostolou, 2017) identified 76 reasons for being single and, classified them into 16 broad factors, including "difficulties with relationship initiation," "preference for the freedom to flirt around," and "mistrust of other individuals." Subsequently, these factors were classified into three broader domains namely, "Difficulties with relationships," "Freedom of choice," and "Constraints." ...
The current research aimed to examine the reasons people are single, that is, not in an intimate relationship, across eight different countries-Brazil, China, Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, India, Japan, and the UK. We asked a large cross-cultural sample of single participants (N = 6,822) to rate 92 different possible reasons for being single. These reasons were classified into 12 factors, including one's perceived inability to find the right partner, the perception that one is not good at flirting, and the desire to focus on one's career. Significant sex and age effects were found for most factors. The extracted factors were further classified into three separate domains: Perceived poor capacity to attract mates, desiring the freedom of choice, and currently being in between relationships. The domain structure, the relative importance of each factor and domain, as well as sex and age effects were relatively consistent across countries. There were also important differences however, including the differing effect sizes of sex and age effects between countries.
... For most individuals, the tactics mentioned above are successful in attracting mates. However, some people are without a mate (Apostolou, 2017). Apostolou (2015) argues that there are at least five principal general motives why many individuals face difficulties in finding a mate: ...
... Understanding why people choose to stay single should broaden the understanding of human mating and sexual strategies. Recently, researchers addressed the reasons why people opt to stay single and showed that there are evolutionary explanations for why some people behave this way (Apostolou, 2017). There are two main reasons why some people decide to stay single: (1) staying single may boost the future chances to mate and to obtain a better mate, which may be a fitness increasing strategy, and (2) some individuals do not possess the characteristics required for mate attraction and retention (Apostolou, 2017). ...
... Recently, researchers addressed the reasons why people opt to stay single and showed that there are evolutionary explanations for why some people behave this way (Apostolou, 2017). There are two main reasons why some people decide to stay single: (1) staying single may boost the future chances to mate and to obtain a better mate, which may be a fitness increasing strategy, and (2) some individuals do not possess the characteristics required for mate attraction and retention (Apostolou, 2017). ...
Even if the majority of humans desire to mate, some people decide to stay single. In this paper, we investigated (N = 270) the link between the Dark Triad traits and the reasons to remain single by choice, testing the moderating effect of sociosexuality. We showed that individuals high on Machiavellianism and psychopathy scored high on two dimensions of reasons to stay single by choice: freedom of choice and difficulties with relationships. Narcissism was not related to any dimension of reasons to stay single. Individuals high on Machi-avellianism or psychopathy that were also high on sociosexuality reported lower scores on the reasons to stay single by choice, compared to individuals high on Machiavellianism or psychopathy low on sociosexuality.
... Recent theoretical and empirical work has attempted to identify the reasons that have led people to be single (Apostolou, 2015(Apostolou, , 2017(Apostolou, , 2019Pepping and MacDonald, 2018), with one study in particular (Apostolou, 2017) offering a list comprising of 76 such reasons. However, none of the subsequent research following that work has investigated the validity of these reasons by focusing exclusively on those who are actually single -which would conceivably provide some much-needed findings straight from the horses' mouths. ...
... Recent theoretical and empirical work has attempted to identify the reasons that have led people to be single (Apostolou, 2015(Apostolou, , 2017(Apostolou, , 2019Pepping and MacDonald, 2018), with one study in particular (Apostolou, 2017) offering a list comprising of 76 such reasons. However, none of the subsequent research following that work has investigated the validity of these reasons by focusing exclusively on those who are actually single -which would conceivably provide some much-needed findings straight from the horses' mouths. ...
... Nonetheless, this argument does not explain why so many people remain single for prolonged periods of their lives in the present day. Three main factors have been proposed to account for this phenomenon (Apostolou, 2015(Apostolou, , 2017, and will be examined next. ...
A relatively large number of people in Western societies are single; that is, they are not involved in any romantic relationship. In this study, we have attempted to investigate the reasons for singlehood by asking singles themselves. A final sample of 648 American singles (307 of them women) rated 92 possible reasons for singlehood. These reasons were classified into 18 broad factors and four general domains. Among the most important reasons were poor flirting skills, freedom, fear of getting hurt, having different priorities, and being too picky. Significant sex and age effects were found across different factors and domains. More specifically, men were more likely than women to indicate that they were single in order to be free to flirt around, and because they were not into family making; while women were more likely to indicate that they were single in order to avoid getting hurt, and because they have considered themselves not to be desirable as mates. Younger people were more likely to indicate that they were single because they had poor flirting skills, because they did not see themselves as desirable mates, and because they did not like commitment; whereas older people were more likely to indicate that they were single in order to be free to do what they have wanted. Findings were examined and discussed using evolutionary theories relating to mate selection and evolutionary mismatch.
... Much of the debate in this area has focused on issues of mate preferences, potential sex differences, and the origin/nature of those preferences, with some researchers treating mate preferences as a function of sociological or structural forces (Eagly, 1987;Eagly & Wood, 1999;Zentner & Eagly, 2015), with others contending mate preferences are vestiges of ancient selection pressures (Howard, Blumstein, & Schwartz, 1987;Li & Meltzer, 2015). Whatever the origin of mate preferences, countless people are unable to maximize their mating ideals despite the apparent supply of attractive and available partners (Apostolou, 2017(Apostolou, , 2019, suggesting people's mating psychologies are sensitive to contextual threats (Reeve, Kelly, & Welling, 2016). Indeed, the whole online dating industry is built on people's desire and struggle to find mates. ...
... We consider three potential solutions to mating shortages: lowering standards (Regan, 1998), abstention (Apostolou, 2017(Apostolou, , 2019, and searching farther (Jonason, Nolland, & Tyler, 2017). Each of these comes with different costs and benefits that may appeal to men and women for reasons consistent with evolutionary reasoning. ...
... We also examined the option of abstaining (Apostolou, 2017) whereby individuals may temporarily refrain from dating presumably in hopes of finding a better partner later. On its surface, this tactic seems like a bad choice because it could mean reproductive oblivion. ...
Although much work on mating psychology has focused on mate preferences and responses to desirable sexual and romantic offers, less is known about what happens when individuals face a lack of mating options. We present 2 studies on (hypothetical) compensatory mating tactics. In Study 1 (N = 299), participants were asked to imagine they were struggling to find long-term and short-term mates and we revealed sex differences and context-specific effects consistent with parental investment theory. In Study 2 (N = 282), participants were asked to imagine they had been incapable of finding a short-term and long-term mate for 6 months despite actively trying to find one and then report the likelihood of abstaining, lowering their standards, and traveling farther to find a satisfactory partner; results largely (and conceptually) replicated those from Study 1 but document the role of attachment and (self-reported) mate value in accounting for individual differences in adopting the 3 mating tactics. We frame our results in terms of how people might solve mate shortages.
... To begin with, a recent study employed a sample of 1894 Greek-speaking participants, and found that about one in two faced considerable difficulties in starting and/or keeping an intimate relationship . Another study employed qualitative and quantitative research methods in order to examine the reasons that drive people to stay single (Apostolou 2017). Seventy six different reasons were identified, which classified in 16 broader categories and three domains. ...
... Similar to study 1, participants were asked why they were single. Given the plethora of reasons for being single (Apostolou 2017(Apostolou , 2018, the three main categories employed in study 1 may have been constraining; thus, in the present study, we have also added the option Bother reason.P articipants' sex, age, and marital status were also recorded. In order to measure mating performance-how well people do in intimate relationships-we have used a five-item instrument developed by Apostolou et al. (2018). ...
... In the same vein, people may prefer to be single and flirt with different casual mates in order to refine their mating skills, as doing so could enable them to make better choices and attract more desirable partners at a future time. Last but not least, people may face difficulties such as health problems, which prevent them from participating effectively in the mating market, and as a consequence, they may prefer to be outside it until these are resolved (Apostolou 2017). Such reasons can potentially explain why a significant proportion of participants indicated that they preferred to be single. ...
A substantial proportion of people living in Western societies do not have an intimate partner. The current research attempts to estimate the occurrence of people who are involuntary single—they want to be in an intimate relationship but they find it difficult to do so—in the Greek cultural context. Evidence from two independent studies (N = 1682) indicated that about half of the participants who were single, they were involuntary so. It was also found that, mating performance—how well people do in starting and keeping an intimate relationship—was a significant predictor of involuntary singlehood, with low scorers facing a higher probability to be involuntary single than high scorers.
... Similar to study 1, participants were asked why they were single. Given the plethora of reasons for being single ( Apostolou 2017Apostolou , 2018, the three main categories employed in study 1 may have been constraining; thus, in the present study, we have also added the option Bother reason.^ Participants' sex, age, and marital status were also recorded. ...
... A word of caution is necessary here, as our findings should not be interpreted to mean that for some people being single is always a desirable state while for others it is not. The theoretical framework adopted here (see also Apostolou 2017Apostolou , 2018 indicates that singlehood could be a desirable state for most people only for specific periods or stages in their lives. However, a prolonged period of singlehood could compro- mise fitness, as individual are likely to suffer reproductive (i.e., forgone the opportunity to have children) and survival losses (e.g., lack the support of a partner). ...
... Previous research has identified a plethora of reasons that can potentially drive people to be single in general and invol- untary single in particular ( Apostolou 2017Apostolou , 2018). In the current research, we have examined only the effects of few variables including sex, age, and mating performance, with the pseudo R-squared indicating that these factors explain only a small proportion of variation in singlehood. ...
... It could be, for instance, by choice or because they face difficulties in attracting a partner. A recent study found that both factors are at play (Apostolou 2017). The present study aims to extend this work by examining the reasons for staying single indicated by men in a recent Reddit thread. ...
... The latter can provide us with several reasons that drive people to stay single, but the former is necessary for enabling us to figure out why these reasons appear in the first place. To use one example, one reason mentioned is poor flirting skills (Apostolou 2017). Thus, empirical studies tell us that poor flirting skills prevent people to attract partners, and as a consequence, they stay single. ...
... Apparently, this is not the case, and a theoretical framework is necessary which could explain why. Such a framework has been recently proposed (Apostolou 2015a(Apostolou , 2017, and it will be discussed next. ...
In Western societies, a substantial proportion of the adult population does not have an intimate partner. The current paper puts forward an evolutionary theoretical framework, where people stay single for three main reasons, namely the mismatch between ancestral and modern conditions has resulted in several individuals lacking the adaptations necessary for attracting and retaining mates, individuals can increase their fitness by opting out of relationships, and individuals have constraints that prevent them from attracting a mate. The paper attempted to identify the reasons that drive men to be single and to investigate whether they were consistent with the proposed theoretical framework. More specifically, 13,429 responses from a recent Reddit thread were analyzed, and 6794 responses were coded and classified in 43 categories. Among the most frequent reasons that men indicated for being single included poor flirting skills, low self-confidence, poor looks, shyness, low effort, and bad experience from previous relationships.
... Općenito rečeno, dosadašnja su istraživanja iz različitih perspektiva nastojala objasniti uzroke samaštva (Austrom i Hanel, 1985;Frazier i sur., 1996), pri čemu valja istaknuti kako nijedna od tih perspektiva nije samodostatna, već je u tumačenju ovog fenomena potrebno uzeti u obzir različita teorijska viđenja i postavke. Dva najvažnija pravca koja teoretiziraju samaštvo su evolucijski pravac (Apostolou, 2017) te onaj koji navedeno tumači iz pozicije teorije privrženosti (Pepping i sur., 2018), a koji će biti opisani u nastavku. ...
... Na tom tragu, diskutirajući o razlozima koji dovode do samaštva, Apostolou (2017) predlaže klasifikaciju s četirima domenama imenujući ih kao: 1) očuvanje tjelesnih resursa, 2) evolucijska neusklađenost, 3) osobna ograničenja i 4) privremeno samaštvo. Prema njemu, prva se domena odnosi na očuvanje vlastitih tjelesnih resursa koji se, u slučaju samaštva, umjesto trošenja na privlačenje i zadržavanje partnera, usmjeravaju na neke druge, u određenom trenutku važnije i primjerenije aspekte, poput stjecanja kvalitetnog obrazovanja ili pronalaženje dobrog posla. ...
On a global level, from year to year there is an increase in the number of singles, that is, people who, either willingly or unwillingly, are not in any form of partner relationship, which increases the need for research into this specific phenomenon. This paper presents certain aspects of singlehood and the challenges faced by singles, which have been reviewed and researched in the previous literature: the reasons that lead to singlehood, ubiquitous stereotypes and discrimination, the psychological well-being of singles and their functioning in the context of the workplace and complying work with family and private life. Specific methodological challenges in the given field of research and guidelines for future research are also presented. Mainly, in this paper, singleness is analyzed taking into account the perspective of never-married adults without children, who are not in a committed romantic relationship. Despite the fact that, due to their status, they often have to face criticism from those who do not respect the plurality of attitudes and life choices, single people in terms of subjective well-being, generally did not prove to be inferior to married people. Nevertheless, the relationship between marital status and psychological well-being is still complicated and ambiguous. It has been shown that it is necessary to appeal for equality of rights and treatment in terms of working conditions, regardless of a person’s personal and family status, which would ultimately have a beneficial effect on organizations and society as a whole. The lack of a larger number of targeted studies of single people in Croatia is evident. In view of the above, it would be necessary to perform more detailed research that would thoroughly examine the role of the variables presented in this paper in the context of singlehood, but also other mechanisms and determinants of satisfaction and well-being of this group of people.
... Most qualitative studies on singlehood rely on theoretical samples obtained through snowballing techniques (Burgess, 1984) However, both the theoretical sampling and the snowballing methodology imply a starting criterion to select and convince respondents to participate in the study. Again, most studies used either the relationship status (Apostolou, 2017;Finn, 2012;Lai et al., 2015) or the living situation of participants (Mavcvarish, 2006). Two studies used both dimensions for their recruitment but only along one axis, including solo living participants as well as individuals currently having no romantic relationship (Reynolds, 2008;Reynolds & Taylor, 2005;Reynolds & Wetherell, 2003;Simpson, 2015). ...
... After being (self-)selected, participants share their lived experience of singlehood (e.g., Reynolds, 2008). Starting from these self-definitions, qualitative studies have brought deeper insight in the daily lives of single people-particularly of single women (Lahad, 2017;Reynolds, 2008;Simpson, 2015), the reasons for staying single (Apostolou, 2017), the discrimination experienced by single people (Budgeon, 2008;DePaulo & Morris, 2016), their life satisfaction (Kislev, 2019a;Klinenberg, 2012), and their identity (Mavcvarish, 2006). Some qualitative studies have even influenced quantitative surveys. ...
... Most qualitative studies on singlehood rely on theoretical samples obtained through snowballing techniques (Burgess, 1984) However, both the theoretical sampling and the snowballing methodology imply a starting criterion to select and convince respondents to participate in the study. Again, most studies used either the relationship status (Apostolou, 2017;Finn, 2012;Lai et al., 2015) or the living situation of participants (Mavcvarish, 2006). Two studies used both dimensions for their recruitment but only along one axis, including solo living participants as well as individuals currently having no romantic relationship (Reynolds, 2008;Reynolds & Taylor, 2005;Reynolds & Wetherell, 2003;Simpson, 2015). ...
... After being (self-)selected, participants share their lived experience of singlehood (e.g., Reynolds, 2008). Starting from these self-definitions, qualitative studies have brought deeper insight in the daily lives of single people-particularly of single women (Lahad, 2017;Reynolds, 2008;Simpson, 2015), the reasons for staying single (Apostolou, 2017), the discrimination experienced by single people (Budgeon, 2008;DePaulo & Morris, 2016), their life satisfaction (Kislev, 2019a;Klinenberg, 2012), and their identity (Mavcvarish, 2006). Some qualitative studies have even influenced quantitative surveys. ...
Many authors have documented a global rise in singlehood during the past decades, expanding beyond Western or industrialized countries. Simultaneously, the number of single households is increasing, not only due to the aging of the population, but also because young adults are increasingly living solo. Whereas having no partner and solo living do not necessarily coincide, existing studies tend to overlook this distinction. In this paper, we provide conceptual clarity as to what types of singlehood can be distinguished, through a framework that builds on two dimensions: living solo and being partnered. Next, we delve into the issue of measurement. We illustrate the issues in implementing an extended singlehood framework to empirical data. To do so, we examine internationally comparative retrospective studies and prospective panel studies, and identify three levels of operationalization that current datasets achieve when identifying a redefined notion of singlehood.
... Thus, the mechanisms involved in mating have evolved in a context very different from the contemporary postindustrial one where mate choice is freely exercised. Consequently, they may not be able to deal effectively with challenges of the free mate choice context, resulting in several individuals being involuntarily single (Apostolou, 2017). It has also being argued that taking some time off the mating market could potentially be beneficial, as people can allocate the bulk of their resources in building their strengths, and become more desirable as mates when they resume looking for mates at a later time (Apostolou, 2017). ...
... Consequently, they may not be able to deal effectively with challenges of the free mate choice context, resulting in several individuals being involuntarily single (Apostolou, 2017). It has also being argued that taking some time off the mating market could potentially be beneficial, as people can allocate the bulk of their resources in building their strengths, and become more desirable as mates when they resume looking for mates at a later time (Apostolou, 2017). Accordingly, several people prefer to be single, at least for some time. ...
Singlehood has advantages but also disadvantages that the current research aimed to examine. More specifically, Study 1 employed qualitative research methods on a sample of 238 Greek-speaking participants, and identified 78 possible disadvantages of being single. Studies 2 and 3 employed quantitative research methods on a sample of 1115 (N Study 1 = 592, N Study 2 = 523) Greek-speaking participants, and classified these disadvantages into 10 distinct categories. Participants rated the "Lack of regular and safe sex," the "Lack of tenderness and love," and the "Lack of someone to motivate me to improve myself" to be the most important disadvantages of singlehood. Other important disadvantages included, the "Lack of support," the "Negative emotions," and the "Not having someone to do things together." Moreover, we found that female participants rated the lack of support to be a more important disadvantage than male participants. We also found that, participants who had stronger social support, discounted the disadvantages of singlehood more than participants who had weaker social support. Additionally, participants who considered singlehood as more costly, exercised more mating effort than participants who considered it less costly.
... Stein (1978) proposed a framework in which the state of being single could be classified as either voluntary or involuntary and either stable or temporary. Relatedly, Apostolou (2017;Apostolou et al., 2020Apostolou et al., , 2021 examined single individuals' self-reported reasons for being single and consistently found a percentage of singles who indicate that they are single because they enjoy the freedom and autonomy of their relationship status (seemingly mapping onto more voluntary singlehood) and others who indicate that they are unable to be in a relationship, for example because of low attractiveness (seemingly mapping onto less voluntary singlehood). Additional reasons identified less consistently in this research include singles reporting that they are currently between relationships (e.g., Apostolou et al., 2021) and that difficulties with/negative experiences in past relationships lead to hesitation in approaching relationships (e.g., Apostolou, 2017). ...
... Relatedly, Apostolou (2017;Apostolou et al., 2020Apostolou et al., , 2021 examined single individuals' self-reported reasons for being single and consistently found a percentage of singles who indicate that they are single because they enjoy the freedom and autonomy of their relationship status (seemingly mapping onto more voluntary singlehood) and others who indicate that they are unable to be in a relationship, for example because of low attractiveness (seemingly mapping onto less voluntary singlehood). Additional reasons identified less consistently in this research include singles reporting that they are currently between relationships (e.g., Apostolou et al., 2021) and that difficulties with/negative experiences in past relationships lead to hesitation in approaching relationships (e.g., Apostolou, 2017). Direct research examining whether and how voluntary singlehood is associated with singles' wellbeing is somewhat scant and has not been entirely consistent. ...
Singlehood, defined as not being in a romantic relationship, is becoming increasingly common worldwide. Despite this, research on singlehood has not received remotely equivalent research attention as romantic relationships. Well-being research that has explicitly included singles has focused on whether coupled versus single people are more satisfied with their lives. However, these between-group comparisons have not attended to within-group variability among singles that can point to when and for whom singlehood is associated with thriving. In this review, we document findings from the emerging field of singlehood studies to highlight what is and is not known about factors that are associated with the well-being of single individuals from a within-group perspective. Our review examines (a) intrapersonal factors (characteristics of the individual), (b) interpersonal experiences (qualities of one’s social relationships and experiences), and (c) societal influences (features related to one’s broader social or cultural context) related to well-being in singlehood. We conclude by offering future directions for the conceptualization of and research on singlehood with the goal of promoting a thorough and inclusive perspective.
... In order to analyze the data from the open-ended questionnaires, we employed methods developed in prior research (Apostolou, 2017;Apostolou & Panayiotou, 2019). More specifically, two independent graduate students were employed, a man and a woman, who coded and categorized responses to supraordinate categories. ...
... Similarly, interventions could enable people to maintain good eye contact and improve their looks by dressing, for instance, better. Such interventions are important, because a considerable number of adult individuals face difficulties in attracting partners (Apostolou & Wang, 2019), with one of the main reasons being poor performance in flirting (Apostolou, 2017). Thus, they could be used by professional, such as counseling psychologists and flirt coaches, to enable their clients to improve their performance in the domain of mating. ...
Flirting is an essential aspect of human interaction and key for the formation of intimate relationships. In the current research, we aimed to identify the traits that turn it more effective. In particular, in Study 1 we used open-ended questionnaires in a sample of 487 Greek-speaking participants, and identified 47 traits that make flirting effective. In Study 2, we asked 808 Greek-speaking participants to rate how effective each trait would be on them. Using principal components analysis, we classified these traits into nine broader factors. Having a good non-verbal behavior, being intelligent and having a gentle approach, were rated as the most important factors. Sex difference were found for most of the factors. For example, women rated gentle approach as more effective on them, while men rated good looks as more effective. Last but not least, older participants rated factors, such as the "Gentle approach," to be more effective on them.
... There are many reasons why people experience poor performance in the domain of mating, including stochastic ones such as accidents, genetic mutations, and illnesses (Apostolou, 2017b). For instance, individuals may experience a serious accident, which could result in disfigurement that in turn could impair their capacity to attract mates. ...
... For instance, a high level of aggression may have enabled ancestral men to obtain women by fighting other men, but it constitutes an obstacle in keeping a partner for men living in postindustrial societies. Consistent with this argument, one study identified 76 reasons that could lead people to be single, including poor flirting skills and interpersonal difficulties such as shyness and fear of commitment (Apostolou, 2017b). Another study analyzed 13,429 responses from a Reddit thread, asking the question why men were single (Apostolou, 2019). ...
A considerable proportion of people in postindustrial societies experience difficulties in intimate relationships and spend considerable time being single. In the current research, we attempted to examine mating performance, and occurrence and length of singlehood in a Greek ( N = 884) and a Chinese ( N = 2,041) sample. We found that, in both samples, about half of the participants experienced difficulties in intimate relationships. In addition, more than half of the participants were single, and nearly one in four participants indicated that they were single because they faced difficulties attracting a partner. Moreover, more than one in five singles in the Greek sample were without a partner for more than 3 years, and almost half of the singles in the Chinese sample had never been in a relationship. Mating performance predicted marital status, with low scorers being more likely to be single because they faced difficulties in attracting a partner than high scorers. Mating performance predicted also the length of singlehood, with low scorers spending more time being single than high scorers. In addition, singles who faced difficulties in attracting partners experienced lengthier spells of singlehood than other categories of singles. Furthermore, there were significantly more participants who preferred to be single and who never had a relationship in the Chinese than in the Greek sample. Overall, in both samples, a considerable proportion of participants experienced low mating performance, which was associated with increased incidence of prolonged spells of singlehood.
... More specifically, one study identified 76 reasons, and classified them in 16 factors and three domains, which could potentially drive people to be single (Apostolou 2017b). The three domains were the "difficulties with relationships" (included reasons such as not being good in flirting), "freedom of choice" (included reasons such as being free to flirt around), and "constraints" (included reasons such as having a serious health problem), with the first factor rated as being the most important one for being single. ...
... People may stay single for some time in order to divert their resources in building qualities, such as education and social status, which are valued in a partner, and once they do so, to enter in the mating market. Or people may stay single in order to be able to flirt around and have casual sex with many different partners (Apostolou 2017b). These scenarios could potentially enable individuals to increase their fitness and are thus, not associated with negative emotions. ...
A considerable proportion of people living in Western societies are single, i.e., they do not have an intimate partner. Recent research has indicated that about half of these instances are involuntary-people want to be in a relationship, but face difficulties in attracting partners. Within the context of an evolutionary theoretical framework, the current study aims to estimate the occurrence of involuntary singlehood in the Greek cultural context and to assess its impact on emotional wellbeing and on life satisfaction. Using an online sample of 735 Greek-speaking participants (431 women and 304 men), it was found that nearly 40% of those who were single were involuntarily so. It was also found that involuntary singles experienced significantly more negative emotions and lower life satisfaction than voluntary singles and people in a relationship.
... We further expected (Hypothesis 2) that remained-single participants would have the highest ideal partner preferences (as initiallysingle individuals who remained single may have done so because they have overly high ideal partner expectations that are less likely to be met, Apostolou, 2017). In comparison, newly-coupled participants would have lower ideal partner preferences but higher than continually-coupled participants (as they were tested while being single, and we expect them to adjust their ideal preferences after being coupled). ...
... Remainedsingle individuals, however, did not differ significantly from newlycoupled participants in contrast to our predictions (cf. Apostolou, 2017), although, these findings should be interpreted with caution because the sample sizes were relatively limited. ...
It has been suggested that coupled individuals tend to adjust their ideal partner preferences according to their actual partner. In Study 1, we developed a mate preference trait-list and found a four-factor structure (Physical attractiveness, Status/Resources, Vitality, and Warmth/Trustworthiness), which we confirmed in Study 2. In Study 3, we compared ideal and actual partner preferences in continually-coupled and newly-coupled individuals. Ideal partner preferences were recorded in continually-coupled participants while in the relationship and in single participants before they established a relationship. Results showed that discrepancy between ideal and actual partner evaluations was lower in continually-coupled than in newly-coupled individuals when computing Manhattan distance between them. When comparing ideal partner preferences, continually-coupled individuals rated Warmth/Trustworthiness and Vitality lower than newly-coupled individuals. No difference between continually-coupled and newly-coupled individuals was found in their actual partner evaluations. Our results indicate that relationship status significantly affects ideal partner preferences.
... In the current context, more and more people remain single for various subjective and objective reasons (Ghaznavi et al., 2022). Some people choose to be single for the sake of freedom and career (Lesch & van der Watt, 2018), while others are constrained by internal and external factors (Apostolou, 2017). For instance, according to Chinese social norms, men are expected to own a house before marriage, but the exorbitant house prices that increase the marriage costs have deterred many people from getting married (Wrenn et al., 2019). ...
The Fear of Being Single Scale (FOBS) is a widely used measure of the fear of being single, but its applicability to Chinese populations has not been established. This study aimed to translate the FOBS into Chinese and examine its psychometric properties among Chinese college students. The study consisted of three phases with three samples (total n = 1768). In the first phase (Sample 1: n = 571), an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) supported a unidimensional structure with 6 items for the Chinese version of the FOBS (C-FOBS). In the second phase (Sample 2: n = 692), a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) validated the factor structure and indicated good model fit. The C-FOBS also demonstrated good internal consistency, split-half reliability, criterion validity, and cross-gender invariance. In the third phase (Sample 3: n = 505), the C-FOBS showed acceptable test-retest reliability over a two-week interval. The results suggest that the C-FOBS is a reliable and valid instrument for assessing the fear of being single among Chinese college students.
... While there is a growing body of research on singlehood (e.g., Apostolou, 2017;Apostolou & Tsangari, 2022;Girme et al., 2022;Kislev, 2019), this scholarship still often lacks an intersectional approach, with few exceptions (Barnes, 2015;Clarke, 2011;Marsh, 2023;Ochnik & Slonim, 2020). One reason for the clarion call to incorporate an intersectional framework is that the social identity of singlehood annexes a set of behavioral and cognitive schemes that might look different for Asian, Black, LGBTQ+, ethnic, and other groups, versus the dominant group (Rios & Cohen, 2023). ...
This article underscores the importance of recognizing the diversity and intricacy of singlehood and transcending a simplistic view of singles as a monolithic group. By adopting an intersectional approach, researchers can obtain a deeper understanding of singles' experiences and identify their unique needs. Moreover, this understanding has profound implications for social justice endeavors, as singles may encounter compounded discrimination and necessitate deliberate communities and social policies that support them. Specifically, we advance here a four‐fold argument. First, singlehood should not only be viewed as a demographic characteristic but also as a chosen status and identity. In turn, researchers must acknowledge divisions such as race, gender, class, and sexuality within this overarching category. Third, intersectionality must be analyzed in its compound and intricate effects, as singlehood intertwines with other categories in distinct ways. Fourth, this carries far‐reaching implications, and intersectionality can serve as a critical praxis that informs social justice initiatives.
... The majority of the respondents were single (54.6%) or were married or living with a partner (41.4%). These results can be attributed to their sex, age, personality and commitment since these factors significantly predict the reasons that drive individuals to remain single (Apostolou, 2017). ...
... More specifically, some people adopt a short-term mating strategy that is, they form only shortterm intimate relationships. People also adopt a transitory mating strategy that is, they form intimate relationships with the purpose of achieving an instrumental goal other than staying with the current partner in the long-run (Apostolou, 2017(Apostolou, , 2021. Reduced commitment to a relationship may also arise from a divergence in mate value. ...
Intimate relationships are not easy to keep as the high rates of divorce and singlehood testify. The current research aimed to examine the behavioral acts which are likely to have a negative effect on people's willingness to continue an intimate relationship. More specifically, by using qualitative research methods on a sample of 269 Greek-speaking participants, Study 1 identified 88 acts that have a negative impact on people's willingness to continue an intimate relationship. Study 2 employed quantitative research methods on a sample of 536 Greek speaking participants, and classified these acts into six broader factors. The one with the most negative impact was rated to be the "Does not care about me," followed by the "Does not treat well our children," and the "Tries to control me." Women and single participants rated the identified factors more negatively than men and participants who were in a relationship or married. Significant main effects of age, sex, relationship status and having children were also found for several factors.
... Nor does the "cheap sex" theory exhaust the possible reasons why reporting high numbers of non-marital sex partners might be correlated with remaining single longer or indefinitely. As the research on premarital sex and marital quality/stability suggests, selfselection plays a predominant role in decisions to marry, so people who prefer a life with multiple sex partners may predictably avoid marriage (Apostolou, 2017;Frazier et al., 1996). As even the youngest cohorts of Americans still expect to get married at some point in their lives (Gander, 2018), we might expect any association between reporting multiple sex partners and lower marriage rates to be temporary, reflecting a season in one's life rather than a long-term consequence of those sexual relationships. ...
Sociologists have proposed numerous theories for declining marriage rates in the United States, often highlighting demographic, economic, and cultural factors. One controversial theory contends that having multiple non-marital sex partners reduces traditional incentives for men to get married and simultaneously undermines their prospects in the marriage market. For women, multiple partners purportedly reduces their desirability as spouses by evoking a gendered double-standard about promiscuity. Though previous studies have shown that having multiple premarital sex partners is negatively associated with marital quality and stability, to date no research has examined whether having multiple non-marital sex partners affects marriage rates. Data from four waves of the National Survey of Family Growth reveal that American women who report more sex partners are less likely to get married by the time of the survey (though so too were virgins). Yet this finding is potentially misleading given the retrospective and cross-sectional nature of the data. Seventeen waves of prospective data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth's 1997 mixed-gender cohort that extend through 2015 show the association between non-marital sex partners and marriage rates is temporary: recent sex partners predict lower odds of marriage, but not lifetime non-marital sex partners. Seemingly unrelated bivariate probit models suggest the short-term association likely reflects a causal effect. Our findings ultimately cast doubt on recent scholarship that has implicated the ready availability of casual sex in the retreat from marriage. Rather, the effect of multiple sex partners on marriage rates is “seasonal” for most Americans.
... This recurrent problem may have led people to develop strategies to solve mate shortages. Three such strategies may be abstaining, searching farther, and lowering their standards (Apostolou, 2017;Jonason et al., 2020;Regan, 1998). Resorting to these strategies as compensatory mating tactics may expose people to risks (1) like sexually transmitted infections when lowering one's standards for shortterm mates, (2) reproductive oblivion if abstention is employed incorrectly, and (3) exposure to mate defection, travel costs, and the stresses of engaging in a long-distance relationship when opting to travel farther. ...
When people cannot find desirable mating prospects, they may abstain, lower their standards, or travel farther to solve this mate shortage. We examined people's (N = 306) willingness to adopt these three solutions to mating shortages in relation to individual differences in disgust in men and women and for long-term and short-term partners. Those with more sexual disgust were more willing to abstain during a shortage of short-term mates and were less willing to lower their standards and to travel farther for short-term partners. Pathogen and moral disgust were associated with choosing to travel farther in the long-term contexts for men only. Our findings support the idea that how people evaluate costs and benefits in mating is expressed in their personality.
... Prokázalo se, že ne nutně vztahový status sám o sobě má dopad na prožívání jako spíše míra, do jaké je vnímán jako výsledek vlastního rozhodnutí. Již dříve byla popsána řada důvodů, proč někteří vztah dobrovolně nevyhledávají, ať už jde o dočasnou strategii navýšení vlastního fitness za účelem nalezení nejlepšího možného protějšku, nebo osoba čelí nesnázím, které komplikují navázání a udržení dlouhodobého svazku (Apostolou, 2017;Lehmann et al., 2015). ...
In 2013 Spielmann and colleagues defined fear of being single as “an entailing concern, anxiety or distress regarding the current, or prospective experience of being without a romantic partner” (Spielmann et al., 2013, p. 1050). Previous research proves it a meaningful construct when it comes to assessing romantic relationships as it predicts the tendency to prioritize relationship status over relationship quality and settle for less. The present study examines the connection between fear of being single and demographic characteristics, personality traits (the Big Five model), and feelings of loneliness using the Fear of Being Single Scale (Spielmann et al., 2013), whose first Czech version was prepared, the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (Hřebíčková & Urbánek, 2001) and the UCLA Loneliness Scale (Kumstátová, 2014; Russel, 1996). 247 Czech adults joined the research. Results have shown that women and involuntary singles reported a significantly higher level of the fear of being single in comparison to men and voluntary singles. Moreover, the fear of being single proved to be significantly negatively correlated with Openness to Experience, Consciousness, and Extraversion and significantly positively related to Neuroticism.
... For the purpose of analyzing the data from the open-ended questionnaires and the in-depth interviews, methods employed in prior research were used (Apostolou, 2017;Apostolou & Panayiotou, 2019). Two independent graduate students, a man and a woman, coded and categorized responses to supraordinate categories. ...
Forming long-term intimate relationships constitutes an important aspect of human nature. Within the context of an evolutionary theoretical framework, the current research has attempted to investigate what motivates people to keep an intimate relationship. Using a combination of qualitative research methods in a sample of 131 Greek-speaking participants, 58 reasons that motivated individuals to keep their intimate relationship were identified. Using quantitative research methods in a sample of 789 Greek-speaking participants who were in an intimate relationship, these reasons were classified in nine broad factors and two broader domains. Having a supporting and compatible partner with whom one shares similar goals, and with whom one has good sex and a strong emotional attachment, were rated among the most important factors motivating participants to keep their relationship. Moreover, as indicated by the domain means, participants were more strongly motivated to keep their intimate relationship if their partners had desirable attributes, such as providing them with support, and less so by their own attributes, such as fear of loneliness. Significant effects of sex, age, marital status, presence of children, and years in a relationship were found for several factors.
... In consequence, many people today may lack good flirting skills, which are important in contemporary postindustrial societies in which people have to find mates on their own. Recent studies have found that poor flirting skills are one of the most frequently reported reasons for being single (Apostolou, 2017b(Apostolou, , 2019. Accordingly, due to mismatch between ancestral conditions, where parents dominated mate choice, and modern ones, where they do not, it could be predicted that a considerable proportion of people living in postindustrial societies would experience difficulties in attracting mates. ...
This chapter addresses how the genetic relatedness between parents and their children results in the two parties having converging as well as diverging interests. In the domain of mating, these interests, along with other factors such as the trade-offs inherent in mating, give rise to an opportunity cost of free mate choice: Parents have much to lose if they allow their children to exercise choice freely. This opportunity cost provides a strong incentive to parents to influence their children's mate choices. In preindustrial societies, parents manage to exercise direct control, which is predominantly manifested in the institution of arranged marriage. In postindustrial societies, parents exercise influence indirectly through manipulation. Ultimately, parental influence over mating gives rise to a sexual selection force, namely parental choice, which may be unique to the human species.
... Nevertheless, the observed rising amount of singlehood with the mixed findings (e.g., Lehmann et al., 2015) and most notably, the lack of suitable measurements (Lehmann et al., 2015) warrant the present study to develop a quantitative measure to understand the people's attitudes toward singlehood. Moreover, the shortcomings of previous incomprehensive qualitative investigations (Apostolou, 2019) and examination in solely the Greek cultural context other than different cultural contexts (Apostolou, 2017) could be overcome in the present study. As such, attitudes among individuals remaining single could be uncovered in the present study. ...
Although romantic relationships have been found to boost well-being, some studies demonstrated that staying single has similar beneficial effects. One cause of such contradiction is probably due to the lack of a quantitative measurement of attitudes toward singlehood. To address this methodological gap, four studies involving 1,276 undergraduate students in Malaysia and India were conducted to develop and examine the psychometric qualities of the Attitudes toward Singlehood Scale (AtSS). Study 1 selected 15 items from the pool and identified a 3-factor solution using exploratory factor analysis. However, a 9-item second-order factor model was found superior in Study 2 using confirmatory factor analysis. The 9-item AtSS demonstrated good internal consistency and test-retest reliability measured two weeks apart as well as construct and criterion validity. Study 3 further supported the superiority of the 9-item second-order factor model with replicated results of Study 2 on a new sample. Measurement invariance test supported scalar invariance across gender while ANCOVA showed female participants displaying higher scores than male counterparts. Study 4 then examined the properties of the 9-item AtSS on a sample of young adults in India. The results are consistent with Study 2 and 3, lending further support to the usability of the AtSS in different cultural contexts. Overall, the consistent findings promote the AtSS as a promising tool for assessing young adults’ attitudes toward singlehood. Implication and suggestions for future studies are also discussed.
... However, the predictors of mating performance were chosen on theoretical grounds, rather than on what people have indicated to prevent them from doing well in mating. A different study employed qualitative research methods in order to identify the reasons that drive individuals to be single, and subsequently, it employed quantitative research methods in order to classify these reasons to broader categories (Apostolou, 2017b). Nevertheless, this research focused on singlehood in general rather than on the reasons that make it difficult for an individual to start a relationship. ...
Within the context of an evolutionary theoretical framework, the current research attempted to study the reasons that cause difficulties in starting an intimate relationship in the Greek cultural context. In particular, using qualitative research methods (interviews and open-ended questionnaires), Study 1 (N = 205) identified 58 reasons that make it difficult for people to start an intimate relationship. Using an online sample of 1,095 Greek-speaking participants (N = 1,095), Study 2 classified these reasons in 12 factors. More than 80% of the participants indicated that they faced above moderate or severe difficulties in at least one factor, while about 40% faced difficulties in three or more factors. Significant gender and age effects were found across the different factors. Using second order principal components analysis, the 12 factors were classified in three broader domains of difficulties in starting a relationship.
... Such findings can shed light on several phenomena which might not be otherwise understood. For instance, despite mating being of great importance, it appears that a considerable proportion of people today face difficulties in attracting a partner, with the most commonly reported difficulty being poor flirting capacity (Apostolou, 2017b(Apostolou, , 2019. If one assumes that in ancestral human societies mate choice was freely exercised, we would expect that selection forces would have selected against poor capacity for flirting, so poor flirting capacity would not be a common problem today. ...
The current chapter aims to assess the importance of cross-cultural research for the field of evolutionary psychology. The disciple of evolutionary psychology is based on the premise that human behavior is generated by a collection of brain modules or adaptations that have evolved to produce fitness-increasing outcomes in the ancestral environment. Thus, understanding human behavior requires understanding the nature and function of these adaptations, which in turn, requires reconstructing the ancestral human condition. By identifying the typical patterns of life in contemporary pre-industrial societies, cross-cultural anthropological research constitutes a valid way to reconstruct the way of life of ancestral pre-industrial societies. Moreover, cross-cultural historical research could be used to reconstruct the way of life in the later period of human evolution. Furthermore, evolutionary psychology is based on the premise that adaptations are universal: Behavior arises from evolved mechanisms that most humans share. Thus, many evolutionary hypotheses require cross-cultural research in order to be tested. Finally, in the evolutionary psychological perspective, behavioral adaptations are not rigid mechanisms, but are responsive to environmental conditions. Accordingly, cross-cultural research is necessary for understanding the range of behaviors that these mechanisms can produce in different settings.
... Consistent with this hypothesis, one study employed open-ended questionnaires and interviews, and found that participants commonly reported having poor flirting skills, high choosiness and low mating effort as reasons for being single (Apostolou, 2017, see also Apostolou, O, & Esposito, 2020). Another study, which analyzed responses on a Reddit thread asking men why they were single, produced similar results (Apostolou, 2019). ...
A considerable proportion of the population is involuntarily single; that is, they want to be in an intimate relationship but they face difficulties in doing so. The current paper attempted to assess some possible predictors of this phenomenon. More specifically, in a sample of 1228 Greek-speaking women and men, we found that participants who scored low in flirting capacity, capacity to perceive signals of interest and mating effort, were more likely to be involuntarily single than in an intimate relationship, and experienced longer spells of single-hood. Mating effort had also a significant effect on voluntary singlehood, with low scorers being more likely to be in this category than high scorers. Choosiness had also a significant effect, but only on voluntary singlehood, with high scorers being more likely to prefer to be single than low scorers.
... One in two adults face difficulties in mating and report poor mating performance (Apostolou et al., 2018). This may be because there are important evolutionary mismatches that affect mating performance (e. g., in a free mating context, as the one of nowadays, individuals may not have evolved mechanisms for mate attraction, as mating was to a great extent planned and controlled in the family; Apostolou, 2017). In the last thirty years, mating preferences were among the most studied human mating features, as they are the glue that helps form a romantic relationship (Buss, 2008). ...
Mating preferences were among the most studied human mating features, as they are the glue that helps form a romantic relationship. We investigated the influence of a broad series of environmental characteristics (e.g., resource scarcity, corruption, physical safety and integrity, insufficient jobs, inadequate medical and educational infrastructure) on women's mate preferences (Study 1, N = 211) and attraction to male narcissists (Study 2, N = 223). We also investigated the link between women's Dark Triad traits and perceived mate value on women's mate preferences in conditions of harsh vs. stable environments (Study 1). In stable environments, we found that women would prefer men interested in long-term relationships, with a pleasant personality and parenting skills (e.g., kind and cooperative). In contrast, in harsh environments, women would prefer men high on resources gathering characteristics (e.g., good cook-housekeepers, with well-off family backgrounds, good economic prospects). In Study 2, we found that women would be more attracted by males high on narcissism in the condition of harsh environments. Finally, we showed that women's Dark Triad traits and perceived mate value were associated with variations in women mate preferences in both conditions.
... Mating success is an important issue in modern societies, as one in two adults report poor mating performance (Apostolou et al., 2018). A possible cause may be that in pre-industrial society, the parents chose the romantic parents for their children, not the children themselves (Apostolou, 2017), mostly for economic reasons (Apostolou, 2007). In modern and nowadays societies, individuals choose mates on their own, but they may not have the experience to make good choices, nor others, like their parents offered them good advice. ...
Mating success is an important issue in modern societies. One in two adults reports poor mating performance. One solution to this problem is to know as much as possible about human mating preferences. In this research, we investigated if women (N = 223) high on the Dark Triad Traits are attracted to males with high levels of narcissism and tested the moderation effect of women's mating orientation and experience with unfaithful men. We showed that women high on all the Dark Triad traits were attracted to males with high narcissism levels. Women with high levels of Machiavellianism, narcissism, or psychopathy that were oriented to long term mating were more attracted to males high on narcissism. Women high on psychopathy who had many experiences with unfaithful men are less attracted by males with high narcissism levels. Experiences with infidelity did not affect the relationships between women's Machiavellianism and narcissism on the one hand and attraction to males high on narcissism, on the other hand. Our research supports the idea of positive assortative mating of women high on the Dark Triad traits, which is conditional on mating orientation and experience with infidelity.
... Nor does the "cheap sex" theory exhaust the possible reasons why reporting high numbers of non-marital sex partners might be correlated with remaining single longer or indefinitely. As the research on premarital sex and marital quality/stability suggests, selfselection plays a predominant role in decisions to marry, so people who prefer a life with multiple sex partners may predictably avoid marriage (Apostolou, 2017;Frazier et al., 1996). As even the youngest cohorts of Americans still expect to get married at some point in their lives (Gander, 2018), we might expect any association between reporting multiple sex partners and lower marriage rates to be temporary, reflecting a season in one's life rather than a long-term consequence of those sexual relationships. ...
Sociologists have proposed numerous theories for declining marriage rates in the United States, generally highlighting demographic, economic, and cultural factors. One controversial theory contends that having multiple non-marital sex partners reduces traditional incentives for men to get married and simultaneously undermines their prospects in the marriage market. For women, multiple partners purportedly reduces their desirability as spouses by evoking a gendered double-standard about promiscuity. Though previous studies have shown that having multiple premarital sex partners is negatively associated with marital quality and stability, to date no research has examined whether having multiple non-marital sex partners affects marriage rates. Data from four waves of the National Survey of Family Growth reveal American women who report more sex partners are less likely to get married (though so too are virgins). Yet this finding is potentially misleading given the retrospective and cross-sectional nature of the data. Seventeen waves of prospective data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth’s 1997 mixed-gender cohort that extend through 2015 show that more non-marital sex partners has a temporary effect on marriage rates: recent sex partners reduce the odds of marriage, but the lifetime number of non-marital sex partners does not. Seemingly unrelated bivariate probit models suggest that the short-term effect is likely causal. Our findings ultimately cast doubt on recent scholarship that has implicated the ready availability of casual sex in the retreat from marriage. Rather, the effect of multiple sex partners on marriage rates is “seasonal” for most Americans.
... Second, singles who choose mobile dating may have particular psychological features that affect the way they form and construct relationships. Certain personality dimensions, such as extraversion or internal locus of control (i.e., the belief that one is in charge of life events and outcomes, as opposed to outside forces), are known to impact mate selection, short-term mating, and marital quality [48][49][50][51][52][53][54]. Individuals that resort to a more agentic way of selecting partners, one that also involves constant interactions with others, may be particularly open, extroverted, and may have a high internal locus of control. ...
Within the span of almost ten years, phone dating apps have transformed the dating scene by normalizing and, according to some voices, gamifying the digital quest for a partner. Despite amplified discussion on how swipe-based apps damage the fabric of intimate ties, scientific accounts on whether they have led to different relationship patterns are missing. Using 2018 survey data from Switzerland, this study provides a rich overview of couples who met through dating apps by addressing three main themes: 1) family formation intentions, 2) relationship satisfaction and individual well-being, and 3) assortative mating. The data indicate that in Switzerland, dating apps have recently taken over as main online dating context. Results further show that couples formed through mobile dating have stronger cohabiting intentions than those formed in non-digital settings. Women who found their partner through a dating app also have stronger fertility desires and intentions than those who found their partner offline. Generally, there are no differences between couples initiated through dating apps and those initiated elsewhere regarding relationship and life satisfaction. Though more data are needed to capture the full range of users’ romantic and sexual experiences, current results mitigate some of the concerns regarding the short-term orientation or the poor quality of relationships formed through mobile dating. Findings finally suggest that dating apps play an important role in altering couple composition by allowing for more educationally diverse and geographically distant couples.
... People's mating motives do not simply evaporate when they cannot satisfy their romantic and sexual ideals. When people fail to find the love and sex they want, they may develop and use compensatory mating tactics like abstaining, searching further, or lowering their standards (Apostolou 2017;Jonason et al. 2020a;Regan 1998a, b). In this study, we attempt to further understand how people make mating decisions when failing to find what they want in terms of physical attractiveness. ...
Objective
Mates high in physical attractiveness are in short supply, which means that not all people are able to find mates who are sufficiently attractive. Threshold models of mate preferences suggest that when physical attractiveness minimums are not reached, other traits possessed by a potential partner may play a lesser role in mate choice. However, few studies have sought to understand mating decisions when those minimums are not met.
Methods
In this experiment ( N = 186), participants rated images of (pre-rated) unattractive opposite-sex others for long-term and short-term relationships after learning dealbreaker or dealmaker information.
Results
While participants did not find targets highly desirable or physically attractive (as a stimulus check), men were more willing than women to have casual sex, and that men and women reported similar desirability ratings towards long-term partners. Learning dealbreakers was associated with less desire for the targets than dealmakers, but women’s lack of interest was insensitive to mating context, whereas men found the target especially undesirable in the long-term context. Additionally, men were willing to consider a long-term relationship with a physically unattractive partner who possessed dealmakers, but not one who possessed dealbreakers.
Conclusions
Our discussion focuses on men and women’s mating decisions when potential partners fail to meet minimum thresholds for physical attractiveness. Future research is needed to explore the magnitude of the effect of meeting or failing to meet one’s minimum thresholds for physical attractiveness.
... They may also prolong the spells of singlehood, because people who face such difficulties may had bad experiences from being in a relationship, which could demotivate them from looking to establish new ones. Actually, one study asked participants to indicate the reasons why they were single, and found that bad experiences from previous relationships was a common reason (Apostolou, 2017b). Accordingly, studying the difficulties in keeping intimate relationships is necessary for developing interventions that could enable people to maintain an intimate relationship. ...
Keeping an intimate relationship is challenging, and many people face difficulties in doing so. In the current research, we have attempted to identify these difficulties, within the context of an evolutionary theoretical framework. More specifically, by using a combination of qualitative research methods in a sample of 163 Greek-speaking participants, we identified 78 such difficulties. By employing maximum likelihood analysis on the scores of 1,099 Greek-speaking participants, we classified these difficulties in 12 broader factors. The most important factor was "Fading away enthusiasm," followed by "Long work hours" and "Lack of personal time and space." Almost 70% of the participants indicated that at least one factor, and 41% indicated that three or more factors caused them difficulties. Significant sex effects were found for most factors, indicating that men and women differed in the importance they ascribed to these difficulties. Moreover, significant age, marital status and number of children effects were found for several factors.
... After all, survival alone does not ensure that genetic material will be passed on; only mating provides that guarantee. Nonetheless, many people remain single, and a significant proportion of people report having difficulty in starting relationships (Apostolou, 2017;Apostolou, Shialos, Kyrou, Demetriou, & Papamichael, 2018). One significant constraint on relationships is mental health. ...
Research suggests that stigma toward mental illness extends to evaluations of people with mental disorders as potential romantic partners. However, it is not clear if mental illness functions as a relationship dealbreaker that leads to the rejection of potential mates. The current research consisted of 3 studies that examined mental illness as a relationship dealbreaker and compared its effects to previously established dealbreakers. Study 1 (N = 113) showed that people list an average of 5 mental disorders when asked to report the mental health problems that would lead them to reject a mate. Participants in Study 2 (N = 111) rated specific mental disorders as somewhat or strongly likely to lead them to reject a potential partner. Study 3 (N = 163) showed that people’s willingness to engage in sexual or romantic relationships with an otherwise attractive partner significantly decreased after finding out that the person had a mental disorder. Across the studies, women tended to be more sensitive to dealbreakers than men, especially for short term/sexual relationships, and the pattern of results for mental illness was similar to previously established general dealbreakers. The results of the studies indicate that mental illness does function as a relationship dealbreaker and the conceptualization of social distance toward mental illness should be expanded to include romantic relationships.
... Please note that, we are not suggesting that poor mating performance is the sole reason for being single. People stay single for reasons other than difficulties in attracting and keeping a partner, including focusing on developing their strengths that would enable them to become more effective mate-seekers in the future, or because they do not wish to commit to a relationship as they prefer to engage in different casual relationships (Apostolou, 2017). People may also be single because they are between relationships. ...
There are reasons to believe that the mechanisms involved in mating, evolved in a context where marriages were arranged and male-male competition was strong. Thus, they may not work well in a post-industrial context, where mating is not regulated and where male-male competition is weak. As a consequence of the mismatch between ancestral and modern conditions, several individuals may face difficulties in the domain of mating. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence rates of poor mating performance and to identify some of its predictors. In particular, evidence from 1894 Greek and Greek-Cypriot participants from three independent studies, indicated that about one in five individuals found intimate relationships difficult, about one in two experienced difficulties in either starting or keeping a relationship, and about one in five experienced difficulties in both starting and keeping a relationship. Moreover, it was found that sexual functioning, self-esteem, self-perceived mate value, choosiness, personality, attention to looks, and mating effort were significant predictors of poor mating performance. It was also found that men and women closely overlapped in their mating performance, while age did not predict how well people do in the domain of mating.
Why do people fall in love? Does passion fade with time? What makes for a happy, healthy relationship? This introduction to relationship science follows the lifecycle of a relationship – from attraction and initiation, to the hard work of relationship maintenance, to dissolution and ways to strengthen a relationship. Designed for advanced undergraduates studying psychology, communication or family studies, this textbook presents a fresh, diversity-infused approach to relationship science. It includes real-world examples and critical-thinking questions, callout boxes that challenge students to make connections, and researcher interviews that showcase the many career paths of relationship scientists. Article Spotlights reveal cutting-edge methods, while Diversity and Inclusion boxes celebrate the variety found in human love and connection. Throughout the book, students see the application of theory and come to recognize universal themes in relationships as well as the nuances of many findings. Instructors can access lecture slides, an instructor manual, and test banks.
This paper explores the discursive constructions of femininity and masculinity expressed by incels. Situated within a new wave of misogyny, incels blame feminism for disrupting a natural order whereby women and broader societal structures are organised around heterosexual, monogamous couplings. Using femmephobia as a lens, I consider how incels employ heteropatriarchal conceptions of emphasised femininity to both devalue women and describe pervasive social conditions that force them to remain celibate. Femmephobia casts feminine expressions as inherently performative and directed towards a masculine subject. Through an online ethnography of incel-identified subreddits and a deep-reading of Elliot Rodger’s manifesto, this paper situates incel discourse within contemporary work on critical femininity. It finds that incels use gendered actors to illustrate and explain their status as incels. Further, these actors all operate within heteropatriarchal understandings of gender, and operationalise femininity or hegemonic masculinity for social capital. Through the use of these actors, incels demonstrate how they view sexual access and relationships as a unique form of capital that they are denied. Taking gender as its starting point, this paper contributes to the emerging field of critical femininity through an understanding of the misogyny and femmephobia expressed by incels through the use of gendered actors.
This study examines the effect of relationship desire on singles’ social lives and vice versa. Based on the German-based Panel Analysis of Intimate Relationships and Family Dynamics study, never-married singles and divorced singles were analyzed. Cross-sectional results showed a correlation between the extent to which singles desire relationship and both the relative importance of friendships and overall social satisfaction. Further analysis, using longitudinal methods, showed that the move to a lower degree of relationship desire had a significant effect on the relative importance of friends. Furthermore, both higher levels of the relative importance of friends and social satisfaction are negatively correlated with relationship desire. These results clarify previous studies and point to the fact that singles with low relationship desire are more social and derive greater support from their friends.
Many researchers believe that the concept of adaptation is useful for understanding the human mind and human behavior.1-7 These researchers agree that adaptations are design features of organisms that evolved because they enhanced fitness in ancestral environments. They see the psychological mechanisms that make up the human mind as evolved adaptations. Further they are convinced that these adaptations are more likely to produce adaptive effects in environments similar to ancestral ones. In other words, the more similar the present environment to the ancestral one, the more likely the adaptation is to confer the reproductive advantage that led to its evolution. On the other hand, adaptations are less likely to confer an adaptive advantage in novel environments.
Despite these shared views, the question of exactly how to characterize these expectations has led to a major disagreement among researchers who study human behavior and psychology from an evolutionary perspective. One group, whose members label themselves evolutionary psychologists, has dealt with this problem by elaborating the concept of the environment of evolutionary adaptedness, (EEA).8-9 Other researchers, who are variously labeled behavioral ecologists, evolutionary ecologists, sociobiologists, or human paleontologists, have tended to question the value of this concept.10-14
In this paper, I review and critique the concept of the EEA and the associated evolutionary psychological view that the human mind consists of many specific-purpose decision-making mechanisms rather than just a few general-purpose ones. I then suggest an alternative to the EEA concept that I believe will serve better the purpose of modeling the relationship between adaptations and environments. I see this concept as a more logical complement than the EEA to the view that the human mind consists of many specific mechanisms. I refer to this new concept as the adaptively relevant environment (ARE). The expression "relevant environment" may also serve as a shorter label. The key idea motivating the ARE concept is that an organism consist of a large number of special-purpose adaptations, each interacting with only a part of the organism's environment. Thus, when a particular element of an environment changes, it is likely to affect some adaptations but not others. Logically, this idea is closely related to the idea that evolutionary change is mosaic: In the course of evolutionary change, some aspects of organisms change while others remain the same. In order to understand an adaptation fully at the proximate level, we need to study its design, the structure of its relevant environment, and the interaction of the two.
Before proceeding, a word of caution is necessary regarding the label evolutionary psychology. The label has both a broad and a narrow meaning. In its narrow meaning, it refers to the research program of scholars such as Barkow, Cosmides, Symons, and Tooby who rely heavily on the EEA and associated concepts and who insist that others who do not share this emphasis are not strict Darwinians or true adaptationists.2 However, many writers use the terms in a broader sense that includes all recent attempts to study human behavior and psychology in evolutionary terms. Robert Wright's recent book, The Moral Animal,15 uses the word in this broader sense.
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The human penis exhibits considerable variation in size, while a substantial proportion of the adult male population experiences size anxiety. This paper employs an evolutionary framework in order to understand this variation, as well as the concern men exhibit about the adequacy of the size of their penis. It is argued that female choice has been one important sexual selection force, responsible for shaping the size of the penis. However, this force has been relatively weak, because women do not consider the size of their partners’ penis to be the most important determinant of their sexual satisfaction. Also, in ancestral human societies, sexual satisfaction was a secondary concern, while women had limited space to exercise mate choice. The mismatch between ancestral and modern conditions, with female choice being stronger in the present than in the past, causes anxiety in men about their ability to satisfy their partners, which is also manifested in their concerns about size.
Successful sexual intercourse is a prerequisite for successful reproduction, a fact that translates into strong evolutionary pressures being exercised on mechanisms that regulate sexual functioning to work optimally. In effect, selection forces would remove from the gene pool any alleles that pre-dispose for sexual dysfunctions, limiting their prevalence to very low levels. But this did not happen with epidemiological studies indicating that sexual dysfunctions are common, with approximately one in three men facing such a difficulty. This raises the question why evolutionary forces have allowed such variation in sexual functioning given its importance in reproduction. The present paper attempts to address this question by applying three evolutionary models on anthropological and historical evidence that depicts the ancestral human condition. It is argued that the high prevalence of sexual dysfunctions in men is predominantly explained by the mismatch between ancestral and modern environments, with selection forces not having sufficient time to optimize sexual functioning mechanisms to the demands of modern conditions. The proposed evolutionary framework is employed to derive predictions which are examined against the available evidence on sexual dysfunctions.
Epidemiological studies indicate that almost one in two women face some kind of sexual dysfunction. Given the importance of sexual functioning for successful reproduction, such a high prevalence is enigmatic. Selection forces should have reduced to a low frequency, or have eliminated completely from the gene pool, any alleles that predispose for sexual dysfunctions. Epidemiological studies indicate that this did not happen, and the present paper attempts to examine the reasons why. Based on anthropological and historical evidence, it is argued that in ancestral societies sexual motivation was a much weaker predictor of successful mating in women, than it is today in post-industrial societies. Accordingly, balancing selection has favored a female type of sexual behavior which is characterized by low sexual motivation. This low level of sexual motivation is not optimal in post-industrial societies where mate choice is not regulated, resulting in women, who have such predispositions, to be classified as suffering from a dysfunction. Predictions are derived from the proposed model, and matched with available evidence.
Many people face difficulties or fail completely to establish and maintain long-term intimate relationships. This is puzzling because, given the evolutionary importance of mating, we would expect that evolutionary forces would have endowed most people with adaptations that promote success in intimate relationships. This does not appear to have happened, and the present paper explores the reasons why. In particular, on the basis of anthropological and historical evidence, it is argued that the mechanisms involved in mate choice were shaped by selection forces in a context where mating was regulated. The situation in which individuals have to find mates almost completely on their own, constitutes therefore an evolutionarily novel situation for which selection forces had not sufficient time to produce adaptive changes. The present paper nominates several mechanisms involved in mate choice which may not have been optimized to deal effectively with the demands of the contemporary mating context. This perspective can promote a deeper understanding of the difficulties people face in intimate relationships, and provide a sound basis for therapy to address them.
Evidence from the anthropological record indicates that in most human societies, parents control the mating access to their offspring. Based on these data, a model of sexual selection has been recently proposed, whereby along with female and male choice, parental choice constitutes a significant sexual selection force in our species. This model was found to provide a good account for the mating patterns which are typical of foraging societies. By employing data from the Standard Cross Cultural Sample, the present study aims at examining whether this model can also account for the mating patterns typical of agricultural and pastoral societies. In addition, comparisons between different society types are made and two model-derived hypotheses are tested. First, it is hypothesised that parents have more control over their offspring's mate choices in non-foraging societies. Second, it is hypothesised that male parents exert greater decision making power in agropastoral societies than in hunting and gathering ones. Both hypotheses are supported by the results presented here. The evolutionary implications of these findings are also explored.
Literature in evolutionary psychology suggests that mate choice has been the primary mechanism of sexual selection in humans, but this conclusion conforms neither to theoretical predictions nor available evidence. Contests override other mechanisms of sexual selection; that is, when individuals can exclude their competitors by force or threat of force, mate choice, sperm competition, and other mechanisms are impossible. Mates are easier to monopolize in two dimensional mating environments, such as land, than in three-dimensional environments, such as air, water, and trees. Thus, two-dimensional mating environments may tend to favor the evolution of contests. The two-dimensionality of the human mating environment, along with phylogeny, the spatial and temporal clustering of mates and competitors, and anatomical considerations, predict that contest competition should have been the primary mechanism of sexual selection in men. A functional analysis supports this prediction. Men's traits are better designed for contest competition than for other sexual selection mechanisms; size, muscularity, strength, aggression, and the manufacture and use of weapons probably helped ancestral males win contests directly, and deep voices and facial hair signal dominance more effectively than they increase attractiveness. However, male monopolization of females was imperfect, and female mate choice, sperm competition, and sexual coercion also likely shaped men's traits. In contrast, male mate choice was probably central in women's mating competition because ancestral females could not constrain the choices of larger and more aggressive males through force, and attractive women could obtain greater male investment. Neotenous female features and body fat deposition on the breasts and hips appear to have been shaped by male mate choice.
Much of the evolutionary literature on human mating is based on the assumption of extensive female choice during the history of our species. However, ethnographic evidence from foraging societies reveals that, in societies thought to be akin to those of our ancestors, female choice is constrained by the control that parents exercise over their daughters. Data from 190 hunting and gathering societies indicate that almost all reproduction takes place while the woman is married and that the institution of marriage is regulated by parents and close kin. Parents are able to influence the mating decisions of both sons and daughters, but stronger control is exercised with regard to daughters; male parents have more say in selecting in-laws than their female counterparts. In light of the fact that parental control is the typical pattern of mate choice among extant foragers, it is likely that this pattern was also prevalent throughout human evolution. Because daughters' preferences can be expected not to fully coincide with those of their parents, research to date may thus have simultaneously overestimated the contribution of female preferences to processes of sexual selection and underestimated the contribution of parental preferences to such processes.
Contemporary mate preferences can provide important clues to human reproductive history. Little is known about which characteristics people value in potential mates. Five predictions were made about sex differences in human mate preferences based on evolutionary conceptions of parental investment, sexual selection, human reproductive capacity, and sexual asymmetries regarding certainty of paternity versus maternity. The predictions centered on how each sex valued earning capacity, ambition— industriousness, youth, physical attractiveness, and chastity. Predictions were tested in data from 37 samples drawn from 33 countries located on six continents and five islands (total N = 10,047). For 27 countries, demographic data on actual age at marriage provided a validity check on questionnaire data. Females were found to value cues to resource acquisition in potential mates more highly than males. Characteristics signaling reproductive capacity were valued more by males than by females. These sex differences may reflect different evolutionary selection pressures on human males and females; they provide powerful cross-cultural evidence of current sex differences in reproductive strategies. Discussion focuses on proximate mechanisms underlying mate preferences, consequences for human intrasexual competition, and the limitations of this study.
Asymmetrical fitness benefits between parents and offspring result in the ideal spouse not being the ideal in-law. This enables parents to attempt to control the mating behavior of their children, and when they succeed, parental choice becomes a primary sexual selection force. A number of studies indicate that parental choice is dominant in contemporary pre-industrial societies. This paper presents evidence from the historical record which indicates that parental choice was also dominant during the later stages of human evolution. More specifically, 40 variables have been coded for a sample of 16 historical societies. Consistent with the model of parental choice, it is found that mating is controlled by parents, male parents exercise more control over marriage arrangements than females, and more control is exercised over female than male offspring. Finally, the specific qualities that parents desire in an in-law and offspring desire in a spouse have also been identified. The implications of these findings are discussed.
Introduction:
Accurate estimates of prevalence/incidence are important in understanding the true burden of male and female sexual dysfunction and in identifying risk factors for prevention efforts.
Aim:
To provide recommendations/guidelines concerning state-of-the-art knowledge for the epidemiology/risk factors of sexual dysfunctions in men and women.
Methods:
An International Consultation in collaboration with the major urology and sexual medicine associations assembled over 200 multidisciplinary experts from 60 countries into 17 committees. Committee members established specific objectives and scopes for various male and female sexual medicine topics. The recommendations concerning state-of-the-art knowledge in the respective sexual medicine topic represent the opinion of experts from five continents developed in a process over a 2-year period. Concerning the Epidemiology/Risk Factors Committee, there were seven experts from four countries.
Main outcome measure:
Expert opinion was based on grading of evidence-based medical literature, widespread internal committee discussion, public presentation and debate.
Results:
Standard definitions of male and female sexual dysfunctions are needed. The incidence rate for erectile dysfunction is 25-30 cases per thousand person years and increases with age. There are no parallel data for women's sexual dysfunctions. The prevalence of sexual dysfunction increases as men and women age; about 40-45% of adult women and 20-30% of adult men have at least one manifest sexual dysfunction. Common risk factor categories associated with sexual dysfunction exist for men and women including: individual general health status, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, other genitourinary disease, psychiatric/psychological disorders, other chronic diseases, and socio-demographic conditions. Endothelial dysfunction is a condition present in many cases of erectile dysfunction and there are common etiological pathways for other vascular disease states. Increasing physical activity lowers incidence of ED in males who initiate follow-up in their middle ages.
Conclusions:
There is a need for more epidemiologic research in male and female sexual dysfunction.
We describe an integrated theory of individual differences that traces the behavioral development of life history from genes to brain to reproductive strategy. We provide evidence that a single common factor, the K-Factor, underpins a variety of life-history parameters, including an assortment of sexual, reproductive, parental, familial, and social behaviors. We explore the psychometrics and behavioral genetics of the K-Factor and offer a speculative account of the proximate mediation of this adaptive patterning of behavior as instantiated in well-established functions of specific areas of the human brain, including the frontal lobes, amygdala, and hippocampus. We then apply Life History Theory to predict patterns of development within the brain that are paedomorphic (i.e., development begins later, proceeds at a slower rate, and has an earlier cessation) and peramorphic (i.e., development begins early, proceeds at a faster rate, and has a later cessation).
Modern humans have inherited the mating strategies that led to the success of their ancestors. These strategies include long-term mating, short-term mating, extra-pair mating, mate poaching, and mate guarding. This article presents empirical evidence supporting evolution-based hypotheses about the complexities of these mating strategies. Since men and women historically confronted different adaptive problems in the mating domain, the sexes differ profoundly in evolved strategic solutions. These differences include possessing different mate preferences, different desires for short-term mating, and differences in the triggers that evoke sexual jealousy. The study of human mating is one of the “success stories” of evolutionary psychology.
This article proposes a contextual-evolutionary theory of human mating strategies. Both men and women are hypothesized to have evolved distinct psychological mechanisms that underlie short-term and long-term strategies. Men and women confront different adaptive problems in short-term as opposed to long-term mating contexts. Consequently, different mate preferences become activated from their strategic repertoires. Nine key hypotheses and 22 predictions from Sexual Strategies Theory are outlined and tested empirically. Adaptive problems sensitive to context include sexual accessibility, fertility assessment, commitment seeking and avoidance, immediate and enduring resource procurement, paternity certainty, assessment of mate value, and parental investment. Discussion summarizes 6 additional sources of behavioral data, outlines adaptive problems common to both sexes, and suggests additional contexts likely to cause shifts in mating strategy.
Social exchange and evolutionary models of mate selection incorporate economic assumptions but have not considered a key distinction between necessities and luxuries. This distinction can clarify an apparent paradox: Status and attractiveness, though emphasized by many researchers, are not typically rated highly by research participants. Three studies supported the hypothesis that women and men first ensure sufficient levels of necessities in potential mates before considering many other characteristics rated as more important in prior surveys. In Studies 1 and 2, participants designed ideal long-term mates, purchasing various characteristics with 3 different budgets. Study 3 used a mate-screening paradigm and showed that people inquire 1st about hypothesized necessities. Physical attractiveness was a necessity to men, status and resources were necessities to women, and kindness and intelligence were necessities to both.
Personality traits such as low emotional stability and low empathy have a considerable negative impact on an individual's mating success. This impact is more severe in cases where such traits reach extreme levels and are classified as personality disorders. Several evolutionary models have been proposed to account for the relative high prevalence of these apparently maladaptive traits. The present paper contributes to the explanatory power of these models by putting forward the hypothesis that in ancestral human societies selection pressures on personality traits that predict success in intimate relationships had been weak. The reason why is that mate choice had been controlled by parents, mainly fathers, who did not place considerable weight on these traits in a prospective son- and daughter-in-law, and who were willing to impose substantial costs on their children in order to benefit themselves from a marriage alliance.
Although there is a small but cumulative body of literature concerning the psychological sequelae of singlehood, there is remarkably little research concerned with singlehood as a dependent variable. The present study extends earlier demographic research on singlehood by reporting several childhood family life variables that are not available in studies based upon census and vital statistics data. The concern is with examining the structural and interactional features of the person's childhood family of orientation as they relate to never marrying as an adult. Separate analysis is carried out for males and females throughout the paper. The study reveals several correlates of singlehood. The findings replicate earlier research in showing that higher levels of intelligence, education, and occupation are associated with singlehood among females. Poor interpersonal relations with parents and siblings in the family of orientation are associated with singlehood among males.
Rather than viewing individual differences as merely the raw material upon which selection operates, this book provides theories and empirical evidence which suggest that personality and individual differences are central to evolved psychological mechanisms and behavioral functioning. The book draws theoretical inspiration from life history theory, evolutionary genetics, molecular genetics, developmental psychology, personality psychology, and evolutionary psychology, while utilizing the theories of the "best and the brightest" international scientists working on this cutting edge paradigm shift. The first three sections analyze personality and the adaptive landscape; here, the book offers a novel conceptual framework for examining "personality assessment adaptations." Because individuals in a social environment have momentous consequences for creating and solving adaptive problems, humans have evolved "difference-detecting mechanisms" designed to make crucial social decisions such as mate selection, friend selection, kin investment, coalition formation, and hierarchy negotiation. The second section examines developmental and life-history theoretical perspectives to explore the origins and development of personality over the lifespan. The third section focuses on the relatively new field of evolutionary genetics and explores which of the major evolutionary forces-such as balancing selection, mutation, co-evolutionary arms races, and drift-are responsible for the origins of personality and individual differences.
Parents often disagree with their children over their choice of partner. Although the reasons may vary the outcome is very often one of conflict-a conflict peculiar to the human species. For the first time in one volume, Sexual Selection under Parental Choice employs an evolutionary perspective to understand this conflict and explore its implications.
Written questionnaires including a 70–item adjective checklist, a value sort, the “Who Am I?” Twenty Statements Test, measures of morale, and questions about attitudes toward marriage and demographic characteristics were administered to samples of 66 childless, never-married women and 37 currently married women, 29 of whom had children. The purpose was to explore the differences and similarities in the self-concepts of single and married women. There was little difference in morale between the groups. Single women had more psychiatric symptoms characteristic of the obsessive-compulsive personality type. Although the single women valued personal growth and achievement, the married women valued personal relationships. Single women were higher on assertion and poise clusters of adjectives. On the “Who Am I ?” test, the married women were more likely to identify with ascribed characteristics, kinship roles, and household activities, whereas the single women identified as self-determined.
The purpose of this study was to examine factors that may underlie current marriage trends. A community sample of 217 unmarried adults aged over 30 years was surveyed regarding their reasons for being single, desire for marriage and life satisfaction. Results suggest, first, that unmarried adults attribute being single to both barriers and choices. Second, men desire marriage more than do women and the never-married want to marry more than the divorced. Divorced women have the least desire for marriage. Divorced individuals also report more life satisfaction than never-married individuals. Mediational analyses suggest that men have more desire for marriage than do women because they have less social support and that never-married individuals have more desire for marriage and lower life satisfaction than divorced individuals because they have lower self-esteem. Implications for counseling and future research are discussed.
This . . . book is the first to present a unified theory of human mating behavior. [It] is based on the most massive study of human mating ever undertaken, encompassing more than 10,000 people of all ages from thirty-seven cultures worldwide.
If we all want love, why is there so much conflict in our most cherished relationships? To answer this question, we must look into our evolutionary past, according to David M. Buss.
The book discusses casual sex and long-term relationships, sexual conflict, the elusive quest for harmony between the sexes, and much more.
Buss's research leads to a radical shift from the standard view of men's and women's sexual psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
"Passions Within Reason" re-evaluates the traditional models of human behavior in light of "a simple paradox," as Frank states, "namely, that in many situations the conscious pursuit of self-interest is incompatible with its attainment."
The self interest theory inspires self-interest; we expect the worst of others and act accordingly. But Frank shows, with many eloquent examples taken from a whole range of human behavior, that pure self interest leads to disaster, for oneself and society.
In "Passions Within Reason" Frank incorporates new developments from biology, psychology, and game and bargaining theory into a micro-economic theory that transcends the traditional "rational choice" model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Sixty single women 35 to 65 years old, previously married or never married, were interviewed about the satisfactions and stresses of the single status. Respondents were categorized as having high, medium, or low life satisfaction. Life satisfaction was found to be significantly correlated to such factors as good health, not being lonely, living with a female housemate, having many casual friends, and being invested in work. Half the women mentioned having sexual needs, which were or were not fulfilled. The other half stated that they did not have sexual needs. These two groups did not differ in life satisfaction. Regrets about not having had children occurred in one-quarter of the childless women, without necessarily implying low life satisfaction. Only 15% of the entire sample had low life satisfaction, a percentage similar to that found in the general population.
To provide a measure of the Big Five for contexts in which participant time is severely limited, we abbreviated the Big Five Inventory (BFI-44) to a 10-item version, the BFI-10. To permit its use in cross-cultural research, the BFI-10 was developed simultaneously in several samples in both English and German. Results focus on the psychometric characteristics of the 2-item scales on the BFI-10, including their part-whole correlations with the BFI-44 scales, retest reliability, structural validity, convergent validity with the NEO-PI-R and its facets, and external validity using peer ratings. Overall, results indicate that the BFI-10 scales retain significant levels of reliability and validity. Thus, reducing the items of the BFI-44 to less than a fourth yielded effect sizes that were lower than those for the full BFI-44 but still sufficient for research settings with truly limited time constraints.
Adaptations are psychological and behavioral mechanisms designed through evolution to serve specific purposes ultimately related to reproductive success. Although adaptations are inherently functional, in some cases their operation can nevertheless cause personal and social dysfunction. We describe a theoretical framework for understanding, predicting, and reducing the dysfunctional consequences of psychological adaptations. We discuss three general sources of dysfunction: a) the existence of adaptive tradeoffs, b) mismatches between current environments and ancestral environments, and c) individual differences. The paper applies this framework primarily to the topic of social anxiety, a psychological phenomenon marked by concerns pertaining to social rejection and embarrassment. Although social anxiety can serve useful functions, it can also involve excessive worry, negative affect, and avoidance of social situations, leading to significant distress and social impairment. We consider sources of dysfunction in social anxiety and discuss implications for policy, including recommendations for psychological, situational, and biological interventions. We also discuss broader applications of this theoretical framework to other areas of social life.
Several recent, large epidemiologic and family studies suggest important temporal changes in the rates of major depression: an increase in the rates in the cohorts born after World War II; a decrease in the age of onset with an increase in the late teenaged and early adult years; an increase between 1960 and 1975 in the rates of depression for all ages; a persistent gender effect, with the risk of depression consistently two to three times higher among women than men across all adult ages; a persistent family effect, with the risk about two to three times higher in first-degree relatives as compared with controls; and the suggestion of a narrowing of the differential risk to men and women due to a greater increase in risk of depression among young men. These trends, drawn from studies using comparable methods and modern diagnostic criteria, are evident in the United States, Sweden, Germany, Canada, and New Zealand, but not in comparable studies conducted in Korea and Puerto Rico and of Mexican-Americans living in the United States. These cohort changes cannot be fully attributed to artifacts of reporting, recall, mortality, or labeling and have implications for understanding the etiology of depression and for clinical practice.
Openness to Experience is one of the 5 broad factors that subsume most personality traits. Openness is usually considered an intrapsychic dimension, defined in terms of characteristics of consciousness. However, different ways of approaching and processing experience lead to different value systems that exercise a profound effect on social interactions. In this article, the author reviews the effects of Openness versus Closedness in cultural innovation, political ideology, social attitudes, marital choice, and interpersonal relations. The construct of Openness and its measures could profitably be incorporated into research conducted by social psychologists, sociologists, political scientists, anthropologists, and historians.
Premature ejaculation (PE) is one of the most common male sexual dysfunctions. Successful treatment of PE has been hampered by the existence of a variety of definitions and diagnostic criteria and the lack of large, long-term studies of treatment efficacy. Numerous, diverse treatment approaches with varying degrees of efficacy have been used; these include behavioral, cognitive, and sex therapy techniques, and pharmacologic management with anti-depressants, phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors, and topical anesthetics. The approach most likely to provide success is a combination of cognitive and sex therapy with a pharmacologic agent of proven efficacy that has an easy-to-follow dosing regimen.
Intimate relationships
- R Miller
Miller, R. (2011). Intimate relationships (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Environments and adaptations: Then and now
- C Crawford
Crawford, C. (1998). Environments and adaptations: Then and now. In C. Crawford, & D. L.
Krebs (Eds.), Handbook of evolutionary psychology (pp. 275-302). Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Causes for remaining single. A comparative study
- B Prabhakar
Prabhakar, B. (2011). Causes for remaining single. A comparative study. Journal of
Psychosomatic Research, 6, 203-210.