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Wind turbine blade waste in 2050
Abstract
Wind energy has developed rapidly over the last two decades to become one of the most promising and economically viable sources of renewable energy. Although wind energy is claimed to provide clean renewable energy without any emissions during operation, but it is only one side of the coin. The blades, one of the most important components in the wind turbines, made with composite, are currently regarded as unrecyclable. With the first wave of early commercial wind turbine installations now approaching their end of life, the problem of blade disposal is just beginning to emerge as a significant factor for the future. This paper is aimed at discovering the magnitude of the wind turbine blade waste problem, looking not only at disposal but at all stages of a blade’s lifecycle. The first stage of the research, the subject of this paper, is to accurately estimate present and future wind turbine blade waste inventory using the most recent and most accurate data available. The result will provide a solid reference point to help the industry and policy makers to understand the size of potential environmental problem and to help to manage it better. This study starts by estimating the annual blade material usage with wind energy installed capacity and average blade weight. The effect of other waste contributing factors in the full lifecycle of wind turbine blades is then included, using industrial data from the manufacturing, testing and in-service stages. The research indicates that there will be 43 million tonnes of blade waste worldwide by 2050 with China possessing 40% of the waste, Europe 25%, the United States 16% and the rest of the world 19%.
... Typically, this occurs before the design life is reached. [18]. This may result from manufacturing defects, extreme weather conditions (e.g., lightning strikes or intense rainfall), leading edge erosion, trailing edge erosion as well as other structural deterioration [19]. ...
... Andersen et al. [38] estimates EOL blade material up to 2050 based on a 20-year lifespan and material predictions up to 2030. Liu and Barlow [18] estimate blade material across the four major wind energy markets (China, US, EU and the rest of the world) and calculate blade waste for onshore wind farms installed from 1998 to 2015, plus the material from future installations of wind turbines up to 2050. They forecast blade material up to 2050 while accounting for three lifetime scenarios (18, 20 and 25 years). ...
... Liu and Barlow [18], Lichtenegger et al. [39] and Cooperman et al. [40] also include in their estimates the material used to manufacture the blades (which is not primarily composite materials), the material used in the operation and maintenance (O&M) phase (including repairs or replacements due to damage) as well as the blades that are decommissioned annually. The additional waste material is typically taken as a percentage of the blade mass. ...
In recent years, the sustainability of wind power has been called into question because there are currently no truly sustainable solutions to the problem of how to deal with the non-biodegradable fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite wind blades (sometimes referred to as “wings”) that capture the wind energy. The vast majority of wind blades that have reached their end-of-life (EOL) currently end up in landfills (either in full-sized pieces or pulverized into smaller pieces) or are incinerated. The problem has come to a head in recent years since many countries (especially in the EU) have outlawed, or expect to outlaw in the near future, one or both of these unsustainable and polluting disposal methods. An increasing number of studies have addressed the issue of EOL blade “waste”; however, these studies are generally of little use since they make predictions that do not account for the manner in which wind blades are decommissioned (from the time the decision is made to retire a turbine (or a wind farm) to the eventual disposal or recycling of all of its components). This review attempts to lay the groundwork for a better understanding of the decommissioning process by defining how the different EOL solutions to the problem of the blade “waste” do or do not lead to “sustainable decommissioning”. The hope is that by better defining the different EOL solutions and their decommissioning pathways, a more rigorous research base for future studies of the wind blade EOL problem will be possible. This paper reviews the prior studies on wind blade EOL and divides them into a number of categories depending on the focus that the original authors chose for their EOL assessment. This paper also reviews the different methods chosen by researchers to predict the quantities of future blade waste and shows that depending on the choice of method, predictions can be different by orders of magnitude, which is not good as this can be exploited by unscrupulous parties. The paper then reviews what different researchers define as the “recycling” of wind blades and shows that depending on the definition, the percentage of how much material is actually recycled is vastly different, which is also not good and can be exploited by unscrupulous parties. Finally, using very recent proprietary data (December 2022), the paper illustrates how the different definitions and methods affect predictions on global EOL quantities and recycling rates.
... Roughly two thirds of the remaining 15% come from composite materials [6,7]. At end of their life, due to the current blade material, the amount of waste coming from wind turbine blades is expected to reach 43 million tons globally in 2050 [8] (see Figure 1b, showing wind turbine blades accumulated in landfill). Europe will be the first continent to decommission wind turbines and wind farms [8]. ...
... At end of their life, due to the current blade material, the amount of waste coming from wind turbine blades is expected to reach 43 million tons globally in 2050 [8] (see Figure 1b, showing wind turbine blades accumulated in landfill). Europe will be the first continent to decommission wind turbines and wind farms [8]. In Europe, predictions on the waste amount are 175 kilotons in 2030 and 325 kilotons in 2050 [9]. ...
In this paper, a new concept of extra-durable and sustainable wind turbine blades is presented. The two critical materials science challenges of the development of wind energy now are the necessity to prevent the degradation of wind turbine blades for several decades, and, on the other side, to provide a solution for the recyclability and sustainability of blades. In preliminary studies by DTU Wind, it was demonstrated that practically all typical wind turbine blade degradation mechanisms (e.g., coating detachment, buckling, spar cap/shell adhesive joint degradation, trailing edge failure, etc.) have their roots in interface degradation. The concept presented in this work includes the development of bio-inspired dual-mechanism-based interface adhesives (combining mechanical interlocking of fibers and chemical adhesion), which ensures, on the one side, extra-strong attachment during the operation time, and on the other side, possible adhesive joint separation for re-use of the blade parts. The general approach and physical mechanisms of adhesive strengthening and separation are described.
... These models have been tested on different geographical areas based mostly on public databases based on the commissioning dates of wind turbines [8]- [15]. The geographical areas that have been studied range from the entire world [12], to Europe [11], [13] North America [9], [16] and country level [8], [15], [17], [18]. The findings from previous literature indicate that in Europe, 100.000 tonnes of decommissioned WTBs are to be handled yearly by 2034 [11]. ...
... The findings from previous literature indicate that in Europe, 100.000 tonnes of decommissioned WTBs are to be handled yearly by 2034 [11]. Worldwide the prediction is that there will be 43 million tonnes of cumulative blade waste by 2050 and that China will account for 40% of the generated waste whilst Europe and the United States will contribute 25% and 16%, respectively [12]. These predictions highlight the magnitude of the problem and that different geographical areas will face the waste problem at different times. ...
This study presents a sustainable end-of-life (EoL) value chain scenario assessment framework for decommissioned wind turbine blades (WTBs) to address the challenge of increased volumes of WTBs reaching their EoL. Findings from the previous studies highlight that WTBs EoL scenarios and their upscaling are yet to be addressed environmentally and economically. The scenarios investigated herein are mechanical shredding, pyrolysis, and cement co-processing that can be industrially upscaled. Together with the industrial partners, end-of-life scenario value chains are identified, to assess their sustainability through material flow analysis (MFA), life cycle assessment (LCA), and techno-economic assessment (TEA). A prospective consequential LCA model is proposed for scenarios with different technology readiness levels (TRL) expected to be commercialized at different timeframes. IPCC’s Shared Socio-economic Pathways (SSPs) will be used to describe foreground and background systems in 2030, 2040, and 2050. More specifically, SSP1 (i.e., green road), SSP2 (i.e., middle road), and SSP5 (i.e., fossil-fueled development) will be employed and quantified based on integrated assessment models (IAM). Furthermore, environmental impacts, economic criteria, Social sustainability, and circularity cannot directly be compared to evaluate the scenarios. Thus, this research proposes multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method to evaluate the three end-of-life scenario value chains considering a prospective scheme and addressing the key challenges related to the assessment of emerging technologies. Furthermore, a full conceptual framework of the methodology is presented.
... In addition, it is worth mentioning that these composites are significantly more resistant to mechanical fatigue than metals, e.g., steel. Epoxy resin (C 21 H 25 ClO 5 ) and polyester are also used in the production of composite materials for the production of wind turbines [15][16][17][18]. For turbine blades longer than 50 m, carbon fiber is used as an ingredient, which gives the design frame strength and lightness. ...
... This process consists of a thermal decomposition of the polymer matrix at a temperature of 500 • C in a high oxygen flow. Using a cyclone separator, the fibers can be separated and then the remaining compounds can be fully oxidized in a secondary burner [15,30,31]. ...
As the industry develops and energy demand increases, wind turbines are increasingly being used to generate electricity, resulting in an increasing number of obsolete turbine blades that need to be properly recycled or used as a secondary raw material in other industries. The authors of this work propose an innovative technology not yet studied in the literature, where the wind turbine blades are mechanically shredded and micrometric fibers are formed from the obtained powder using plasma technologies. As shown by SEM and EDS studies, the powder is composed of irregularly shaped microgranules and the carbon content in the obtained fiber is lower by up to seven times compared with the original powder. Meanwhile, the chromatographic studies show that no hazardous to the environment gases are formed during the fiber production. It is worth mentioning that this fiber formation technology can be one of the additional methods for recycling wind turbine blades, and the obtained fiber can be used as a secondary raw material in the production of catalysts, construction materials, etc.
... The fact that these large parts of a large number of wind turbines installed throughout the world in the last thirty years cannot be recycled and will turn into scrap also creates a handicap in terms of environmental and climate change. For example, it is predicted that there will be 43 million tons of wind turbine blade waste worldwide by 2050 [12]. According to this prediction, 40%, 25% and 16% of the world's total turbine blade waste will belong to China, Europe, and the United States, respectively. ...
... According to this prediction, 40%, 25% and 16% of the world's total turbine blade waste will belong to China, Europe, and the United States, respectively. Considering that each kilowatt of wind energy needs about 10 kg of wind turbine blade material, it is expected that shortly, humanity will waste about 200,000 tons of blades [12]. It is also estimated that the amount of blade material that will need to be recycled annually between 2029 and 2033 may reach 400,000 tons [13]. ...
Wind turbine blades are one of the largest parts of wind power systems. It is a handicap that these large parts of numerous wind turbines will become scrap in the near future. To prevent this handicap, newly produced blades should be recyclable. In this study, a turbine blade, known as the new generation of turbine blade, was manufactured with reinforced carbon beams and recycled, low-density polyethylene materials. The manufacturing addressed in this study reveals two novelties: (1) it produces a heterogeneous turbine blade; and (2) it produces a recyclable blade. In addition, this study also covers mechanical tests using a digital image correlation (DIC) system and modeling investigations of the new generation blade. For the mechanical tests, displacement and strain data of both new generation and conventional commercial blades were measured by the DIC method. Instead of dealing with the modeling difficulty of the new generation blade’s heterogeneity we modeled the blade structural system as a whole using the moment–curvature method as part of the finite element method. Then, the behavior of both the new generation and commercial blades at varying wind speeds and different angles of attack were compared. Consequently, the data reveal that the new generation blades performed sufficiently well compared with commercial blades regarding their stiffness.
... The strong structure of the blade and the properties of the thermosets that they cannot turn to the liquid phase by heating, make their recycling difficult (Krauklis et al., 2021). On the other hand, the volume, and the growth rate of the WT blades to be decommissioned in coming years are huge: an estimated 789000 tonnes in 2021 and a total of 43 million tonnes by 2050 (Liu & Barlow, 2017). Therefore, a thermal recycling process of GFRPs having WT end-of-life (WT EoL) scraps as the main material is proposed within the project (PRoGrESS, 2022, n.d.) to build the first pilot-scale plant of this process in the UK. ...
Recycling is one of the most challenging issues in many different sectors, which can bring both significant economic and environmental benefits. Hence, recycling is one of the few domains in that economic interests are in line with diminishing environmental concerns. Among the feasible and profitable recyclable materials, fibre-reinforced polymers (FRPs) are at the early stages of technology readiness with end-of-life FRP material projected to increase significantly in the coming years. Therefore, the economic and environmental impacts of FRP recycling plants should be investigated to develop a reliable business case to support the development of a circular economy for these materials. To this end, the recycling process should be robustly designed, optimised, and integrated with energy systems to maximise economic and energy-saving benefits. In this work, an FRP thermal recycling plant coupled with a 30 kWel/175 kWth organic Rankine cycle (ORC) system for combined heat and power (CHP) is studied. The environmental benefits of this integrated recycling-energy system are presented in terms of net CO2 and operational costs. Results show that the integration with at least 50 residential apartments can significantly improve the economic and environmental indicators compared to the separate recycling plant and buildings being supplied by the electricity and natural gas (NG) grids. These indicators are identified by comparing the direct and indirect CO2 emission and operational costs of the recycling plant coupled with the ORC-CHP system with those generated by stand-alone systems producing virgin fibres, supplying domestic electric demand using the electric grid, and domestic space heating using the NG grid.
... In view of wind-turbine ageing and estimates for wind farm decommissioning over forthcoming years (AEE, 2022;WE, 2022), the wind-energy sector will be prioritizing wind-turbine blade recycling. The complex and varied composition of blades made from glass-or carbon-fiber composites, wood, polyurethane, and resins means that their recycling has been under research for several years (Liu and Barlow, 2017), but there is currently no widely accepted solution (Leon, 2023). The scientific literature contains a few solutions to this problem that are at a preliminary-analysis stage. ...
Many of the first wind-turbine installations are reaching the end of their useful life, so their blades have to be replaced. Inexpensive, sustainable, and straightforward recycling solutions are therefore needed. The conversion of turbine blades into raw materials for concrete solutions is proposed in this paper, through a novel recycling process entailing non-selective cutting, crushing, and sieving of the blade walls, without component separation. The material, Raw-Crushed Wind-Turbine Blade (RCWTB), consists of fiberglass-composite fibers, polyurethane, and balsa-wood particles. It serves as concrete fibers and aggregates, according to its physical and microscopic characterizations. A customized concrete mix design and a five-stage mixing procedure with up to 6% RCWTB achieved suitable workability levels. The compressive strength of the RCWTB concrete was 40 MPa, and it had a higher load-bearing capacity and a lower carbon footprint than ordinary concrete. The results encourage research on the overall performance of RCWTB concretes.
... To enable the path towards decarbonization of the European energy system (European Commission 2023), the use of wind energy has grown significantly in recent years and it is expected to continue to increase in the upcoming years (Larsen 2009;Liu and Barlow 2017). Among other components, wind turbines consist of large-scale blades with a high proportion of composite materials (Fingersh et al. 2006;Schmid et al. 2020). ...
The rapidly growing wind industry poses a fundamental problem for wind turbine blade (WTB) disposal in many areas of the world. WTBs are primarily manufactured from composites consisting of a thermoset matrix and reinforcing fibers. Currently, there are no economically viable recycling technologies available for such large-scale composite products. Thus, other treatment strategies for disposed WTBs have to be considered. This study explores the repurpose of WTBs as a promising alternative approach from a processual and technological point of view. For this purpose, the study is guided by the categorization into four different types of repurposed applications: high-loaded complete structure (T1), low-loaded complete structure (T2), high-loaded segmented structure (T3), and low-loaded segmented structure (T4). A three-dimensional CAD model of an Enercon-40/500 (E40) wind turbine blade is derived in a reverse engineering procedure to obtain knowledge about the actual geometry of the WTB. Based on the design, three ecosystems of product scenarios (S) with different manufacturing technologies involved are investigated: a climbing tower (S1), a playground (S2) and the combination of a photovoltaic (PV)-floating pontoon, and a lounger (S3). A screening life cycle assessment (LCA) is conducted to evaluate the three repurposed scenarios according to environmental aspects. It is shown that the repurpose of E40 WTB composite material can reduce the environmental impact and leads to significant resource savings in relation to a reference product of similar quality. A particularly high saving potential is identified for the substitution of emission-intensive materials in construction applications. Furthermore, it is found that transport processes are the primary contributor to the environmental impact of repurposed applications.
... Another example is windmill's that are generally considered being GBM's as they are producing green energy. Many wings from windmills have to be taken down, brought to shore by ship and transported to deposition [30]. Recycling is often not possible as the material used for the wings cannot be recycled yet because it contains a mix of materials and used materials. ...
There is a growing interest on the profitability and value of Green Business and Green Business Models related to our societies strong push to greening our businesses due to climate change and environmental challenges. Regulation on businesses is everyday getting tighter on different topics of green. Energy and water consumption, type of energy used, greenhouse emissions, waste, use of materials and resources, recycling of materials, collaboration types and latest fulfillment of UN’s 17 world goals. All topics are more or less being related to the term green and in this case green economy, green business, green business models and green technology are seen as solutions to fulfill the green goals and deals. In this context many business have endeavored willingly or unwillingly to become and adapt the term green. Studies have shown that business however often find it difficult transforming into green. When users and customers and even competitors are not always loyal to those green business offerings and standards a green business and green business model concept have then it becomes even worse to trust and act on the green business vision. Knowledge and awareness for green business model within the business model communities lacks. Systematic ways and taxonomies to classify and use the term “green” gives the motivation for the study. In this context the paper commence presenting a literature study on the term green business model and relates this to projects on green business and case studies on green business models. The overall research questions discussed are 1. How have and can green business model be defined? 2. How can Future Wireless Technology enhance the evolvement of Green Business Modelling and green business transformation? The paper seeks to unwrap the different approaches, origin and views available on the term Green Business Model. The paper verifies their success criteria for classifying a green business model and discuss the role wireless technologies plays and can play in operating Green Business Models. The paper ends by proposing a framework to classify the degree of green related to business models.
... Other research has used Unites States Geological Survey (USGS) data from the Wind Turbine Database (USWTDB) to project the total mass of future blade waste based on existing national capacity and conversion from power rating to blade mass [4] . Prospective material flows as well as total waste inventory can be deduced from existing data on wind infrastructure and numerical models relating blade size and rated power [32] . ...
... However, the designed service life of a wind turbine is 20-25 years, leading to a vast number of decommissioned products each year (Jensen and Skelton, 2018). The WTB waste is estimated to reach more than 2 million tons by 2050 (Liu and Barlow, 2017). The majority of raw materials for wind turbine blades are made of glass fiber reinforced plastics (GFRPs) that consisted of 60%-70% of fiber and 30%-40% of cross-linked thermoset polymer formed in an irreversible process, increasing the reclaiming difficulty (Morales et al., 2020). ...
Redundant wind turbine blades (WTBs) retired from wind power facilities produce substantial waste annually and induce challenging environmental problems. As the most widely used materials for high-grade pavement construction, asphalt mixtures must have excellent high- and low-temperature performance, as well as water damage resistance, since pavement is subjected to complex loading, temperature, and humidity changes. This study proposed an asphalt mixture with the addition of two types of recycled WTB (rWTB): rWTB powders of granular sizes below 0.075 mm and rWTB fibers in the size range of 0.075–9.5 mm. First, the thermogravimetric analysis results indicated the accepted thermal stability of rWTB material for the requirement of compaction, paving, and service condition of asphalt mixtures. Second, the properties of the asphalt mixtures modified by using (i) rWTB powder (5 wt%, 10 wt%, and 15 wt% in fine filler), (ii) rWTB fiber (0.1 wt%, 0.2 wt% and 0.3 wt% in fine aggregate), and (iii) both rWTB powder and fiber were investigated by wheel tracking tests at 60°C, three-point bending tests at −10°C, and Marshall immersion tests. The experimental results showed that the rWTB asphalt mixtures could improve the overall road performance of asphalt mixtures, and that an optimal pavement performance could be obtained by the synergistic addition of rWTB powder and fiber. In addition, it was indicated that the improving mechanism of the rWTB material on the asphalt mixture was mainly attributed to its good compatibility with the asphalt binder, allowing the rWTB to strengthen asphalt mortar and improve the high- and low-temperature performance of the asphalt mixture.
... However, many blades are coming out-of-service prior to that due to increasing power. The wind turbine industry is expected to store millions of tons of waste composite wind blades in the coming years [2][3][4]. These structures are mainly manufactured with glass fiber (with some use of carbon fiber) embedded in thermoset matrix materials such as epoxy, unsaturated polyester resin, or vinyl ester resins [5]. ...
Efficient disposal of composite materials recycled from wind turbine blades (WTB) at end-of-life needs to be solved urgently. To investigate the modification effects and mechanism on SBS-modified asphalt of the recycled glass fiber (GF) from WTB, GF-WTB/SBS composite-modified asphalt was prepared. Dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) and bending beam rheometer (BBR) were adopted to evaluate its performance. FTIR, SEM, EDS, and AFM methods were used to assess coupling agent pretreatment effects on GF-WTB and observe the modification mechanism. The macroscopic tests show that reasonable addition of GF-WTB effectively raises the high-temperature performance and low-temperature crack resistance evaluation index k-value of SBS-modified asphalt, and the optimal content is 2 wt% GF-WTB with 4 wt% SBS. FTIR, SEM, and EDS tests show GF-WTB can be successfully grafted by UP152 coupling agent and show that adhesion of the GF-WTB to the SBS-modified asphalt can be improved. AFM observation shows SBS and GF-WTB have good compatibility, improving the asphalt elasticity and toughness. This study provides a feasible solution for environmentally friendly regeneration of the composite materials from WTB and contributes to the development of the secondary modifier of SBS-modified asphalt.
... The world is staring at an impending influx of clean energy waste: about 1.3 TWh of batteries will reach end of first useful life by 2040 (IEA 2022b), 60 to 78 million tonnes of solar PV module waste will be generated by 2050 (IEA-PVPS 2018) and 43 million tonnes of waste wind turbine blades will be produced by 2050 (Liu and Barlow 2017 ...
The global move towards achieving net zero emissions will increase demand for low-carbon and clean technologies such as wind turbines, solar photovoltaics, electric vehicles and energy storage. However, the production of these technologies depends heavily on a few geographically concentrated minerals with limited availability. This report highlights the vulnerabilities in the supply chain of seven minerals: lithium, cobalt, nickel, copper, manganese, graphite and rare earths. It examines mineral criticality assessment frameworks and the global concentration of reserves and mineral processing facilities. The report also explores technologies that could reduce global dependence on these critical minerals. Further, it recommends specific actions to improve supply and reduce demand, tracking the critical mineral value chain and co-development of technologies to explore, mine and process minerals. It also talks about the need to develop mineral stockpiles. The report also emphasises circularity and scaling up alternative technologies to reduce mineral demand.
The report has been commissioned by the Ministry of Mines, Government of India to inform the G20 Energy Transition Working Group (ETWG) negotiations.
... As demand for wind energy increases, the size of wind turbines and the quantity of materials needed for the blades also grow [14]. Given the average service life of wind turbine blades, which ranges from 20 to 25 years [14,15], it was estimated that by 2050, the total amount of waste wind turbine blades on the globe will reach 43 million tons [16]. ...
Thermoset glass fiber-reinforced polymers (GFRP) have been widely used in manufacturing and construction for nearly half a century, but the large amount of waste produced by this material is difficult to dispose of. In an effort to address this issue, this research investigates the reuse of thermoset GFRP waste in normal strength concrete (NSC) and controlled low-strength materials (CLSM). The mechanical performance and workability of the resulting concrete were also evaluated. To prepare the concrete specimens, the thermoset GFRP waste was first pulverized into granular pieces, which were then mixed with cement, fly ash, and water to form cylindrical concrete specimens. The results showed that when the proportion of thermoset GFRP waste aggregate in the concrete increased, the compressive strengths of NSC and CLSM would decrease. However, when incorporating 5% GFRP waste into CLSM, the compressive strength was 7% higher than concrete without GFRP. However, the workability of CLSM could be improved to meet engineering standards by adding an appropriate amount of superplasticizer. This finding suggests that the use of various combinations of proportions in the mixture during production could allow for the production of CLSM with different compressive strength needs. In addition, the use of recycled thermoset GFRP waste as a new aggregate replacement for traditional aggregates in CLSM was found to be a more sustainable alternative to the current CLSM combinations used in the market.
... Other research has used Unites States Geological Survey (USGS) data from the Wind Turbine Database (USWTDB) to project the total mass of future blade waste based on existing national capacity and conversion from power rating to blade mass [4] . Prospective material flows as well as total waste inventory can be deduced from existing data on wind infrastructure and numerical models relating blade size and rated power [32] . ...
Spatiotemporal analysis of US wind turbine decommissioning and repowering with QGIS used to quantify the total blade mass currently in and headed for end of life processing.
... Therefore, the growing interest in the wind energy sector, in addition to the knowledge of the manufacturing processes that permit the production of larger wind turbines, promotes a larger use of CFs and GFs to produce wind blade structures. It is expected that around 66 kTons of composite materials will be employed for wind blade production by 2025, and looking to the imminent future, the production of almost 40 million tons of composite wind blades as a consequence of the intensive installation of wind turbines by 2050 is expected [17,43,44]. ...
Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) materials are attracting growing interest because of their high specific mechanical properties. These characteristics, in addition to a high level of tailorability and design of freedom, make them attractive for marine, aerospace, automotive, sports and energy applications. However, the large use of this class of material dramatically increases the amount of waste that derives from end-of-life products and offcuts generated during the manufacturing processes. In this context, especially when thermosetting matrices are considered, the need to deeply study the recycling process of FRPs is an open topic both in academic and industrial research. This review aims to present the current state of the art of the most affirmed recycling technologies used for polymeric composites commonly used in industrial applications, such as carbon and glass FRPs. Each recycling method (i.e., chemical, thermal and mechanical) was analysed in terms of technological solutions and process parameters required for matrix dissolution and fibre recovery, showing their advantages, drawbacks, applications and properties of the recycled composites. Therefore, the aim of this review is to offer an extensive overview of the recycling process of polymeric composite materials, which is useful to academic and industrial researchers that work on this topic.
... This mix of materials makes recycling technically complex because when thermoset composites are cured the polymers become cross-linked and undergo an irreversible separation process (Jensen and Skelton, 2018). This represents a critical global problem (Liu and Barlow, 2017) considering that between 185 kt and 570 Mt of blade waste will have been generated by 2030 in the European Union (EU) alone (Lichtenegger et al., 2020;Sommer et al., 2020). Likewise, the large size (tens to hundreds of metres in length) and weight (>33 tons) of the blades (Mikkelsen, 2016) additionally hinders the management of this waste stream, making it a logistically costly process (Liu et al., 2019;Psomopoulos et al., 2019;Rybicka et al., 2016;WindEurope, 2020;EPRI, 2018). ...
It is estimated that 570 Mt of blade waste, whose management is complex and expensive, will be generated by 2030 in the European Union alone. Accordingly, alternative blade waste management techniques are being investigated to optimize material recovery. This study evaluates the correlation between the circular economy performance and the carbon footprint of seven end-of-life management solutions for wind turbine blades: repurposing, grinding, solvolysis, pyrolysis, co-processing in cement kilns, incineration with energy recovery and landfilling. The circular economy performance is analyzed through the calculation of the product circularity indicator, while the carbon footprint is determined through life cycle assessment, using the global warming indicator and considering the management of three blades from cradle-to-gate as functional unit. As the performance of solvolysis and pyrolysis recycling is expected to change in the future, a sensitivity analysis is also carried out to evaluate the variability of the results by changing their process efficiency and the quality of the recovered materials. The results indicate that blade recycling through solvolysis is the most circular (0.47-0.77) and low-carbon (225-503 CO2 eq.) solution overall. Blade repurposing, grinding and cement co-processing have a similar circularity (0.52-0.55) and a global warming impact ranging from 499 t CO2 eq. to 615 t CO2 eq. Although the circularity of pyrolysis is 59% (0.35) to 118% (0.48) greater than the circularity of incineration and landfilling (0.22), its carbon footprint can range from 566 t CO2 eq. to 744 t CO2 eq, which could be up to 19% higher than the carbon footprint of these linear EoL management alternatives (623 t CO2). Based on these findings, proposals for sustainable industrial innovation and methodological recommendations for the development of integrated circularity and sustainability studies are proposed.
... Re-use and/or recyclability of composites are key to the future sustainability of ORE. Re-use of blade cross-sections is possible but with limited repeatability (Liu & Barlow, 2017). However, research is underway to explore re-use and recycling of composite materials at a commercial scale, while retaining the required strength properties of the material. ...
EMB Future Science Brief No. 9 provides an overview of the technology and European deployment status in the offshore renewable energy sector. It discusses the environmental and socioeconomic considerations, and presents the key knowledge, research, and capacity gaps that must be addressed to ensure sustainable delivery of the EU Green Deal. It closes with key policy, research, capacity, and data recommendations to take the sector forward.
... With wind turbine production increasing rapidly, there is a threat to the environment from the millions of tons of nonbiodegradable FRP composites expected to be decommissioned over the next 30 years (Liu and Barlow 2017;Cooperman et al. 2021). The disposal of GFRP materials involves landfilling and/ or incineration, mechanical grinding, or thermal/chemical processing. ...
Millions of tons of glass-fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite wind turbine blades are expected to age out of service over the next 30 years. Research is being conducted on repurposing these structures as new civil infrastructure products. The GFRP material in these decommissioned wind blades has been shown to retain significant strength and stiffness for second-life applications. However, for re-purposing as new products, they will need to be connected to other structural members. The connections employed for this need to be designed , evaluated, and tested prior to their use. Here, we present the results of detailed testing of bolted connections for load-carrying appurtenances that will carry the phases and shield wires (e.g., insulators, crossarms, davits, guy wires, posts) to the spar cap of an 11-year-old 1.5 MW GE37 wind blade, intended for use as a repurposed transmission pole (i.e., a BladePole). Details of ASTM-type pull-out and bearing capacity tests using different types of blind bolts, and tests of a full-scale steel bracket connection called a "universal connector," are reported. The effects of the different blind bolts, pin diameters, and loading directions relative to the composite laminate structure (longitudinal or transverse) for both the coupon-and full-scale connector bracket tests are described. The ability to design and construct robust connections for repurposed wind blade structures was demonstrated.
... Turbines from the first major wave of wind power in the 1990s are currently reaching their expected end of life [13]. According to [25,110], the usage of blade material waste is expected to grow from 1,000,000 t in 2020 up to 2,000,000 t in 2030, doubling within the current 2020 decade. It is predicted that a quarter of this EoL waste will be in Europe. ...
Green composites have gained increasing attention in recent years as a sustainable alternative to traditional materials used in marine structures. These composites are made from biodegradable and renewable materials, making them environmentally friendly and reducing the subsequent carbon footprint. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of green composites materials and their applications in marine structures. This review includes a classification of the potential fibres and matrixes for green composites which are suitable for marine applications. The properties of green composites, such as their strength and Young’s modulus, are analysed and compared with those of traditional composites. An overview concerning current rules and regulations is presented. The applications of green composites in marine structures are reviewed, focusing on both shipbuilding and offshore applications. The main challenges in a wider application of green composites are also highlighted, as well as the benefits and future challenges.
... Renewable energies have a lower direct environmental impact than fossil-based energies, but the indirect impact should not go unnoticed as waste from some renewables may be a major problem in the future (Turconi et al. 2013). The materials or components used by these technologies have a life cycle, which refers to the useful life they have, from their birth to the end of their operation, taking into account the stages of manufacturing, generation and maintenance (Domínguez & Geyer, 2017;Liu & Barlow, 2017). ...
Climate change and global warming have made clear the need to change the way we generate and consume energy. To achieve this objective, a sustainable energy transition that encourages the use of renewable energy sources is needed. This study presents an optimization model, which allows the planning of a sustainable electricity system on a large scale, to replace some non-renewable power plants with renewables. The installation of new transmission lines is considered to avoid the oversizing of the new installed capacity, as well as the increase in the energy security of the isolated regions taking advantage of the temporary generation of renewable energies. The optimal solution is achieved by simultaneously minimizing the costs, greenhouse gas emissions and water consumption using a multi-stakeholder approach. To show the applicability of the proposed model, it is presented a case study of the Mexican electricity system. The results show that planning the expansion of generation and transmission capacities using the proposed model decreases water consumption and greenhouse gas emissions by up to 45 percent considering an increase in energy demand, as a result of demographic and industrial growth.
Graphical Abstract
... The scale of EOL blade waste makes it an especially concerning issue, as there will be an estimated cumulative total of 43 million tonnes of blade waste worldwide by 2050 if no blades are disposed of in the interim and are stockpiled. Europe and the United States will need to process a combined total of 41% of this waste [4,5]. ...
This paper describes repurposing projects using decommissioned wind turbine blades in bridges conducted under a multinational research project entitled “Re-Wind”. Repurposing is defined by the Re-Wind Network as the re-engineering, redesigning, and remanufacturing of a wind blade that has reached the end of its life on a turbine and taken out of service and then reused as a load-bearing structural element in a new structure (e.g., bridge, transmission pole, sound barrier, seawall, shelter). The issue of end-of-life of wind turbine blades is becoming a significant sustainability concern for wind turbine manufacturers, many of whom have committed to the 2030 or 2040 sustainability goals that include zero-waste for their products. Repurposing is the most sustainable end-of-life solution for wind turbine blades from an environmental, economic, and social perspective. The Network has designed and constructed two full-size pedestrian/cycle bridges—one on a greenway in Cork, Ireland and the other in a quarry in Draperstown, Northern Ireland, UK. The paper describes the design, testing, and construction of the two bridges and provides cost data for the bridges. Two additional bridges that are currently being designed for construction in Atlanta, GA, USA are also described. The paper also presents a step-by-step procedure for designing and building civil structures using decommissioned wind turbine blades. The steps are: project planning and funding, blade sourcing, blade geometric characterization, material testing, structural testing, designing, cost estimating, and construction.
... As a result, the world is facing various climate issues, as depicted in Fig. 1. According to published sources, the global production of plastic waste was roughly 348 million tonnes in 2017 and is estimated to increase at a rate of 1.4 billion metric tonnes by 2050 [4][5][6]. Most of the plastic waste originates from sources, like plastic bags, and hazardous materials from nuclear waste. ...
Wind is a clean, efficient, fastest-growing, renewable energy source, which is extensively applied for power generation. The expected design lifetime of a wind turbine lies between 20 to 25 years and requires decommissioning at its end-of-life (EOL) stage. In recent years, the global trend is shifted towards power generation through wind turbines and has globally increased the decommissioned wind turbine blades (WTBs). Compared to other components of wind turbines, it is not convenient to recycle the carbon/glass fiber-reinforced composite-based WTBs, due to their complicated nature and inhomogeneity. Additionally, it is extremely harmful to landfill or incinerate WTBs, as these strategies may result in severe health and environmental issues. Consequently, recycling of WTBs is a viable pathway for the renewable energy sector that ensures the sustainability of wind turbines. To date, only 80% - 85% of the wind turbine materials can be recycled but have potential to reach at 100 % through proper attention required on recovery of all wind turbine materials and adaptation of circular economy (CE) models. The motivation behind this review is to emphasize the importance of sustainable options to treat WTB wastes and minimize the utilization of conventional EOL approaches such as landfilling and incineration. This review also shed lights on the current research and development (R&D) projects, which are related to the adaption of various hybrid recycling technologies and CE models. Moreover, this review also highlights current challenges and future developments of WTB composites. It is concluded that consistent and collaborative efforts should be made by each of the individuals, such as researchers, policy makers, and legislative and industrialist stake holders to improve the viability and effectiveness of the wind energy.
... Presentation of the impact of different novel technologies from media has not always presented key features from a holistic view, often focusing on the potential negative impacts rather than the positive contribution to society [30]. A typical example is on highlighting the environmental impact of a geothermal plant [31] or the lack of effective technologies for the decommissioning of composite components of a wind farm [32], rather than providing figures and evidence of their overall positive impact in comparison to the existing solutions. ...
This paper presents a decision support tool for promoters/investors of geothermal energy projects, based on a decision tree (DT) structure. The DT aims to assist stakeholders to select public engagement strategies, alternative financing solutions and risk mitigation measures (or options) for geothermal energy projects. Public engagement is necessary for the successful development and operation of geothermal projects. Available studies (including toolkits and protocols) commonly list a set of practices for social engagement without providing information on the factors which render certain options more suitable than others. The presented tool offers a transparent framework to how relevant decisions could be managed by providing a sequence of questions that focus on social, environmental, resource risk, and financial influencing factors and to realise community engagement into geothermal projects. This work is part of the Horizon 2020 CROWDTHERMAL project, which aims at empowering the public to directly participate in the development of geothermal projects through social engagement tools and alternative financing schemes, like crowdfunding.
In recent years, there has been significant interest in renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind energy, as sustainable and environmentally friendly alternatives to fossil fuels. The efficiency of these sources play a crucial role in determining their viability as replacements for the traditional energy sources. This review aims to investigate the efficiency of solar and wind energy, considering their current utilization, technological advancements, and future prospects. The analysis also assesses the financial and ecological implications of renewable energy and explores potential strategies for enhancing its efficiency. The findings of this study will contribute to future efforts to establish a sustainable and environmentally conscious energy landscape.
Over the past two decades, the wind turbine industry has grown rapidly. As a result, thousands of tons of composite materials from these end-of-life (EoL) wind turbine blades (WTBs) are discarded every year. Due to their complex structure, which consists of a thermoset matrix with glass (GF) and/or carbon (CF) fibers, their recovery is a challenge and remains limited. The objective of this study is to compare several recycling techniques for composite materials using landfill as a baseline scenario. Several aspects can influence the performance of GF and CF recovery, but one of the most important is the efficiency of recycling technologies in terms of the recovered GF/CF fiber rate. To evaluate this amount of fiber annually, a material flow analysis (MFA) was performed based on the punctual years of 2030, 2040, and 2050. A correlation with other aspects was established and based on maturity level, technical, economic, and environmental aspects. Afterward, recommendations on short and medium/long term circularity objectives were drafted on the most suitable technologies for WTBs circularity.
To alleviate the environmental pollution caused by waste wind turbine blades and provide new ideas for recycling, the thermochemical characteristics of four basic components of composite materials commonly used in wind turbine blades were studied in this paper. Thermogravimetric experiments in different atmospheres and heating rates, and thermogravimetric‐infrared combined experiments were carried out. The results show that the reaction of epoxy resin and thermoplastic polyurethane was easy and deep in N 2 and CO 2 . Except for glass fiber, the other three components showed different combustion characteristics in air. The maximum reaction rates and activation energy of resin‐based components in N 2 increased with increasing heating rate. The pyrolysis products of the four basic components all contained CO 2 and CO, and some aromatic substances could be generated during the thermal transformation of epoxy resin and thermoplastic polyurethane. It can be concluded that the thermal transformation properties of the basic components of the composite material of wind turbine blades can be used to treat the waste blades, making the resin as the matrix material undergo a thermal transformation reaction and recover the fiber. This is to effectively guarantee the green and sustainable development of wind power generation.
In a rush to install more renewable energy resources, we must carefully consider and mitigate the legacy issues with end of life waster from new solar and wind turbine installations. This paper is about a potential solution for handling legacy assets from wind turbine blades. The paper presents the economic viability to consider well internal capacities as storage sites as well as analyzes the environmental hazards of landfilling the blades. Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical used in wind turbine blades. Storage in landfills can put the future health of natural resources and the surrounding areas at risk. BPA can leak out of the dust particles and be hazardous to people and the environment. BPA also degrades in water and sediments under microbial processes. The increased risk of BPA leaching into groundwater resources and the soil from wind turbine blade landfills can damage the food chain and can harm future generations due to exposure to the contaminated resources. The solution discussed here is a potential use of the casing storage of idle wells for housing pulverized blades mixed with Portland cement when the wells are considered for plug and abandonment.
Land is a limited commodity that has always been fought over. It's use and allocation for various purposes have been the subject of much debate, and for good reason. It's necessary for most industries. It is becoming more and more a topic of conversation as available land is used up. This review paper explores land competition as it relates to the production of food and energy, as well as the ramifications of taking natural land and converting it to human use for these purposes. It also discusses the policies that some countries are enacting to deal with the ever-shrinking availability of free land and ways that society can decrease the necessity for more land.
Fibre-reinforced epoxy composites are well established in regard to load-bearing applications in the aerospace, automotive and wind power industries, owing to their light weight and high durability. These composites are based on thermoset resins embedding glass or carbon fibres¹. In lieu of viable recycling strategies, end-of-use composite-based structures such as wind turbine blades are commonly landfilled1–4. Because of the negative environmental impact of plastic waste5,6, the need for circular economies of plastics has become more pressing7,8. However, recycling thermoset plastics is no trivial matter1–4. Here we report a transition-metal-catalysed protocol for recovery of the polymer building block bisphenol A and intact fibres from epoxy composites. A Ru-catalysed, dehydrogenation/bond, cleavage/reduction cascade disconnects the C(alkyl)–O bonds of the most common linkages of the polymer. We showcase the application of this methodology to relevant unmodified amine-cured epoxy resins as well as commercial composites, including the shell of a wind turbine blade. Our results demonstrate that chemical recycling approaches for thermoset epoxy resins and composites are achievable.
Wind energy is considered a clean energy source and is predicted to be one of the primary sources of electricity. However, leading-edge erosion of wind turbine blades due to impacts from rain drops, solid particles, hailstones, bird fouling, ice, etc., is a major concern for the wind energy sector that reduces annual energy production. Therefore, leading-edge protection of turbine blades has been an important topic of research and development in the last 20 years. Further, there are critical issues related to the amount of waste produced, including glass fiber, carbon fiber, and various harmful volatile organic compounds in turbine fabrication and their end-of-life phases. Hence, it is vital to use eco-friendly, solvent-free materials and to extend blade life to make wind energy a perfect clean energy source. In this study, cellulose microparticles (CMP) and cellulose microfibers (CMF) have been used as fillers to reinforce water-based polyurethane (PU) coatings developed on glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) substrates by a simple spray method for the first time. Field emission scanning electron microscopy images show the agglomerated particles of CMP and fiber-like morphology of CMF. Fourier transform infrared spectra of CMP, CMF, and related coatings exhibit associated C–H, C=O, and N–H absorption bands of cellulose and polyurethane. Thermal gravimetric analysis shows that CMP is stable up to 285 °C, whereas CMF degradation is observed at 243 °C. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy of C 1s and O 1s core levels of CMP, CMF and related coatings show C–C/C–H, C–O, C–OH, and O–C=O bonds associated with cellulose structure. The solid particle erosion resistance properties of the coatings have been evaluated with different concentrations of CMP and CMF at impact angles of 30° and 90°, and all of the coatings are observed to outperform the PU and bare GFRP substrates. Three-dimensional (3D) profiles of erosion scans confirm the shape of erosion scars, and 2D profiles have been used to calculate volume loss due to erosion. CMP-reinforced PU coating with 5 wt.% filler concentration and CMF-reinforced PU coating with 2 wt.% concentration are found to be the best-performing coatings against solid particle erosion. Nanoindentation studies have been performed to establish a relation between H3/E2 and the average erosion rate of the coatings.
With the vast majority of scientists agreeing that the only hope in mitigating the adverse effects of climate change is to drop our carbon emissions to net zero by 2050, the decarbonization of the electricity sector is an environmental emergency. Wind energy can be a leader in the energy transition to a carbon emission-free economy. However, the wind energy transition must be carefully implemented to mitigate the economic, environmental, and social consequences of this change. Blade waste from end-of-life wind turbines is the Achilles’ heel of this energy transition and the main impediment to its full acceptance. Aiming to support efficient blade waste management and therefore to ensure sustainable wind energy transition, we conduct a two-fold methodology. In the first part, we propose a novel conceptual framework of upcycling and downcycling end-of-life solutions in an urban regeneration setting. In the second part, we use the case study method to illustrate the aspects of our conceptual framework by analyzing real life case studies. This study suggests that end-of-life blades are used in the cement coprocessing of waste and in architectural projects under urban regeneration transformation processes, closing the material loop according to the circular economy and sustainability principles.
Recycling of wind turbine blades is an important element for ensuring the sustainability of wind turbines. In this article, technologies of recycling of wind turbine blades (for currently used blades) and possibilities of development of new recyclable blade generation are discussed. The recent developments in the pyrolysis and solvolysis technologies of the currently used glass fiber/epoxy blades, and the potential of blades from thermoplastic and recyclable polymers are reviewed.
Three different classes of thermosetting styrene-free resins were investigated to assess their suitability to constitute the matrix phase in the reformulation of composites reinforced with mechanically recycled glass fibers. Resin reactivity and mechanical properties after curing were compared to commercial styrene-based, unsaturated polyester resins. The polymeric resin, acting as a binder, could be properly selected depending on the desired reactivity, processability, and mechanical behavior. Some prototypal examples of reformulated composites with different types and contents of recycled glass fibers were produced and mechanically tested. The combination of the epoxy resin with up to 60 wt% of mechanically recycled glass fibers resulted in an increase of elastic modulus up to 7.5 GPa.
Over the past two decades, the wind turbine industry has grown rapidly. As a result, thousands of tons of composite materials from these end-of-life (EoL) wind turbine blades (WTBs) are discarded every year. Due to their three-dimensional structure, which consists of a thermoset matrix and mainly glass fibers (GF), their recovery is a challenge. The objective of this study is to compare several recycling technologies for composite materials using landfill as a baseline scenario. Several aspects can influence the performance of plastic composite recycling, but one of the most important is the efficiency of recycling technologies in terms of the recovered glass fiber rate. To evaluate this amount of fiber annually, a material flow analysis (MFA) was performed using 2023 as the study year. A correlation with other aspects was established in order to perform a multi-criteria approach based on maturity level, technical, economic and environmental aspects. These criteria are the Technology Readiness (TRL), cost, energy demand and retained tensile strength
The so-called 20-20-20 targets for the European Union include a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 20% compared to 1990, 20% of primary energy from renewables, and a 20% reduction in primary energy demand through energy efficiency by 2020. Wind energy has played and will continue to play a significant role in progress towards meeting these goals; in 2012 it accounted for around 7% of total European electricity consumption. Against the background of the recent trend towards ever larger wind turbines at higher hub heights, this contribution explores the challenges to and prospects for a continued up-sizing of wind turbines in the future. Based on a literature review and interviews with experts in the European wind industry, the key challenges for large onshore wind turbines are identified and qualitatively analyzed in a European context. Further developments of large wind turbines depend on several components and related challenges rather than just one. The main challenges are thought to be related to social acceptance, the logistics of transport and erection, and the medium term sustainability of the political and economic support for wind energy. It seems likely that social acceptance will center around the issue of aerodynamic noise and the allowed distance from the turbine, although further research is required to fully understand the public perception of especially large wind power plants. In addition, the sheer size of larger wind turbines in the future presents significant challenges in terms of the materials and structures employed. There is little consensus on the likely development of drive train technologies, though a slight tendency towards direct drive systems with permanent magnet generators as well as multi-stage gearboxes was encountered, which could also serve to improve reliability. For the rotor blades, a trend towards fully carbon fiber blades is expected, and towers will continue to be constructed from steel and/or concrete, albeit both of these components increasingly in the form a modular construction.
Rising demand for fibre reinforced polymer composite material and environmental issues necessitates resource efficient use of manufacturing and end of life composite waste. The impact of such sustainability or recycling initiatives can be limited and misguided if the global/national picture is not thoroughly considered. This problem is addressed in this paper with the aid of new Sankey diagrams generated from virgin material and waste volumes in the UK. Environmental footprints of virgin material and recycling were used to explore the resource benefits of composite re-manufacturing. The use of Sankey diagrams enables better decision making with respect to targeting sustainability effort.
Fiber-reinforced polymer composites are engineered materials commonly used for many structural applications because of the high strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios. Although the service life of these materials in various applications is usually between 15 and 20 years, these often keep the physical properties beyond this time. Recycling composites using chemical, mechanical, and thermal processing is reviewed in this article. In this review of carbon, aramide, and glass fiber composites, we provide, as of 2011, a complete view of each composite recycling technology, highlight the possible energy requirements, explain the product outputs of recycling, and discuss the quality (fiber strength) of recyclates and how each recyclate fiber could be used in the market for sustainable composite manufacturing. This article also includes the new concept of 'direct structural composite recycling' and the use of these products in the same or different applications as low-cost composite materials after small modifications.
Wind turbines with a rated power of 5 to 6 MW are now being designed and installed, mostly for offshore operation. Within the EU supported UpWind research project, the barriers for a further increase of size, up to 20 MW, are considered. These wind turbines are expected to have a rotor diameter up to 250 m and a hub height of more than 150 m. Initially, the theoretical implications of upscaling to such sizes on the weight and loads of the wind turbines are examined, where it is shown that unfavourable increases in weight and load will have to be addressed. Following that, empirical models of the increase in weight cost and loads as a function of scale are derived, based on historical trends. These include the effects of both scale and technology advancements, resulting in more favourable scaling laws, indicating that technology breakthroughs are prerequisites for further upscaling in a cost-efficient way. Finally, a theoretical framework for optimal design of large wind turbines is developed. This is based on a life cycle cost approach, with the introduction of generic models for the costs, as functions of the design parameters and using basic upscaling laws adjusted for technology improvement effects. The optimal concept or concepts is obtained as the one that minimizes the total expected costs per megawatt hour (levelized production costs). Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Electric generation by wind turbine is growing very strongly. However, the environmental impact of wind energy is still a matter of controversy. This paper uses Life Cycle Assessment, comparing two systems: a 4.5MW and a 250W wind turbines, to evaluate their environmental impact. All stages of life cycle (manufacturing, transports, installation, maintenance, disassembly and disposal) have been analysed and sensitivity tests have been performed. According to the indexes (PEPBT (primary energy pay back time), CO2 emissions, etc.), the results show that wind energy is an excellent environmental solution provided first, the turbines are high efficiency ones and implemented on sites where the wind resource is good, second, components transportation should not spend too much energy and, third, recycling during decommissioning should be performed correctly. This study proves that wind energy should become one of the best ways to mitigate climate change and to provide electricity in rural zones not connected to the grid.
The wind power industry is growing rapidly. Wind turbines (WTs) are perceived as a low environmental impact energy generation technology. While the service life of a WT is relatively long (20-40 years), at some point a significant number of WTs will reach the end of their service lives. To recover maximum value from these WTs, planning for the end-of-service life of wind turbines (EOSLWTs) is paramount. Historically, environmental life cycle assessments of WTs have often only considered the materials extraction and processing, manufacturing, and use phases, leaving the management of EOSLWTs outside the scope of their attention. Four key EOSLWTs issues that are essential for the continuing development of wind energy technologies are presented: i) The challenges of managing of EOSLWTs given the fast growth rate of the industry and the large number of existing installed WTs; ii) The EOSLWT alternatives such as remanufacturing and recycling to recover functional and material value respectively; iii) The critical activities in the WT reverse supply chain such as recovery methods, logistics of transportation, quality of returns, and quality of reprocessed WTs; and iv) The economic and business issues associated with EOSLWTs. It is expected that the discussion provided will stimulate a dialog among decision makers and raise awareness of economic opportunities and unanticipated challenges in the wind power industry.
Stella Job, Knowledge Exchange Expert for the Materials Knowledge Transfer Network (KTN), UK, discusses the issues surrounding the recycling of glass fibre reinforced plastics (GRP), and reviews some of the options available today.
Part 1
https://www.reinforcedplastics.com/content/features/recycling-glass-fibre-reinforced-composites-history-and-progress-part-1
Part 2
https://www.reinforcedplastics.com/content/features/recycling-glass-fibre-reinforced-composites-history-and-progress-part-2
The main concept currently in use in wind energy involves horizontal-axis wind turbines with blades of fiber composite materials. This turbine concept is expected to remain as the major provider of wind power in the foreseeable future. However, turbine sizes are increasing, and installation offshore means that wind turbines will be exposed to more demanding environmental conditions. Many challenges are posed by the use of fiber composites in increasingly large blades and increasingly hostile environments. Among these are achieving adequate stiffness to prevent excessive blade deflection, preventing buckling failure, ensuring adequate fatigue life under variable wind loading combined with gravitational loading, and minimizing the occurrence and consequences of production defects. A major challenge is to develop cost-effective ways to ensure that production defects do not cause unacceptable reductions in equipment strength and lifetime, given that inspection of large wind power structures is often problematic.
WITH A BOOMING WIND ENERGY INDUSTRY, DRIVING THE DEVELOPMENT OF LARGER AND LARGER TURBINES, THE QUESTION IS NOW ARISING OF HOW TO DEAL WITH WIND TURBINES AT THE END OF THEIR LIFECYCLE, AND PARTICULARLY THOSE WIND TURBINE BLADES MADE OF HARD-TO-RECYCLE COMPOSITES. RENEWABLE ENERGY FOCUS' KARI LARSEN INVESTIGATES POSSIBLE ROUTES FOR THE RECYCLING OF WIND TURBINE BLADES.
This model intends to provide projections of the impact on cost from changes in economic indicators such as the Gross Domestic Product and Producer Price Index.
Although wind technology produces no emissions during operation, there is an environmental impact associated with the wind turbine during the entire life cycle of the plant, from production to dismantling. A life cycle assessment is carried out to quantify the environmental impact of two existing wind turbines, a 1.8 MW-gearless turbine and a 2.0 MW turbine with gearbox. Both technologies will be compared by means of material usage, carbon dioxide emissions and energy payback time based on the cumulative energy requirements for a 20 year life period. For a quantitative analysis of the material and energy balances over the entire life cycle, the simulation software GEMIS® (Global Emission Model of Integrated System) is used.The results show, as expected, that the largest energy requirement contribution is derived mainly from the manufacturing phase, representing 84.4% of the total life cycle, and particularly from the tower construction which accounts for 55% of the total turbine production. The average energy payback time for both turbines is found to be 7 months and the emissions 9 gCO2/kWh. Different scenarios regarding operation performance, recycling of materials and different manufacturing countries such as Germany, Denmark and China are analysed and the energy payback time and carbon dioxide values obtained. Finally, the wind energy plant is compared with other renewable and non-renewable sources of energy to conclude that wind energy is among the cleanest sources of energy available nowadays.
The technologies for recycling thermoset composite materials are reviewed. Mechanical recycling techniques involve the use of grinding techniques to comminute the scrap material and produce recyclate products in different size ranges suitable for reuse as fillers or partial reinforcement in new composite material. Thermal recycling processes involve the use of heat to break the scrap composite down and a range of processes are described in which there are various degrees of energy and material recovery. The prospects for commercially successful composites recycling operations are considered and a new initiative within the European composites industry to stimulate recycling is described.
Life cycle assessment is a technique to assess environmental aspects associated with a product or process by identifying energy, materials, and emissions over its life cycle. The energy analysis includes four stages of a life cycle: material production phase, manufacturing phase, use phase, and end-of-life phase. In this study, the life cycle energy of fiber-reinforced composites manufactured by using the pultrusion process was analyzed. For more widespread use of composites, it is critical to estimate how much energy is consumed during the lifetime of the composites compared to other materials. In particular, we evaluated a potential for composite materials to save energy in automotive applications. A hybrid model, which combines process analysis with economic input–output analysis, was used to capture both direct and indirect energy consumption of the pultrusion process in the material production and manufacturing stages.
Both environmental and economic factors have driven the development of recycling routes for the increasing amount of carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) waste generated. This paper presents a review of the current status and outlook of CFRP recycling operations, focusing on state-of-the-art fibre reclamation and re-manufacturing processes, and on the commercialisation and potential applications of recycled products. It is shown that several recycling and re-manufacturing processes are reaching a mature stage, with implementations at commercial scales in operation, production of recycled CFRPs having competitive structural performances, and demonstrator components having been manufactured. The major challenges for the sound establishment of a CFRP recycling industry and the development of markets for the recyclates are summarised; the potential for introducing recycled CFRPs in structural components is discussed, and likely promising applications are investigated.
Recycling of wind turbines
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Confidential data collected through site visits to three China wind turbine blade factories and private communication with blade manufacturer technical departments
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The environmental impact of wind turbine blades
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Does the Wind Industry have a Blade Problem
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