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Contributions to Zoology, 86 (1) 39-50 (2017)
Reptiles traded in markets for medicinal purposes in contemporary Morocco
Vincent Nijman1, 2, 3, Daniel Bergin1, 2
1 Oxford Wildlife Trade Research Group, Oxford Brookes University, OX0 1BP, Oxford, UK
2 Little Fireface Project, Rumah Hijau, RT 01 / RW 04 Jalan Merpati, Cipaganti, Cisuru pan, Garut, West Java,
Indonesia
3
E-mail: vnijman@brookes.ac.uk
Key words: Bern Convention, CITES, ethnozoology, traditional medicine, wildlife trade
Abstract
Reptiles are traded globally for medicinal purposes. Historic
qualitative accounts of reptiles used as medicine in Morocco are
numerous, but contemporary quantitative data are rare. In 2013-
2014, we surveyed 49 wildlife markets in 20 towns throughout
Morocco, plus the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla. We
recorded 1,586 specimens of at least nine species for sale in 14 of
the Moroccan markets with a combined value of about US
$100,000. The most prominent markets were those in Marrakesh,
Meknes, Casablanca, and Fez, with the former two cites trading
equal quantities of dried and live specimens and the latter two
trading mainly dried specimens. Common species were the Med-
iterranean chameleon (Chamaeleo chamaeleon) with 720 speci-
mens (506 dried, 214 alive) and the Bell’s Dabb lizard (Uro-
mastyx acanthinura) with 428 specimens (247 dried, 181 alive),
both traded in 10 markets, and spur-thighed tortoise (Test udo
graeca; 57 carapaces), for sale in eight cities. Over 200 African
rock python (Python sebae) skins were identied and may have
been illicitly imported from other parts of Africa. The turnover
of Mediterranean chameleon and Bell’s Dabb lizard specimens
after four weeks as measured by repeat surveys was 66% for both
species, resulting in an estimated annual turnover of 1,520 cha-
meleons (range 921–2,303) and 775 lizards (range 364–1,174).
Despite legal protection and regulations locally within Morocco
and internationally through CITES, reptiles are commonly and
openly traded for medicinal pur poses throughout Morocco.
However, traders are not forthcoming in conveying the legal sta-
tus of these species and restrictions on trade to potential buyers.
Increased enforcement of existing wildlife protection legislation
is needed to prevent this exploitation from the illegal wildlife
trade that could negatively impacts imperiled species.
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................... 39
Material and methods .................................................................... 40
Data acquisition ..................................................................... 40
Analysis ...................................................................................... 41
Results ............................................................................................... 43
Volume and value of the trade ............................................. 43
Comparing markets ................................................................ 44
Species in trade and their medicinal uses ........................ 45
International trade in pythons and crocodiles
into Morocco ............................................................................ 46
Discussion ........................................................................................ 46
Generalities of the trade and its uses ................................ 46
Legality and regulation of the trade .................................. 48
Acknowledgements ........................................................................ 49
References ........................................................................................ 49
Introduction
Drugs made from leaves, herbs, roots, bulbs, bark, ani-
mals, animal parts, and animal derivatives are widely
listed in the pharmacopoeias of folk societies and in
traditional medicine (Adeola, 1992; Still, 2003; Maha-
war and Jaroli, 2008; Whiting et al., 2013; Segniagbeto
et al., 2013). Ingredients derived from wild plants and
animals are important in the preparation of traditional
remedies and the usefulness of these substances has
been long recognized in modern evidence-based med-
icine. For instance, an analysis in 2010 showed that
more than two-thirds of all drugs discovered over the
previous 30 years were derived from natural products
(Newman and Cragg, 2012). Certain types of medicine
can become so popular, sometimes spreading outside
the region in which they were initially used, that the
extraction of the raw material from the wild becomes
an impediment to biodiversity conservation. It has been
noted that some of the lesser known and smaller spe-
cies can be negatively affected by the trade for tradi-
tional medicine (Sadovy and Cheung, 2003; Nijman et
al., 2012a; Humle and Konate, 2015; Byard, 2016; Row-
ley et al., 2016). Reptiles (including turtles, tuataras,
lizards, snakes, and crocodiles) are widely used in folk
and traditional medicine (Zhou and Jiang, 2004; Alves
et al., 2008, 2009; Magnino et al., 2009; Segniagbeto
et al., 2013), and there are numerous examples in which
their use has led to the decline of species (Gong et al.,
2009; Nijman et al., 2012a, b; Caillabet, 2013).
40 Nijman & Bergin - Reptiles traded as medicine in Morocco
Morocco is an area of particular concern with re-
spect to the species declines, including those from me-
dicinal uses. With 99 species of reptiles, Morocco is
one of the Mediterranean countries with the highest
diversity of herpetofauna (Cox et al., 2006), in part be-
cause of the high levels (around 25%) of endemism
(Pleguezuelos et al., 2010). Endemic reptiles include
the Moroccan glass lizard (Ophisaurus koellikeri
Günther, 1873), mountain viper (Vipera monticola
Saint-Girons, 1954), Moroccan worm lizard (Blanus
mettetali Bons, 1963), Tangier worm lizard, (B. tingit-
anus Busack 1988), and, possibly, Moroccan spiny liz-
ard (Uromastyx nigriventris Rothschild and Hartert,
1912) (see Harris et al., 2007), the latter here treated as
part of Bell’s Dabb lizard (U. acanthinura Bell, 1825).
Many species are vulnerable due to intrinsic factors
such as restricted range, low density, and limited dis-
persal capacity. These threats are followed in impor-
tance by habitat loss, accidental mortality, and acci-
dental harvesting (Pleguezuelos et al., 2010). Endemic,
or otherwise small-ranged, species are also potentially
vulnerable to climate change (Martínez-Freiría et al.,
2013). The main causes of habitat loss and habitat deg-
radation are due to land use changes, with an increas-
ing proportion being used for intense agriculture (Cox
et al., 2006; van Lavieren and Wich, 2010). According
to Pleguezuelos et al. (2010), harvesting for traditional
medicine and entertainment is a serious threat to rep-
tiles in Morocco, particularly to snakes.
Compared to many other societies, the use of rep-
tiles in traditional medicine in Morocco has been rela-
tively well documented. However, contemporary quan-
titative accounts are rare. Jackson (1810) reported on
the trade in the Mediterranean chameleon (Chamaeleo
chamaeleon Linnaeus, 1758) in the cities that are cur-
rently known as Marrakesh and Fez, noting that both
the meat and the dried bodies were sold in drug shops.
A few decades later, Leared (1876) reported on the
medicine used by Moroccans, using data and speci-
mens collected primarily at Marrakesh and Essaouira.
The majority of his report concerns medicine derived
from plants and reptiles. Like Jackson, he singled out
the Mediterranean chameleon as a species of particu-
lar importance in trade. Fifty years later, Westermarck
(1926) wrote a treaty on the rituals and beliefs of the
Moroccans and devoted a signicant section to the
medicinal uses of and mysticism surrounding animals,
including spur-thighed tortoises (Testudo graeca Lin-
naeus, 1758), chameleons, lizards, and especially snakes.
Fogg (1938, 1941) reported on the uses of plants, ani-
mals, and minerals as used by a single traditional folk
doctor in the northernmost part of the country border-
ing the Mediterranean Sea. He gave accounts of the
medicinal uses for Mediterranean chameleons, a lizard
(possibly either Atlas dwarf lizard, (Atlantolacerta
andrea nskyi Werner, 1929), North Africa eyed lizard,
(Timon tangitanus Boulenger, 1887) or Tunisian eyed
lizard, (Timon pater Lataste, 1880)), and skin and fat
of sna kes.
More recent accounts of use of reptiles included
those by Akhmisse (1985), who focused strongly on
the mystical aspects but who singled out the Mediter-
ranean chameleon and the spur-thighed tortoises for
medicinal uses, and Meziane (2003), who gave a con-
temporary account of the use of traditional medicine
in the town of D’Oujda and highlighted the use of cha-
meleons and snakes. Although there was no mention
of their use in medicine, Znari et al. (2005) found 692
spur-thighed tortoises in the markets at Marrakesh in
2001, a high proportion of which were small individu-
als. Higheld and Bayley (2007) gave a brief overview
of the folklore, myths, and exploitation of reptiles in
Morocco (and Tunisia), but added few new quantitative
data. Finally, and most recently, Martin and Perry-
Martin (2012) reported on the wildlife trade. They re-
corded an unknown number of live Mediterranean
chameleons and other lizards for sale in Fez as well as
dried Mediterranean chameleons and stuffed iguanas
(Iguana spp.) in Marrakesh, but provided few addi-
tional details.
Here we focus on the trade of reptiles to be used for
medicinal purposes as observed in the open markets
throughout Morocco. We conducted repeat surveys of
a large number of markets, quantied species compo-
sitions and volumes in trade, and documented purported
medicinal properties and uses. Some of the species we
documented in trade are considered globally or region-
ally threatened with extinction (Pleguezuelos et al.,
2010) and we aim to better our understanding of the
threat that traditional medicinal trade in Morocco poses
to the species and to report ways in which the trade of
imperiled reptiles are regulated.
Material and methods
Data acquisition
We surveyed the wildlife markets in 20 towns through-
out Morocco in April to June 2013, April to May 2014,
and December 2014, as well as the Spanish exclaves of
Ceuta and Melilla in northern Morocco in April 2014
41Contributions to Zoology, 86 (1) – 2017
(Fig. 1). We selected the towns to include all of the
larger ones (including the capital Rabat), important
trade hubs (including ferry ports such as Tangiers), and
two border towns. We visited 13 markets only once,
but surveyed others up to six times over all three sur-
vey periods. The total survey effort was 49 visits. We
identied and counted reptiles sold for medicinal
pur
poses, and we gathered data on usages and prices
through informal conversations with vendors and
medicine dispensers. In towns that we surveyed only
once, we selected the vendors with whom we held con-
versations (in French or, when initiated by the vendor
in English) to represent as much as possible the variety
of trade that was on offer. In towns that were re-sur-
veyed, we ensured that individual traders were not in-
cluded twice.
While individual vendors were not necessarily able
or willing to provide information on all species on dis-
play, unlike the report of Fogg (1941), we communi-
cated with a large number of vendors and herbalists
who allowed us to build up a narrative of the trade and
the uses of reptiles. We made most species identica-
tions in the market itself. However, over the course of
the study, we were able to photograph a large number
of items, thus allowing us to verify our market identi-
cations. We visited the markets of Marrakesh, Casa-
blanca, Meknes, and Fez multiple times, providing the
greatest amount of data on the use of reptiles for me-
dicinal purposes. We use data from these four towns to
provide a more detailed account, including more de-
tailed analysis, of this trade.
Data on the import of African rock python (Python
sebae Gmelin, 1788) and Nile crocodile (Crocodylus
niloticus Laurenti, 1768), two species that are not, or
are no longer, native to Morocco, were obtained from
the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) trade data-
base (www.cites.trade.org). These two species are list-
ed on the CITES appendices and all import and export
between parties needs to be reported to the CITES
Secretariat annually. Morocco is a party to CITES, as
are all countries in the ranges of the African rock py-
thon and Nile crocodile. We retrieved both data on the
import as reported by Morocco and on the export to
Morocco as reported by other countries.
Analysis
Several species that are sold for medicinal purposes
are also traded for other uses (e.g., to be used as pets)
and it was not always possible to establish their intend-
ed purpose with certainty. In the few cases were there
could have been uncertainty about usages, or when
animals were offered for sale for potentially multiple
purposes, we made an educated guess using contextual
data to include or excluded these observations to elim-
inate questionable data. Thus, a live chameleon for sale
in a shop selling live tortoises is most likely to be sold
as a pet, but a live chameleon for sale at the store of an
herbalist is more likely to be used for medicinal pur-
poses. Likewise, tortoise carapaces on display at a me-
dicinal shop suggest use in medicine, whereas the
same carapace on display in a tourist shop is likely to
be sold for decorative purposes. In the market, we re-
quested the asking prices for the most commonly trad-
ed species and converted these to US dollars (US$)
using an exchange rate of nine Dirham (MAD) to the
dollar. We used these prices to calculate the value of
each species in trade, and summed them to arrive at an
overall value of the trade. Asking prices will go down
after bartering or when more than one specimen at a
time is purchased. Because we did not want to make
any purchases, the overall gure we present in our re-
sults may overestimate the total value of the trade.
For each species in each market, we calculated the
average number of species that we observed per survey
(i.e., dividing the total number of individuals observed
in a particular town by the number of surveys that
were conducted in that town). We used four cities that
were surveyed multiple times (i.e., Casablanca, Fez,
Marrakesh, and Meknes), which we believe are repre-
sentative of different aspects of the trade in reptiles in
Morocco, to compare markets in more detail. For each
market city and for each survey, we calculated the total
Fig. 1. Map of Morocco showing the towns that were surveyed
between April 2013 and December 2014 for the presence of rep-
tiles used for medicinal purposes.
42 Nijman & Bergin - Reptiles traded as medicine in Morocco
number of species for sale as a measure of species
richness, as well as the proportion of trade in live ani-
mals versus dried animals; differences between mar-
ket cities were tested using ANOVAs.
We calculated minimum turnover of Mediterrane-
an chameleon and Bell’s Dabb lizard two commonly
observed species, by repeat visits to eight individual
shops for the chameleons (four shops in Marrakesh,
two shops in Fez and Rabat) and six individual shops
for Bell’s Dabb lizard (four shops in Meknes, two
shops in Marrakesh), all within a four-week period. It
was not possible to calculate turnover when in between
surveys a new consignment of animals had arrived and
the number of Mediterranean chameleons or Bell’s
Dabb lizards in the shops had increased; our turnover
gures thus are minimum estimates. Using the four-
week turnover gures, we calculated annual numbers
of turnover for each city in which we observed Medi-
terranean chameleons or Bell’s Dabb lizards for sale
and combined them for an overall annual gure. For
the other species, we were not able to collect rm data
on turnover but, given the non-perishable nature of
many items, we expect that at least parts of the inven-
tory can remain unsold for several months. To reduce
the effect of non-independence of data in exploring
temporal patterns, we used data from surveys done at
least three months apart.
For testing whether observed frequencies of occur-
rence were homogeneously distributed over all classes,
and whether signicant differences existed between
the different classes, we used sequential chi-square
tests. Expected frequencies were generated based on a
random distribution proportional to sampling effort
per market or per survey. Pearson product-moment
correlation coefcients were calculated to explore cor-
relates with trade volumes. Statistics were run in R (R
Development Core Team, 2015); we present means and
ranges and accepted signicance when P < 0.05.
Table 1. Mean number of reptiles traded for medicinal purposes in 20 Moroccan towns in 2013 and 2014. For towns that were surveyed
more than once, the range is given. Values in italics include live individuals and values in normal font represent traded in dried speci-
mens only. No snakes were identied to species. Key to genus names: T. = Tes tud o, C. = Camaeleo, U. = Uromastr yx, V. = Varanus, C.
= Crocodylus, N. = Naja, B. = Bitis, P. = Python. Snakes refers to unidentied snakes other than Egyptian cobra, puff adder or African
rock python.
City Spur-thighed Mediterranean Bell’s Dabb Desert Nile Egyptian Puff African
(number of tortoise chameleon monitor lizard lizard crocodile cobra adder rock python
su rveys) (T. g ra ca e) (C. chamaeleon) (U. ac an thinura) (V. gri se u s) (C. niloticus) (N. haje) (B. arietans) (P. s eb ae) Snake Total
Fez (6) 0.5 (0-2) 5.7 (0-13) 10.8 (4-33) 0.7 (0-1) 3.2 (2-4) 0 0 5.3 (2-14) 0 26.2
Meknes (6) 0.3 (0-2) 9.3 (0 -55) 12 (6-20) 0.7 (0-1) 0 0.3 (0-1) 1.7 (0-5) 4.7 (3-6) 0.8 (0 -3) 29. 3
Rabat (5) 0.2 (0-1) 10.7 (0 -32) 0.7 (0-3) 0 0.5 (0-2) 0 0 2.8 (0-4) 0 14.8
Marrakesh (5) 7.2 (5-10) 71. 2 (16 -237) 39.6 (4-79) 0. 4 (0-1) 4.4 (2-7) 4 (0-9) 10.8 (0-18) 24.4 (6-40) 1.4 (0 -3) 16 3.4
Tangier (4) 0 0.75 (0-3) 4 (0-23) 0 0 0 0 0 0 8.8
Casablanca (3) 3.3 (0-10) 61 (23-106) 15.7 (8-31) 0 1.3 (0-3) 0 0 4.3 (0-5) 0 85.7
Sale (2) 0 2 (0-4) 0.5 (0-1) 2.5 (2-3) 0 0 0 0 0 5
Taroudant (2) 0 2.5 (0-5) 0 0 0 0 0 1 (0-2) 0 3.5
Tetuan (2) 1.5 (0-3) 0 1 (0-2) 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.5
Agadir (1) 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4
Asilah (1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Beni Nsar (1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Chefchaouen (1) 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
El Jadida (1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Essaouira (1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fnideq (1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kenitra (1) 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
Ouijda (1) 2 11 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 17
Sa (1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Taza (1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Total (% markets) 57 (40%) 720 (45%) 428 (50%) 15 (20%) 52 (20%) 22 (10%) 61 (10%) 219 (40%) 12 (10%) 1.586 (70%)
43Contributions to Zoology, 86 (1) – 2017
Results
Volume and value of the trade
We observed that herbalists displayed protected wild-
life openly on the street or in the front of their shops
and did not appear concerned about regulations ban-
ning sale of the species they displayed; this allowed us
to accurately assess the levels of trade. We recorded at
least nine species of reptile in trade for medicinal pur-
poses (Fig. 2). The most common was the Mediterra-
nean chameleon, followed by Bell’s Dabb lizard, Afri-
can rock python, spur-thighed tortoises, and desert
monitor lizards (Varanus griseus; Table 1). These
spe
cies were not equally abundant in the markets (c2 =
657.1, df = 5, P < 0.001). The desert monitor lizard, Nile
crocodile, Egyptian cobra (Naja haje Linnaeus, 1758),
and puff adder (Bitis arietans Merrem, 1820) were
each observed in smaller numbers than expected when
compared to the other remaining species combined
(all c2 > 28.9, df = 1, P < 0.001), whereas the spur-
thighed tortoise, Bell’s Dabb lizard, and Mediterrane-
an chameleon were all observed in higher numbers
than expected (c2 > 23.4, df = 1, P < 0.001). Only the
African rock python was observed in numbers that did
not differ from the expected values when compared to
all other species combined (c2 = 0.20, df = 1, P > 0.60).
The volumes of the four most common species in
trade in the six cities with the largest volumes of these
species show that the species are not traded in equal
proportions in these cities (c2 = 38.0, df = 15, P = 0.0 2).
Thus, Mediterranean chameleon and African rock py-
thon were observed in smaller numbers in Casablanca
than can be expected on the basis of the number of
Fig. 2. Trade of reptiles for medicinal purposes in Morocco, clockwise from top left: (A) vendor with desert monitor lizard and Bell’s
Dabb lizards at herbalist stall in Meknes advertises medicinal products; (B) herbalist stall in Marrakesh; (C) herbalist stall in Casa-
blanca both selling dried Mediterranean chameleons and stuffed Bell’s Dabb lizards; and (D) live Mediterranean chameleon and Bell’s
Dabb lizard at a herbalist in Fez. All photographs by Daniel Bergin.
44 Nijman & Bergin - Reptiles traded as medicine in Morocco
these species in other markets relative to the number of
other species observed in Casablanca (c2 = 67.5, df = 1,
P < 0.001 for the Mediterranean chameleon, and c2 =
267.6, df = 1, P < 0.001 for the African rock python).
Conversely, the number of Bell’s Dabb lizard in Meknes
was higher than expected on the basis of the overall
(across cities) proportion of this species (
c
2 = 105.1,
df
= 1, P < 0.001).
Prices for the Moroccan species were generally
low, with asking prices for spur-thighed tortoise cara-
pace being around US$11, Mediterranean chameleons
US$6–44, Bell’s Dabb lizards US$13–22, and desert
monitor lizards around US$55. Skins of Nile croco-
diles and African rock pythons were considerably
higher, with the former demanding prices of US$388–
665 and the latter US$133–665. While more expensive
species were less common in trade, there was no sig-
nicant relationship between the mean value and the
volumes observed in trade (r = -0.26, n = 6, P = 0.61).
The combined the retail value of all the items observed
during the 49 surveys was about US$100,000 (MAD-
900,000), with some 70% of this value made up of spe-
cies not, or no longer, native to Morocco. The mean
turnover for Mediterranean chameleons after four
weeks in the eight shops monitored was 66% (range
40–100%), resulting in an annual turnover of 1,520
chameleons (range 921–2,303). The mean turnover for
Bell’s Dabb lizards after four weeks in the six shops
monitored was 66% (range 31–100%), resulting in an
annual turnover of 775 lizards (range 364–1,174).
Comparing markets
Reptiles were traded for medicinal purposes in 14 of
the 20 markets we surveyed in Morocco and the trade
in these markets differed in several ways (Table 1). No
medicinal reptile trade was observed in the Spanish
exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla. In eight markets, we ob-
served small numbers (fewer than nine individuals) of
reptiles, often comprising one or two species; in four
markets, we found intermediate numbers (14–30 indi-
viduals) of three to eight species and in two markets,
large numbers (> 85 individuals) of ve to nine spe-
cies. There was a positive association between the size
of the city (in terms of human inhabitants) and the
number of reptiles for sale (Pearson’s r = 0.76, n = 22,
P < 0.001; Fig. 3); this association remained signicant
after the exclusion of cities where no reptiles were ob-
served (r = 0.69, n = 14, P = 0.006). In Casablanca and
Marrakesh, the most commonly observed reptiles we
observed in trade were Mediterranean chameleons,
whereas Bell’s Dabb lizards were equally or more
common in Fez and Mekness. For cities where reptiles
were offered for sale, there was a positive association
between the size of a city and the number of herbalists
(r = 0.54, n = 14, P = 0.05), and there was a very strong
positive association between the number of herbalists
and the total number of reptiles for sale (r = 0.82, n =
14, P < 0.001).
Based on our qualitative observations, the market
in Casablanca clearly was oriented towards the local
population, being geographically distinct from the
tourist section, and only Moroccans were observed in
this area. Reptiles were mostly sold in wooden shops
located in a dedicated medicinal area. In Fez, the
shops with reptiles for sale were in and around the gen-
eral tourist area and slightly off to the side streets. The
shops in Fez were more solidly built and were more
frequented by tourists than in Casablanca. Marrakesh
was much more geared towards tourists and the three
sections where herbalists sold traditional medicine
were all located in the main market. Reptiles were sold
in shops, stalls, and in ground stalls. In Meknes,
ground stalls were particularly common and trade was
clearly geared towards the local customers. Bottles
with pictures of animals were common in the ground
stalls in Meknes and Marrakesh. The vendors of these
ground stalls would, in the evenings, hold up live rep-
tiles and call out to passers-by, advertising their me-
Fig. 3. Relationship between the average number of reptiles of-
fered for sale per survey in 22 cities surveyed in Morocco and the
number of human inhabitants in these cities. Data are log-trans-
formed; the maximum average number of reptiles was 163.4 (in
Marrakesh) and the largest city is Casablanca with 2.9 million
inhabitants.
45Contributions to Zoology, 86 (1) – 2017
dicinal properties and invariably drawing a substantial
crowd.
While there were differences in the species rich-
ness in each survey year between these four cities (F3,11
= 5.09, P = 0.02) (Figure 4) and in the numbers of rep-
tiles sold alive (F3,11 = 8.44, P = 0.003) or dried (F3,11 =
4.31, P = 0.03), the proportion of dried specimens did
not differ signicantly between cities (F3,11 = 2.24, P =
0.14). Fez and Casablanca were similar in terms of the
number of species for sale (i.e., about three to four),
and in the proportion of trade that comprised dried
specimens, which ranged from 68–100% (average
86%) in Fez and from 69–92% (average 82%) in Casa-
blanca. In contrast, the trade in Marrakesh and Meknes
comprised more species (about four to six) and a larger
proportion of live trade; dried specimens made up 63%
(range 37–83%) in Marrakesh and 59% (range 35–84%)
in Meknes (Fig. 4).
Species in trade and their medicinal uses
Over 95% of spur-thighed tortoises observed in trade
were alive and intended to be sold as pets. The largest
numbers were offered for sale as pets in Marrakesh
and Casablanca, where they were often displayed in
large plastic boxes in front of the shops. We recorded
57 carapaces, found in eight of the 20 cities surveyed.
The highest numbers we recorded were in Marrakesh
and Casablanca, both with up to 10 carapaces per sur-
vey, but generally numbers of carapaces were low.
The most commonly traded reptile was the Medi-
terranean chameleon, which was offered for sale in
half of the markets surveyed. We recorded 720 indi-
viduals, 214 of them alive and 506 dried and stuffed.
Numbers were highest in Marrakesh (74 alive, 282
dried, recorded in each survey with up to 237 per sur-
vey) and Casablanca (24 alive, 159 dried, recorded in
each survey with up to 106 per survey), but the species
is also frequently traded in Rabat (61 alive, none dried,
recorded in all but one survey with up to 32 per sur-
vey). We recorded chameleons only once out of six
surveys when we found 55 dried specimens in Meknes
in April 2014. There was a clear relationship between
the number of herbal shops in a city and the number of
chameleons that were offered for sale (r = 0.58, n = 14,
P = 0.03; Fig. 4).
Bell’s Dabb lizards were traded in signicant quan-
tities in 10 cities: 428 individuals (181 live, 247 dried
or stuffed), with highest numbers in Marrakesh (98
live, 100 dried) and Meknes (42 live, 30 dried). Just as
with chameleons, there was a clear relationship be-
tween the number of herbal shops in a city and the
number of Bell’s Dabb lizards that are offered for sale
(r = 0.66, n = 14, P = 0.01; Fig. 5). We were informed
that burning them was helpful for your eyes and that
keeping one in a new house brought good luck.
Fig. 4. Trade in reptiles for medicinal purposes in four Moroccan
markets surveyed between April 2013 and December 2014. Open
bars are dried specimens and solid bars are live individuals (the
number of dried specimens in Marrakesh in June 2013 was 234
and is outside the scale); lines represent species diversity.
Fig. 5. Relationship between the number of herbal shops in a city
and the mean number of Mediterra nean chameleons (open squares,
upper regression line) and Bell’s Dabb lizards (lled circles, lower
regression line) for sale in 14 cities where reptiles are sold for me-
dicinal purposes. Data are log-transformed. The maximum num-
ber of herbal shops was 41, the maximum number of Mediterra-
nean chameleon was 71.2 individuals, and the maximum number
of Bell’s Dabb lizard was 39.6 individuals, all in Marrakesh.
46 Nijman & Bergin - Reptiles traded as medicine in Morocco
We recorded small numbers of desert monitor
lizards, with one live individual in Meknes, two live
individuals in Marrakesh, ve stuffed in Sale, and
four stuffed in Fez. One vendor had a bottle with liq-
uid in which he claimed there were monitor lizard
parts, advertised as Sahara Medicine, but we were
unable to verify whether or not the species was in-
deed bottled. Desert monitor lizard parts were said
to increase virility.
We observed Egyptian cobras, puff adders and
other unidentied snakes in Marrakesh (81 live speci-
mens) and in Meknes (14 specimens) only. We were
not able to determine how the snakes were used when
alive, although they may have been displayed to draw
in the crowds. We saw African rock python skins in
eight of the 20 cities. The largest numbers we observed
were in Marrakesh (122), Fez (32), and Rabat (17). We
observed 52 Nile crocodiles, either as skins (27) or as
stuffed specimens (25) and we observed the highest
numbers in Fez (18) and Marrakesh (22). African rock
python skins have been used as relief for asthma, but it
is unclear what medical uses skins or the stuffed croc-
odiles have.
International trade in pythons and crocodiles into
Morocco
African rock pythons and Nile crocodiles are not (or
no longer) native to Morocco, and must have been im-
ported from countries to the south or southeast of Mo-
rocco. Morocco has never reported any imports of Af-
rican rock pythons to the CITES Secretariat (i.e., there
are no recorded imports in the CITES trade database),
but several West African countries reported the export
of African rock python to Morocco between 1986 and
2007 (Guinea, one live individual in 1986; Sudan, six
skins in 1991; Chad, three skins in 2000, and Niger, 62
live individuals in 2002 and 806 skins in 2000–2007).
If the skins observed in the markets in 2013–2014
were indeed part of these imports, then some of them
must have been imported in 2007 the latest. Morocco
reported the import of four live Nile crocodile for a
zoo in 1999 to the CITES Secretariat, but several
countries reported the export of Nile crocodile to Mo-
rocco between 1991 and 2007. If the skins and stuffed
crocodiles observed in the markets in 2013–2014 were
indeed part of these imports, then some of them must
have been imported in 2007 at the latest.
Discussion
Generalities of the trade and its uses
We show a sustained availability and signicant trade
in reptiles throughout Morocco to meet the demand for
traditional medicine. We observed Mediterranean cha-
meleon, Bell’s Dabb lizard, and spur-thighed tortoises
in the hundreds. Our turnover data suggest that the de-
mand for traditional medicine is responsible for the
extraction of possibly more than a thousand Mediter-
ranean chameleons and Bell’s Dabb lizards every year.
We think that the way we measured turnover is con-
servative (i.e., checking a small number of shops over
four-week periods is probably not enough to capture
the intricacies of a dynamic market) and that real num-
bers of reptiles sold for medicinal purposes on an an-
nual basis may be considerably more. While the turno-
ver data we collected gave us some insight in the dy-
namics of the reptile-for-medicine trade, it is clear that
a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics,
both temporal and spatial, that govern the use of rep-
tiles as sources for medicine is of paramount impor-
tance. This is all the more true given that such uses are
seldom exclusively based on animals and usually also
includes plants (Alves et al., 2013).
Our observations in the contemporary markets in
Morocco suggest very similar uses of some of the
more commonly traded reptiles compared to that what
has been reported in the past. At the same time some
very specic uses are mentioned by earlier visitors to
the country that were not recorded by us. Thus, West-
ermark (1926) noted that tortoise carapaces when
burned and the smoke inhaled could cure a person
who had become a victim of witchcraft. Tortoise cara-
paces, again when burned, can also be used by a mar-
ried woman for taming her rowdy and quarrelsome
husband (Westermark, 1926). Tortoise carapace may
also be used for trembling hands, insomnia, and anxi-
ety (Akhmisse, 1985). Westermark (1926) noted that
contact with the blood or urine of a tortoise can cause
warts (which in turn can be cured by applying the
blood of a hedgehog), but, according to Higheld and
Bayley (2007), its blood is a sure cure for warts.
Now and in the past, Mediterranean chameleons
have a wide range of uses and are used to cure a vari-
ety of illnesses, including, according to many older
sources, ones that are linked to witchcraft and warding
off the evil eye (Jackson, 1810; Leared, 1876; Wester-
marck, 1926; Fogg, 1938, 1941; Akhmisse, 1985).
Dried chameleon cooked in butter and eaten in small
47Contributions to Zoology, 86 (1) – 2017
quantities, or when burned and the smoke inhaled, is
considered a remedy against sickness, nausea, and de-
bility. We were informed that burning chameleons
would guard against bad luck and combat curses
wished upon one by another person. A tonic infused
with a chameleon can be used as a cure for fever. When
charred and pounded, a chameleon is a remedy for
skin abscess, and applied externally it is a cure for in-
sect stings or bites. Meziane (2003) noted that the esh
of a chameleon was used to prevent or to remedy fe-
male sterility, frigidity, and impotence in northern
Morocco. Jackson (1810) noted that a chameleon split
open alive was a common application to wounds and
sores; we do not know whether this practice (splitting
chameleons open alive) is still in vogue, but we did not
observe it nor was it pointed out to us.
We were informed that Bell’s Dabb lizard, when
burned, was helpful for your eyes and that keeping
one in a new house brought good luck. Fogg (1941)
reported that inhaling the smoke of a pounded and
burned lizard is a remedy for a scorpion or snakebite
as well as for sickness believed due to poisoning
through having eaten bewitched food. In the south of
Morocco, infants’ feeding bottles are traditionally
made from dried Bell’s Dabb lizards (Higheld and
Bayley, 2007). The only other country where Bell’s
Dabb lizards (and indeed other Uromastyx li zar ds)
are traded for medicinal purposes in a contemporary
society appears to be Malaysia where there is an on-
going trade in especially their oil (Knapp, 2004; Ch-
ing and Chng, 2016). In Malaysia the products of
Uromastyx lizards appear to target a Muslim audi-
ence as products are promoted as halal, a binding Is-
lamic certication concerning the consumption of
certain products or foods according to religious rules
(Ching and Chng, 2016).
We recorded a limited number of uses for snakes
and lizards other than Bell’s Dabb lizard. The Tuaregs
believe that the head of a desert monitor lizard is a
potent talisman against snakebites (H igheld and Bay-
ley, 2007). According to Fogg (1941) snake skin has
several uses. Inhaling the smoke of a pounded and
burned snake, is a remedy for fever, for heart trouble,
or for any kind of serious disease or afiction, and
rubbed on the eyes of a person it is a remedy for watery
eyes, or a preventive of such. Snake-fat is remedy for
hemorrhoids.
Our survey suggests that in contemporary Moroc-
co, there is still a need and a desire to use animal-
based traditional medicine. Reptiles and/or their parts
are believed to cure a range of ailments including sick-
ness, nausea, fever, external wounds or bites, and, less
frequently, anxiety, insomnia or fertility-related ill-
nesses, in particular when the cause of these ailments
is linked to witchcraft and warding off the evil eye.
Most of the species we observed in trade were known
to be used in Morocco for medicinal purposes (Jack-
son, 1810; Leared, 1876; Higheld and Bayley, 2007),
and indeed as such have been included in a recent
compendium of reptiles used in traditional folk medi-
cine (Alves et al., 2008; 2013). Given that no non-Afri-
can reptiles were observed during any of our surveys,
we believe that the stuffed iguanas (an exclusively New
World taxon) reported by Martin and Perry-Martin
(2012) most likely refers to misidentied Bell’s Dabb
lizards (or even North African eyed lizard, noting that
we did not observe this species in trade). Besides their
supposed role in healing, it is clear that the reptiles
often have magical-religious signicance, reecting
the different views of health and disease that exist
amongst cultures; animal parts are used to prepare
clinical remedies as well as to make amulets or charms
used in magical diagnoses (Alves et al., 2008).
The popularity of reptile-based medicine, as well
as its perceived efciency, is inuenced by cultural as-
pects, traditions, and social economic relations. Tradi-
tional folk medicine is widely available and affordable,
and generally accessible to most people. While it is
tempting to think that in contemporary societies it is to
be largely conned to remote rural areas, our study
shows that availability in cities (most if not all of them
having one or several hospitals practicing evidence-
based medicine) remains high.
It is clear that the trade in reptiles, protected or not,
is poorly regulated in Morocco’s markets (Benardouze
et al., 2004; Bergin and Nijman, 2014; Nijman et al.,
2016). Either traders are unaware of the rules and reg-
ulations that preclude trade in protected species or
they believe that the authorities allow them to continue
to offer these species for sale without repercussions.
While market data appear to have limited value in
gauging off-take levels from populations in the wild,
population data of many Moroccan reptiles are not ro-
bust enough to assure that collection of reptiles for the
medicine trade does not have a detrimental effect. Un-
fortunately, Morocco’s track record with respect to en-
vironmental and species protection is far from reas-
suring. Morocco ranks relatively low on the Biodiver-
sity and Habitat protection component of the global
Environmental Performance Ranking as it ranks 134
out of 177 countries that were assessed in 2014 (Hsu et
al., 2014). Compared to its neighbours, Morocco is
48 Nijman & Bergin - Reptiles traded as medicine in Morocco
ranked just above Tunisia (136), but below Mauretania
(132), Algeria (130), Spain (101) and Portugal (83).
While we found a great number of similarities in
the nature of the reptile trade between cities through-
out Morocco, there are also some clear differences. In
Fez and Casablanca, small numbers of species were on
offer and these were mostly in the form of dried speci-
mens, whereas in Marrakesh and Meknes a large vari-
ety of species was available and these included a larger
number of live animals. What was common in these
four markets, and indeed the other cities where we ob-
served the reptile trade, is the openness of the trade.
Legality and regulation of trade
The spur-thighed tortoise and the three species of liz-
ard we observed in trade are included on the list of
protected species, precluding all trade in them, and all
four plus the two identied species of snake are con-
sidered threatened at the national level (Franchimont
and Saadaoui, 2001). Morocco is one of four African
countries that have acceded to the Convention on the
Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habi-
tats (Bern Convention). The Convention regulates spe-
cies conservation by imposing restrictions on taking
species from the wild and on exploitation. It further-
more constitutes a commitment to protect the habitat
of species. The spur-thighed tortoise and the Mediter-
ranean chameleon are included on Appendix II: Strict-
ly Protected Fauna Species, and these may not be dis-
turbed, captured, killed, or traded. Bell’s Dabb lizard
and desert monitor lizard are included on Appendix
III: Protected Fauna Species, and these species may
only be hunted or otherwise exploited in exceptional
instances.
In January 2011, Law No. 29-05 on the Protection
of Species of Wild Flora and Fauna and their Trade
was promulgated and adopted at national level (Bergin
and Nijman, 2016), and can now be implemented. In-
cluded with this law is a list of protected species for
which the importation, capture, sale, offer for sale, or
killing is illegal without a specic license. Lawbreak-
ers can be ned up to US$11,000 for illegal trade in
selected species. Falsifying or misusing permits can
lead to nes of up to US$5,500. However, our interpre-
tation of the current law is that government inspectors
are not allowed to enter shops to check for the pres-
ence of protected wildlife or wildlife products without
permission from the owners (Martin and Perry-Mar-
tin, 2012). Martin and Perry-Martin (2012) further
noted that current laws do permit government authori-
ties to inspect and conscate illegal wildlife cargo at
the international land borders, airports and seaports,
thus conrming the existence of an Airport Bias with
the authorities failing to detect the majority of illicit
trade (Phelps et al., 2010).
Morocco ratied the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES) in 1976. Unfortunately, hitherto the imple-
menting legislation does not meet all of the require-
ments of the Convention. Once Law No. 29-05 is
signed and properly implemented, it is expected that
Morocco’s legislation will meet the requirements. Al-
most all reptile species observed in trade are included
on CITES Appendix II. A species is included on this
appendix if there is a high likelihood that if trade is not
closely controlled it may become threatened with ex-
tinction. Following the Convention, international trade
in specimens of Appendix-II species may be author-
ized by the granting of an export permit or re-export
certicate. Permits or certicates should only be
granted if the relevant authorities (in Morocco Le Haut
Commissaire aux Eaux et Forêts et à la Lutte Contre la
Dsertication, known as Eaux et Forts) are satised
that certain conditions are met, above all that trade
will not be detrimental to the survival of the species in
the wild. It is encouraging that we did not observe any
reptiles for medicinal purposes for sale in the Spanish
cities of Ceuta or Melilla nor in the Moroccan cities of
Fnideq or Beni Nsar, bordering Ceuta and Melilla,
suggesting that the ow of wildlife from Morocco to
Europe via this route is either not open or at least is
small.
Morocco is not unique in its struggle against the
illegal wildlife trade, and reptiles are traded the world
over with and without permits. In a recent review,
drawing on examples from the global trade in reptiles
for the pet market, Auliya et al. (2016) concluded that
“There are limited resources in many regions that re-
sult in under-staffed national authorities. This in turn
provides the conditions necessary to circumvent na-
tional and international regulations. Better implemen-
tation of current regulations, including a checks and
balances approach as well as strengthening of enforce-
ment is necessary” thus clearly echoing our experi-
ences in Morocco. In the foreseeable future it can be
expected that reptiles will continue to be traded in
many of the market towns included in our survey. In
light of recent developments in terms of improved leg-
islation and given the commitment Morocco has ex-
pressed through international treaties (CITES, Bern
Convention) there is some hope for optimism with
49Contributions to Zoology, 86 (1) – 2017
respect to curbing the illegal trade in protected and
globally threatened reptiles. However, these regula-
tions will not be effective without increased enforce-
ment and, crucially, enforcement actions that extend to
all levels of the judiciary from local police ofcers to
judges in the highest courts.
Acknowledgements
We thank the students of P10203 International Legislation, Hu-
mans and Wildlife at Oxford Brookes University for helpful
discussions and feedback, Els van Lavieren (Moroccan Primate
Conservation, Amsterdam), Isabelle Six, and Mohamed Ame-
zian (Groupe de Recherche pour la Protection des Oiseaux au
Maroc, Rabat) for information and support, and Ann Paterson
(Williams Baptist College, Walnut Ridge) for reviewing earlier
versions of this paper. Juan M Pleguezuelos and two anony-
mous reviewers provided helpful suggestions for improvement.
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Received: 30 May 2016
Revised and accepted: 16 September 2016
Published online: 23 February 2017
Editor: S.E.T. van der Meij
