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Wind turbine blade waste in 2050
Abstract
Wind energy has developed rapidly over the last two decades to become one of the most promising and economically viable sources of renewable energy. Although wind energy is claimed to provide clean renewable energy without any emissions during operation, but it is only one side of the coin. The blades, one of the most important components in the wind turbines, made with composite, are currently regarded as unrecyclable. With the first wave of early commercial wind turbine installations now approaching their end of life, the problem of blade disposal is just beginning to emerge as a significant factor for the future. This paper is aimed at discovering the magnitude of the wind turbine blade waste problem, looking not only at disposal but at all stages of a blade’s lifecycle. The first stage of the research, the subject of this paper, is to accurately estimate present and future wind turbine blade waste inventory using the most recent and most accurate data available. The result will provide a solid reference point to help the industry and policy makers to understand the size of potential environmental problem and to help to manage it better. This study starts by estimating the annual blade material usage with wind energy installed capacity and average blade weight. The effect of other waste contributing factors in the full lifecycle of wind turbine blades is then included, using industrial data from the manufacturing, testing and in-service stages. The research indicates that there will be 43 million tonnes of blade waste worldwide by 2050 with China possessing 40% of the waste, Europe 25%, the United States 16% and the rest of the world 19%.
... Typically, polymers and composite materials end up in landfills or are incinerated, which are the least favored methods of disposal according to the waste management hierarchy [5]. By 2050, it is estimated that the world will face up to 43 million 2 tons of waste from decommissioned wind turbine blades which are predominantly made of glass fiber reinforced polymers (GFRP) [6]. With the electric vehicle market growing, structural adhesives play a significant role in assembling battery packs. ...
... | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 11 September 2024 doi:10.20944/preprints202408.0787.v2 6 ...
This study examines stress distributions in adhesive joints under various loading and temperature conditions. Finite element analysis (FEA) was employed to compute the peel and shear stresses at the adhesive interface and bondline mid-section. Dependency analysis shows that mid-section peel stress significantly impacts the experimental shear strength of SLJs more than shear stress. This insight highlights the need to carefully analyze peel stress and bending moment factors. The analytical solutions proposed by Goland and Reissner were analyzed with modifications by Hart-Smith and Zhao. Hart-Smith’s approach performed more effectively, especially when the adhesive layer thickness (ta) is 0.5 mm and the overlap length to thickness ratio (c/ta) is ≥20. FEA revealed stress distributions at the adhesive/adherend interface and bondline mid-section. DP490 adhesive joints exhibited lower stresses than EA9696. Temperature variations significantly affected joint behavior, particularly above the adhesive’s glass transition temperature (Tg). Both EA9696 and DP490 adhesive joints displayed distinct responses to stress and temperature changes. The parabolic and biquadratic solutions for functionally graded adhesive (FGA) joints were compared. The biquadratic solution consistently yielded higher shear and peel stress values, with an increase ranging from 15% to 71% compared to the parabolic solution at various temperatures because of larger gradient of the Young's modulus distribution near the overlap ends. The ratio of peak peel stress to peak shear stress suggests selecting an adhesive with a superior peel strength or primarily reducing the peak peel stress by functionally grading is advisable, particularly if the adhesive is brittle. Comparison of stress distributions emphasize the importance of selecting adhesives based on stress type, temperature, and solution methods in optimizing adhesive bonding applications. These findings provide valuable insights for thermomechanical applications where thermal stimuli may be used for controlled debonding.
... A graphical prediction of wind turbine blade waste from 2017 up to 2050 by Liu and Barlow [12]. ...
... By 2050, annual global blade waste is projected to go up to 2 million metric tons, whereas if no proper action is taken, the accumulative amount of blade waste will be about 43 million metric tons [12]; this is illustrated in Figure 2. Due to their short lifespan, wind turbines installed during the 20th century are nearing the end of their service life, which creates a need to devise ways of dealing with such waste. Currently, many industries are doing their part in reducing the blade waste issue; the pavement industry is also formulating feasible techniques and ideas [13,14]. ...
Rapid global industrialization has increased the amounts of greenhouse gas emissions leading to global warming and severe weather conditions. To lower such emissions, several countries are swiftly seeking sustainable and low-carbon energy alternatives. As a green energy source, wind power has gained recent popularity due to its low cost and lower carbon footprint; but with a short blade life span, the industry faces a blade waste issue. Wind turbine blade recyclability is challenging due to factors such as blade sheer size, material complexity, low economic feasibility, and a lack of suitable recycling policies; yet, many blades are still being constructed and others are being decommissioned. This paper aims to discuss different wind turbine blade recyclability routes under the pavement sector. Wind turbine blades are made of composite materials, and based on literature data, it was found that recycled fibers can be extracted from the composites using methods such as pyrolysis, solvolysis, and mechanical processing; of these methods, solvolysis provides cleaner and better fibers. The recycled fibers, when incorporated in both asphalt and concrete, improved their mechanical properties; nevertheless, recycling of fibers from carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRPs) was more economical than glass fiber-reinforced polymers (GFRPs). Waste wind turbine blades can take other routes, such as processing them into waste wind turbine aggregates, roadside bicycle shades, bridge girders, and road acoustic barriers.
... Due to these advantages, CFRPs have increasingly replaced conventional materials such as steel, aluminum, and alloys in industries such as automotive, wind energy, and aerospace [4][5][6][7]. By 2025, it is projected that the global market for CFRPs will exceed USD 25 billion annually, with an annual growth rate surpassing 10% [8][9][10]. ...
Disposing of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRPs) has become a pressing issue due to their increasing application across various industries. Previous work has focused on removing silane coupling agent residues on recovered carbon fibers via microwave pyrolysis, making them suitable for use in new materials. However, the mechanical performance and structural characteristics of these fibers have not been fully reported. This study investigates the time–temperature curves of CFRPs treated through microwave pyrolysis and analyzes the mechanical and structural properties of silane-controllable recovered carbon fibers. Additionally, emissions—including carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and particulate aerosols—were measured using handheld monitors and thermal desorption–gas chromatography/mass spectrometry to determine the composition of fugitive gases around the microwave pyrolysis system. The pyrolysis process at 950 °C, with an additional 1 h holding time, reduced the crystallite size from 0.297 Å to 0.222 Å, significantly enhancing tensile strength (3804 ± 713 MPa) and tensile modulus (200 ± 13 GPa). This study contributes to more sustainable CFRP waste treatment and highlights the potential for reusing high-quality carbon fibers in new applications, enhancing both environmental and worker safety.
... Increasingly larger wind turbine blades require the use of carbon fibre-reinforced polymers, making it necessary to explore cost-effective methods for recycling these materials [142]. Liu and Barlow [143] state that by 2050, the annual waste of rotor blades worldwide will reach 2.9 million tonnes and the cumulative waste will reach 43 million tonnes. Therefore, a sustainable process for the end-of-life management of wind turbines is required to maximise the environmental benefits of wind energy [144]. ...
The aim of this article is to analyse the global environmental impact of wind farms, i.e., the effects on human health and the local ecosystem. Compared to conventional energy sources, wind turbines emit significantly fewer greenhouse gases, which helps to mitigate global warming. During the life cycle of a wind farm, 86% of CO2 emissions are generated by the extraction of raw materials and the manufacture of wind turbine components. The water consumption of wind farms is extremely low. In the operational phase, it is 4 L/MWh, and in the life cycle, one water footprint is only 670 L/MWh. However, wind farms occupy a relatively large total area of 0.345 ± 0.224 km 2 /MW of installed capacity on average. For this reason, wind farms will occupy more than 10% of the land area in some EU countries by 2030. The impact of wind farms on human health is mainly reflected in noise and shadow flicker, which can cause insomnia, headaches and various other problems. Ice flying off the rotor blades is not mentioned as a problem. On a positive note, the use of wind turbines instead of conventionally operated power plants helps to reduce the emission of particulate matter 2.5 microns or less in diameter (PM 2.5), which are a major problem for human health. In addition, the non-carcinogenic toxicity potential of wind turbines for humans over the entire life cycle is one of the lowest for energy plants. Wind farms can have a relatively large impact on the ecological system and biodiversity. The destruction of animal migration routes and habitats, the death of birds and bats in collisions with wind farms and the negative effects of wind farm noise on wildlife are examples of these impacts. The installation of a wind turbine at sea generates a lot of noise, which can have a significant impact on some marine animals. For this reason, planners should include noise mitigation measures when selecting the site for the future wind farm. The end of a wind turbine's service life is not a major environmental issue. Most components of a wind turbine can be easily recycled and the biggest challenge is the rotor blades due to the composite materials used.
... Wind power generation represents a significant advancement in renewable energy, playing a crucial role in promoting global sustainable energy development and driving the low-carbon economy. 1 The International Energy Agency estimates that by 2050, wind energy will account for 15−18% of the world's electricity supply. 2 As the wind power industry continues to grow, a critical challenge arises with the increasing number of ex-service wind turbine blades (EWTBs). Given that wind turbine blades are typically designed with a service life of 20− 25 years, global EWTBs amounted to approximately 50,000 tons in 2021 and are expected to surge to 225,000 tons by 2034. 3 This issue is particularly acute in China, and the quantity of EWTBs is predicted to grow exponentially. 4 Addressing the disposal of EWTBs has become an urgent concern for the wind power industry, as the sheer volume of this waste presents a formidable challenge for both disposal and recycling efforts. ...
The recycling of ex-service wind turbine blades (EWTBs) presents a significant challenge for the future. Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) has emerged as a promising approach for the recovery of resins and glass fibers (GFs) from EWTBs. This study offers a comprehensive analysis of the separation mechanisms and product characteristics under the catalytic effect of an acidic medium during the HTL tests. The primary factors were identified as hydrothermal temperature and H2SO4 concentration. The acidic medium facilitated disruption of the resin’s structure by supplying hydronium ions, while temperature played a crucial role in determining the yield of oil-phase products. Operating conditions of 280 °C and 0.6 mol/L H2SO4 resulted in an oil-phase yield of 98.2%. The cleavage of cross-linked C–N and C–O–C bonds reacted with hydrogen ions to produce stable compounds, primarily phenol and p-cumyl alcohol. Based on these findings, two distinct mechanisms of resin depolymerization were proposed, depending on the sequential cleavage of C–O–C and C(benzene ring)–C(isopropyl) bonds. Intermediates, including bisphenol A and 2-propanol,1,3-diphenoxy-, were generated. They further decomposed into smaller units, eventually forming phenol. Moreover, temperature was found to be a critical factor in determining the strength of recycled glass fibers (RGFs). The optimal conditions of 260 °C and 0.6 mol/L H2SO4 concentration were identified as being capable of achieving complete resin depolymerization while preserving high-strength RGFs. These innovative findings provide valuable insights into the development of low-temperature, high-efficiency methods for the full-component recovery of EWTBs, offering significant guidance for future recycling efforts.
... is expected to have around 4 million tons of cumulative blade waste by 2050, accumulating at a rate of 370,000 tons annually [5], [6]. Despite the relatively low mass density of these hollow blades, they are expected to occupy 20% to 30% of the remaining landfill capacity by 2050, exacerbating the urgency for alternative recycling methods [7]. ...
Wind energy's rapid growth has led to a significant challenge with decommissioned wind turbine blades (DWTBs), whose complex composite materials are difficult to recycle, and these DWTBs often end up in landfills. This paper proposes a sustainable solution by repurposing DWTBs as structural components for Highway Overhead Sign Structures (OSSs). The high strength-to-weight ratio and durability of DWTBs offer substantial economic, environmental, and structural benefits. Economic analysis shows a 73% reduction in raw material costs for OSS, with significant savings in steel and concrete. Environmentally, repurposing DWTBs will reduce CO 2 emissions by 242 tons per 40-foot span structure, supporting global net-zero goals. The feasibility is validated through technical assessments, design adaptations, regulatory considerations, and experimental demonstration. By integrating DWTBs into infrastructure projects, this study advances circular economy practices and provides a viable solution for managing wind turbine blade waste, conservation of resources, and ultimately contributing to sustainable infrastructure development.
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed.
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5017408 P r e p r i n t n o t p e e r r e v i e w e d 2
... Furthermore, the need to find a solution for the recycling of such wind-turbine components is becoming increasingly pressing. In Europe alone, it is estimated that 77,000 wind-turbine blades will need to be recycled over the next 20 years [32]. One of the recycling possibilities has been the separation of these constituents by cutting and then managing them separately [33,34]. ...
Citation: Hernando-Revenga, M.; Revilla-Cuesta, V.; Chica, J.A.; Ortega-López, V.; Manso, J.M. Initial Approach to Self-Compacting Concrete with Raw-Crushed Wind-Turbine Blade: Fresh, CFD and Mechanical Analysis. Appl. Sci. 2024, Abstract: The production of raw-crushed wind-turbine blade (RCWTB) and its addition to conventionally designed self-compacting Concrete (SCC) enable us to provide a second life to wind-turbine blades. However, SCC containing RCWTB must show proper fresh behavior, an aspect evaluated in this paper both experimentally and through simulations based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) for RCWTB additions up to 3.0% by volume. In experimental terms, RCWTB reduced the flowability and passing ability of SCC, and slowed SCC flow, although the performance of SCC with 1.5% RCWTB was adequate under free-flow conditions. In terms of modeling, RCWTB did not impact yield stress and increased plastic viscosity. CFD modeling under free flow, regardless of the presence or not of obstacles simulating concrete reinforcement, was successful, especially in the long term. Nevertheless, the modeling of the passing ability was not accurate; precision could be improved by simulating the effect of the individual GFRP fibers within the SCC flow. Finally, the mechanical properties of SCC were negatively impacted by RCWTB, the stitching effect of the GFRP fibers not being effective in an SCC with a conventional design. A specific SCC design when adding RCWTB is therefore needed to advance in the use of this waste in this concrete type.
... For example, the ETIPWind Executive Committee predicts that in Europe, the amount of end-of-life wind turbine blades should be greater than 66 tons by 2025 [1]. However, in the longer term, Barlow [2] estimates that the total mass of wind turbine blade waste could be as high as 2 MT by 2050. The regional distribution indicates that China will be responsible for most of the waste (40%), followed by Europe (25%), the rest of the world (19%), and the USA (16%). ...
This article presents the results of an experimental study carried out to assess the possibility of using waste wind turbine blades as retaining wall structures for slopes and trenches. The use of Vestas and LM-type blades as retaining wall components was assumed, based on ‘columns’ made of Vestas-type closed profiles filled with concrete and ‘slabs’ of fragments extracted from LM-type blades. The results of the tests and comparisons of the displacement and strain values of the components obtained using different measurement methods are presented in this paper. The force–strain and force–displacement relationships obtained from the tests were used to validate numerical models of slope protection walls and excavations designed from used wind turbine blades. According to our research, there is a high degree of variability in the strength parameters and deformation of the composite elements made from the wind turbine blades. Therefore, in the case of this type of material, characterized by a significant variation in carrying capacity, deformability, and the nature of the failures, the use of different measurement methods makes it possible to obtain much of the data necessary for assessing the reusability of wind turbine blades in building.
... Moreover, the disassembly is carried out in order to replace older models with more efficient ones. Forecasts indicate [1] that in 2050, the mass of dismantled turbines will reach 2,000 tons per year. Disassembled turbine blades and columns are deposited in increasingly large landfills (Fig. 1). ...
Wind turbines have become an important source of renewable energy in recent years, but recycling them is difficult due to their material properties. The paper indicates the possibility of using turbine blades to produce elements that can be filled with concrete and used as members of small geotechnical structures: retaining walls, point and well foundations, foundations for railings, fences, road signs, etc., as well as excavation linings and shoring walls. In these solutions, concrete-filled elements of turbine blades constitute a form (formwork) for concrete, protecting it against environmental influences, and can also cooperate with concrete in transferring loads.
... Typically, polymers and composite materials end up in materials end up in landfills or are incinerated, which are the least favored methods of disposal according to the waste management hierarchy [5]. By 2050, it is estimated that the world will face up to 43 million tons of waste from decommissioned wind turbine blades which are predominantly made of glass fiber-reinforced polymers (GFRPs) [6]. With the electric vehicle market growing, structural adhesives play a significant role in assembling battery packs. ...
This study examines stress distributions in adhesive joints under various loading and temperature conditions. Finite element analysis (FEA) was employed to compute the peel and shear stresses at the adhesive interface and bondline mid-section. Dependency analysis shows that mid-section peel stress significantly impacts the experimental shear strength of SLJs more than shear stress. This insight highlights the need to carefully analyze peel stress and bending moment factors. The analytical solutions proposed by Goland and Reissner were analyzed with modifications by Hart-Smith and Zhao. Hart-Smith’s approach performed more effectively, especially when the adhesive layer thickness (ta) was 0.5 mm and the overlap length to thickness ratio (c/ta) was ≥20. FEA revealed stress distributions at the adhesive/adherend interface and bondline mid-section. DP490 adhesive joints exhibited lower stresses than EA9696. Temperature variations significantly affected joint behavior, particularly above the adhesive’s glass transition temperature (Tg). Both EA9696 and DP490 adhesive joints displayed distinct responses to stress and temperature changes. The parabolic and biquadratic solutions for functionally graded adhesive (FGA) joints were compared. The biquadratic solution consistently yielded higher shear and peel stress values, with an increase ranging from 15% to 71% compared to the parabolic solution at various temperatures because of the larger gradient of the Young’s modulus distribution near the overlap ends. The ratio of peak peel stress to peak shear stress suggests that selecting an adhesive with a superior peel strength or primarily reducing the peak peel stress by functionally grading is advisable, particularly if the adhesive is brittle. The comparison of stress distributions emphasizes the importance of selecting adhesives based on stress type, temperature, and solution methods in optimizing adhesive bonding applications. These findings provide valuable insights for thermomechanical applications where thermal stimuli may be used for controlled debonding.
... It is evident that the number of turbines reaching EOL in India will be more and estimation of waste generation from wind turbines reaching EOL are higher. If this is not properly handled then it would have a major impact on environment [23,24]. Most common method of disposal of WT blades earlier were land filling and incineration [25,26] utilized the shredded composite (SC) from WTBs in newly created thermoset composites and discovered that SC required chemical processing to increase its adherence to the resin matrix. ...
This paper presents the feasibility of utilizing Wind Turbine Blade (WTB) wastes as an alternative for the natural aggregate in cement concrete. Three types of experimental investigations were conducted to assess the potential of WTB combined with natural aggregate in concrete. As preliminary investigation, porosity property of the WTB aggregate is determined by water absorption test. Similarly, toughness and impact resistance properties are verified by aggregate impact and crushing tests respectively. An attempt has been made to study the influence of waste WTB as a substitute for natural aggregates in concrete for M25 grade at replacement percentage of 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50. Mechanical properties of developed concrete are evaluated by compressive strength, flexural strength and split tensile strength tests. Based on the results, 20% WTB waste substituted concrete had 8.5%, 14.7%, and 8.9% higher compressive strength, split tensile strength, and flexural strength than conventional concrete. The strength increment in the developed concrete is confirmed through microstructural evaluation using SEM micrographs, XRD and FTIR. Based on the investigation-conducted use of WTBs seems to have prospective applications in concrete with economic and environmental benefits preventing the accumulation of landfills of WTBs paving way for sustainability.
Keywords:
Wind Turbine blades; EOL; Natural aggregates; Reuse; Sustainability
... Every year, the United Kingdom (UK) alone produces around 110,000 tons of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites [6]. By 2050, it is estimated that the world will face up to 43 million tons of waste from decommissioned wind turbine blades [7]. Structural adhesives play a significant role in assembling battery packs, with the electric vehicle market growing. ...
This study examines stress distributions in adhesive joints under various loading and temperature conditions. Finite element analysis (FEA) was employed to compute the peel and shear stresses at the adhesive interface and bondline midpoint. The analytical solutions proposed by Goland and Reissner were analyzed with modifications by Hart-Smith and Zhao. FEA revealed stress distributions at the adhesive/adherend interface and bondline midpoint. DP490 adhesive joints exhibited lower stresses than EA9696 due to a lower Young's modulus and the use of thicker adherends. Temperature variations significantly affected joint behavior, particularly above the adhesive’s glass transition temperature (Tg). Both EA9696 and DP490 adhesive joints displayed distinct responses to stress and temperature changes. The comparison between parabolic and biquadratic solutions for functionally graded adhesive (FGA) joints showed that the biquadratic solution consistently yielded higher shear and peel stress values, with an increase ranging from 15% to 71% compared to the parabolic solution at various temperatures. Comparing stress distributions between peel and shear stresses, emphasizing the importance of selecting adhesives based on stress type, temperature, and solution methods in optimizing adhesive bonding applications. These findings provide valuable insights for thermomechanical applications where thermal stimuli may be used for controlled debonding.
... The primary reason for this difficulty is the challenge in separating the individual constituents in GFRPs (glass fibres and thermoset polymer-like epoxy) due to the crosslinks in the molecular structure of the thermoset. The volume of EoS WTBs is expected to grow substantially in the coming years, reaching a staggering 200,000 tons per year in Europe by 2050 [2]. The situation in Sweden follows this trend and will reach 25,000 tons/year by 2050 [3]. ...
This paper aims to define the challenges and requirements necessary for the holistic management of wind turbine blades at the end of their service (EoS). Conducted within the Swedish research project Circublade, this study focuses on Sweden, although many challenges and findings are applicable to other countries. Various alternatives for managing EoS wind turbine blades exist at different levels of market maturity, but this paper specifically focuses on repurposing the blades into new products. The development of three concept designs—short-span pedestrian bridges, façade elements for building applications, and noise barriers for roads and railways—has been explored, along with aspects related to material sourcing, logistics, and implementation. For material sourcing, a digital platform containing blade data and tools to facilitate repurposing has been developed. An environmental evaluation of the different concepts highlights the significant impact of transportation on the overall environmental footprint, underscoring the necessity of a holistic approach to managing EoS blades.
... Unfortunately, their disposal is still not fully resolved and the forecasts of its demand are not optimistic. The estimates given in [5] indicate that there will be approximately 43 million tons of blade waste worldwide by 2050. ...
In the paper the stiffness parameters of the laminate recovered from an aerodynamic shell of a decommissioned wind turbine blade are evaluated. The aim of the work is to assess selected methods for identifying material data, as well as to estimate the level of stiffness degradation during turbine operation. Several practical identification methods are presented and compared. Two concepts of a single laminate layer are considered, global and local. The global concept assumes that the equivalent layer of the laminate is a system of three physical layers of a single triaxial fabric. The local concept takes into account all physical layers of the laminate. The material parameters of the global layer are identified and validated in experimental tests. Data for individual physical layers are determined by inverse analysis and the rule of mixtures. The compliance of the results obtained allows one to conclude that the stiffness of the material did not degrade significantly during the operation period. The stiffness parameters of the laminate have shown that the tested material is still very attractive for structural purposes.
... The strong structure of the blade and the properties of the thermosets that they cannot turn to the liquid phase by heating, make their recycling difficult (Krauklis et al., 2021). On the other hand, the volume, and the growth rate of the WT blades to be decommissioned in coming years are huge: an estimated 789000 tonnes in 2021 and a total of 43 million tonnes by 2050 (Liu & Barlow, 2017). Therefore, a thermal recycling process of GFRPs having WT end-of-life (WT EoL) scraps as the main material is proposed within the project (PRoGrESS, 2022, n.d.) to build the first pilot-scale plant of this process in the UK. ...
Recycling is one of the most challenging issues in many different sectors, which can bring both significant economic and environmental benefits. Hence, recycling is one of the few domains in that economic interests are in line with diminishing environmental concerns. Among the feasible and profitable recyclable materials, fibre-reinforced polymers (FRPs) are at the early stages of technology readiness with end-of-life FRP material projected to increase significantly in the coming years. Therefore, the economic and environmental impacts of FRP recycling plants should be investigated to develop a reliable business case to support the development of a circular economy for these materials. To this end, the recycling process should be robustly designed, optimised, and integrated with energy systems to maximise economic and energy-saving benefits. In this work, an FRP thermal recycling plant coupled with a 30 kWel/175 kWth organic Rankine cycle (ORC) system for combined heat and power (CHP) is studied. The environmental benefits of this integrated recycling-energy system are presented in terms of net CO2 and operational costs. Results show that the integration with at least 50 residential apartments can significantly improve the economic and environmental indicators compared to the separate recycling plant and buildings being supplied by the electricity and natural gas (NG) grids. These indicators are identified by comparing the direct and indirect CO2 emission and operational costs of the recycling plant coupled with the ORC-CHP system with those generated by stand-alone systems producing virgin fibres, supplying domestic electric demand using the electric grid, and domestic space heating using the NG grid.
... According to this projection, China, Europe and the USA will account for 40%, 25% and 16% of turbine blade waste, respectively. Since each wind energy kw requires 10 kg WT blade material, humanity will soon lose 200,000 tons of blades (Liu and Barlow 2017). Due to the significance of this problem, several research works have been performed to facilitate material recycling. ...
The vulnerability of US offshore wind energy to tropical cyclones is a pressing concern, particularly along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, key areas for offshore wind energy development. Assessing the impact of projected climate change on tropical cyclones, and consequently on offshore wind resources, is thus critical for effective risk management. Herein, we investigate the evolving risk to offshore wind turbines posed by Atlantic tropical cyclones in a non-stationary climate using a synthetic tropical cyclone model. Integrated with climate model simulations, projections show widespread increases in tropical cyclone exposure, with historical 20-year storms occurring every ~12.7 years on average, increasing in intensity by about 9.3 ms⁻¹. Subsequent fragility analysis reveals that the probabilities of turbine yielding and buckling from a 20-year tropical cyclone could increase by about 37% and 13%, respectively, with regional increases reaching up to 51%. These findings carry substantial implications for the operation and future expansion of offshore wind farms.
This article serves as a review of the current challenges in bridge engineering, specifically addressing the transition effect and the utilization of recycled materials. It aims to identify research gaps and propose innovative approaches, paving the way for future experimental studies. As a review article, the authors critically analyze the existing literature on the transition effects in bridge construction, their causes, and their negative impacts. Integral bridges are discussed as a solution designed to work in conjunction with road or rail embankments to transfer loads, minimizing maintenance and construction costs while increasing durability. Particular attention is given to the potential use of modified plastic composites as an alternative material in integral bridge structures. This concept not only addresses the issue of plastic waste but also promotes the long-term use of recycled materials, a key consideration given recycling limitations. This article highlights the importance of the connection between the embankment and the abutment and provides examples of polymer applications in bridge engineering. By outlining the state of the art, this review identifies future development paths in this niche, but promising, field. Almost 240 literature items were analyzed in detail, and works containing 475 different key words contained in about 3500 individual works were used for scientometric analysis. The results of the analysis clearly indicate the novelty of the presented subject matter.
Glass fibre composites have become widely used in many applications, notably in wind turbine rotors. Fluidised bed valorization has demonstrated glass fibre recycling from waste composites, enabling reuse in traditional composite manufacturing technologies. This paper intendeds to inform long-term strategies for glass fibre composite waste by identify operating conditions that can optimise environmental and economic metrics for fluidised bed valorization. Experimentally derived operating parameters were integrated into energy models for a commercial-scale recycling process. An environmental assessment was conducted to compare the global warming potential of recycled glass fibres with that of virgin materials. In addition, a technoeconomic analysis was performed to assess the viability of the recycling technology at scale. The findings indicate that recycled glass fibre can achieve a global warming potential of less than 2 kg CO2e. per kg, contributing to a net reduction in greenhouse gas emissions when replacing virgin glass fibre. Furthermore, the economic analysis showed that a recycling facility with a capacity of just 10 kt per year could produce recycled glass fibre at a cost of $0.61/kg, significantly lower than the cost of virgin glass fibre. Overall, fluidised bed valorization presents an environmentally and economically sustainable solution for managing glass fibre composite waste.
This study reports the tribological performance of a family of PMMA/SiO2 hybrid coatings with graphene oxide applied on composite laminate substrates. The transformation from graphite to graphene oxide was carried out using a high-energy mill for 90 minutes. The composite laminates of epoxy resin matrix and layers of bidirectional carbon fiber were obtained through the vacuum infusion process. The coatings were applied on the composite laminates using the dip-coating method. To disperse the graphene oxide in the hybrid solutions, an ultrasonic bath (40 kHz) was used during the immersion of the substrate. Tribological tests of erosive wear by solid particle impact (beach sand) were performed on a horizontal erosion test platform under conditions of pressure of 45 psi, impact velocity of 6 m/s, distance between nozzle and specimen of 10 mm and impact angle of 90°. The results showed that coatings with graphene oxide increase their protection against erosion by 50 (9-PMMA/1-SiO2-2GO) to 54% (9-PMMA/1-SiO2-1GO) more than the coating without graphene oxide. The results obtained could be considered for using this type of coating as an alternative protection on the leading edge of wind turbine blades that are exposed to conditions of erosion wear by solid particle impact.
Epoxy systems are essential in numerous industrial applications due to their exceptional mechanical properties, thermal stability, and chemical resistance. Yet, recycling epoxy networks and reinforcing materials in epoxy composites remains challenging, raising environmental concerns. The critical challenge is the recovery of well‐defined molecules upon depolymerization. To address these issues, an innovative strategy is developed utilizing imine‐containing secondary amine hardener ( M1 ). The reaction of M1 with DGEBA produced high‐performance epoxy thermoset P1 , which exhibits Young's modulus of 2.18 GPa and tensile strength of 63.4 MPa, and excellent stability in neutral aqueous conditions. Upon carbon‐fiber reinforcement, Young's modulus and tensile strength are significantly elevated to 10.99 GPa and 328.3 MPa, respectively. The reactive secondary amine functionalities enabled the tailored network to display a well‐defined growth pattern, yielding only well‐defined molecules and intact carbon fibers upon acidic depolymerization. Consequently, the recycled polymers retained properties identical to those of P1 . Notably, it is discovered that despite the cross‐linked nature of the epoxy networks, complete dissolution in dichloromethane facilitated straightforward solvent‐based recycling, allowing the recovery of undamaged carbon fibers and an epoxy thermoset with properties matching the virgin material. Presented novel monomer design and approach showcased two important and efficient recycling options for epoxy systems.
A circular economy of wind energy industry has attracted global attention. Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) foam is widely used in wind turbine blades to lighten the weight, but it is highly...
In the face of escalating levels of global carbon emissions and the looming threat of an energy crisis, the complexities of addressing climate change are compounded by challenges such as pandemics like COVID-19 and ongoing conflicts. To secure energy independence and stability, it becomes crucial to allocate resources toward developing a circular green hydrogen economy. This strategic investment not only combats climate change but also promotes sustainable development by reducing waste generation across all stages of production and consumption. With this aim this work performs an integrated life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) of green hydrogen production. A techno-economic analysis (TEA) was performed for evaluation of economic metrics, whereas environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) and social LCA were performed to highlight the ecological and social hotspots. According to the LCSA findings, the most significant hotspots for the economic, environmental, and social aspects of the solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind power industry are related to the manufacture of solar panels and wind turbines. The LCSA framework was then integrated with guiding principles to implement circular economy (CE) principles provided by BS 8001:2017 in order to develop a framework for a circular green hydrogen economy. The developed framework has demonstrated how LCSA can be used a tool to develop a circular green hydrogen accomplishing the sustainable development goals (SDGs).
Wind energy is a widely used and renewable source for electricity generation. However, traditional wind turbines face challenges such as large footprints, noise, high costs, and efficiency limitations. To address these issues, bladeless wind turbines (BWTs) have gained popularity, and extensive research is being carried out to develop efficient designs. In this work, we propose a novel BWT design, inspired by the spine structure found in human bodies. The BWT architecture is modular, autonomous, and robust, making it suitable for small, portable, and small-scale applications. Our BWT design was inspired by the spine structure found in the human body and other vertebrates. The BSWT architecture is modular, autonomous, and robust. Detailed 3D models were created using Fusion 360 and SolidWorks software to refine and iterate the design. Our BWT features a complete electrical system with an energy harvesting base, a rectifier, converter, and a storage battery. The stored energy is then converted to AC and connected to the load. Our design utilizes oscillating rods divided into sections, enabling energy generation even at low wind speeds. The casing protects the rods from shear stresses and corrosion. While practical applicates involve a spine design with multiple sections, our experiments primarily focus on a single turbine.
The increasing awareness in environmental safety has led to rapid development in production of electricity using wind energy with wind turbines. The widespread deployment of wind turbines has outpaced the effective recycling of End‐of‐Life wind turbines. This study explores the potential of mechanically recycling decommissioned wind turbine blades (WTB) as reinforcement material in 3D printing processes. Utilizing mechanical grinding, materials were extracted from the waste blades and subsequently analyzed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Differential scanning calorimetry, and thermogravimetric analysis to determine optimal processing conditions. The reclaimed materials were then blended with recycled polypropylene through single‐screw extrusion to fabricate tensile test samples via Fused Deposition Modeling. The impact of print orientation on mechanical strength was examined at 0°, 45°, and 90° angles. Morphological analysis was conducted on the fractured specimens to assess the failure characteristics. The findings indicate that samples printed at a 90° orientation exhibited superior mechanical properties, suggesting a viable pathway for incorporating wind turbine waste into sustainable manufacturing cycles.
Highlights
A decentralized‐mechanical recycling technique to the waste WTB.
The necessary material parameters for the operations employed in this study.
Reinforced 3D printable filaments from waste WTB.
Stronger reinforced filaments obtained from proper fiber alignment.
The development of clean energy has led to a significant increase in decommissioned wind turbine blades (DWTBs), which have emerged as a new form of solid waste. Glass fiber, the...
Purpose
Wind energy has developed rapidly becoming a promising source of renewable energy. Although wind energy is described as clean energy, the problem of blade disposal has emerged from decommissioned wind turbines in the renewable energy sector, these blades manufactured from composite materials are almost impossible to recycle.
Design/methodology/approach
This study proposed a methodological workflow for an educational approach toward accelerating the transition to a circular economy (CE) through a case study reusing wind turbine blade waste. The participants were undergraduate students. In the quantitative case study approach of students’ coursework, innovative architectural reuse was the basis of the methodology for creatively reusing blade waste. Students reused the blades as building elements.
Findings
The workflow could be beneficial to the renewable energy sector and the architecture, engineering and construction industry. The results show that the impact of creative reuse is positive as it reduces the energy consumed by conventional recycling processes, reduces carbon dioxide-equivalents and preserves the structural properties of the blades.
Research limitations/implications
The research reported in this study is exploratory and findings may not be generalizable due to the location and limited number of participants in the design process. Also, the empirical data collected were limited to the views and opinions of the students and instructor.
Originality/value
The novel workflow provided evidence at the end of the course that participating students became more interested in CE and were able to think more independently about CE. Creative reuse promotes circularity, reducing virgin material extraction and carbon emissions.
Fiber-reinforced polymer composites, reaching a production of approximately 2.56 million tons in 2023 in Europe, display unique properties, yet they are disposed of at their end of service by conventional methods such as landfill and incineration. Here, we review the recycling of fiber-reinforced polymer wastes in the construction industry, with emphasis on fiber-reinforced polymer composites, recycling methods, and applications of carbon and glass fiber polymer composites in civil engineering. Recycling methods include mechanical, thermal, and chemical techniques. Applications comprise the use in fine fillers, coarse and fine aggregates, macro-fibers, alkali-activated materials, geopolymers, asphalt composites, and cement composites. We discuss workability, mechanical properties including compressive, flexural and tensile properties, durability, and surface modification. Future applications include three-dimensional concrete printing, self-sensing cement composites, self-heating and energy harvesting cement composites, and electromagnetic shielding. We propose a waste management hierarchy, considering the source of composites and their intended applications, to improve circularity.
It is a fact that worldwide energy reserves are constantly decreasing. Simultaneously, climate change poses a strong threat to our planet’s future. Therefore, it is imperative to turn to sustainable and environmentally friendly solutions, such as renewable energy sources. One of the renewable energy sources is wind energy, which has important characteristics and advantages and presents itself as a prominent solution to the issue that has arisen. The production of energy via wind is done by using wind turbines. However, disposing of wind turbines in landfills or incineration can cause serious health and environmental problems. As a result, recycling of wind turbines is a realistic approach for the renewable energy sector to assure the long-term sustainability. Based on the above, this work investigated recycling methods and relevant operations. In particular, it includes a concise review on the topic and a data analysis of previously unpublished data regarding wind turbines installed in Greece (data obtained from Greek Center for Renewable Energy Sources (CRES)), which were meticulously analyzed, offering the main findings of this scientific venture. The factors that contribute to the sustainability of wind turbines (whether small or large power) were explored. According to the results, the main recyclable materials are concrete (79.86%), steel (19.03%), fiberglass (0.73%), copper (0.24%), and aluminum (0.14%) of the total weight of the wind turbine. In 2024, it is expected that 59,110 t of concrete; 13,445 t of steel; 370 t of fiberglass; 127 t of copper; and 74 t of aluminum will be recycled. Therefore, the economic advantage is enormous, which could lead to new investment opportunities and job growth in the recycling industry. It is critical to make timely decisions on the recycling process. The larger the scale of recycling, the greater the economic and environmental benefits for societies.
This study explores the innovative reuse of end-of-life (EoL) wind turbine blade (WTBs) parts as floats for photovoltaic (PV)-floating systems. In response to the growing concerns about EoL WTB waste, this study applies circular economy principles to repurpose high-value composite materials. By transforming a segment of an Enercon E40 WTB into a float for a PV-floating system, this study not only provides a sustainable solution to EoL composites, but also contributes to the development of renewable energy. The article describes the design of the PV-floating system and the lessons learned from its construction. It also provides an outlook on how such a system can be further scaled up.
Wind energy has become a key player in global electricity generation. The management of end-of-life (EoL) wind turbine blade (WTB) material streams is a challenge that requires urgent attention. The aim of this study was to forecast the future EoL WTB material, composition and geographical distribution of decommissioned on-and offshore wind turbines in Germany. Based on the German core energy market data register and a review of forecasting methods, a hybrid approach was developed that combines a statistical, deterministic and stochastic model with three scenarios to assume the service life of wind turbines in operation. This method was applied to Germany to estimate the mass of WTBs until 2050. The results show that a total EoL WTB material mass of 698 kt is expected, consisting of 492 kt of glass fibre reinforced polymer WTBs and 206 kt of hybrid WTB material with a carbon fibre reinforced polymer mass share of approximately 12.4 kt. From 2024 onwards, a displacement of 64.4 km in the centre of gravity of the expected EoL WTB material stream towards the northwest coast of Germany could be observed. The authors demonstrate the novelty of the method and findings in relation to circular economy paths of EoL WTB material.
Wind energy is helping to decarbonize the electrical grid, but wind blades are not recyclable, and current end-of-life management strategies are not sustainable. To address the material recyclability challenges in sustainable energy infrastructure, we introduce scalable biomass-derivable polyester covalent adaptable networks and corresponding fiber-reinforced composites for recyclable wind blade fabrication. Through experimental and computational studies, including vacuum-assisted resin-transfer molding of a 9-meter wind blade prototype, we demonstrate drop-in technological readiness of this material with existing manufacture techniques, superior properties relative to incumbent materials, and practical end-of-life chemical recyclability. Most notable is the counterintuitive creep suppression, outperforming industry state-of-the-art thermosets despite the dynamic cross-link topology. Overall, this report details the many facets of wind blade manufacture, encompassing chemistry, engineering, safety, mechanical analyses, weathering, and chemical recyclability, enabling a realistic path toward biomass-derivable, recyclable wind blades.
This study presents a comparative analysis of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites manufactured through vacuum assisted resin infusion (VARI) using a traditional epoxy resin ( E ), a fully‐recyclable epoxy resin system with (BBR10) and without (BBR) the addition of a reactive diluent (R*Diluent). Various mechanical and thermal tests were conducted to assess their performance. The BBR10 laminate, incorporating 10 wt% R*Diluent, exhibited competitive mechanical performance, comparable to traditional ( E ) and fully‐recyclable laminates (BBR). Despite a slightly lower ultimate tensile strength (UTS) compared with BBR, BBR10 demonstrated improved flexural strength and modulus. Low‐velocity impact testing confirmed comparable strength between VARI‐produced composites with the recyclable matrix (BBR and BBR10) and the traditional one ( E ). X‐ray mCT investigations revealed distinct void arrangements in the CFRP laminates. Additionally, a chemical approach was employed for recovering high fractions of fibers from CFRP laminates with a recyclable matrix (BBR and BBR10). Chemical recycling achieved an almost 100% yield for long carbon fibers.
Highlights
Comparative analysis of CFRP composites manufactured through VARI.
Diluent addition allowed to tailor the recyclable epoxy viscosity.
Mechanical characterization of traditional and fully recyclable epoxy resins.
Investigation by X‐ray mCT of potential flaws and manufacturing defects.
Chemical recycling of CFRP laminates with a recyclable matrix.
The so-called 20-20-20 targets for the European Union include a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 20% compared to 1990, 20% of primary energy from renewables, and a 20% reduction in primary energy demand through energy efficiency by 2020. Wind energy has played and will continue to play a significant role in progress towards meeting these goals; in 2012 it accounted for around 7% of total European electricity consumption. Against the background of the recent trend towards ever larger wind turbines at higher hub heights, this contribution explores the challenges to and prospects for a continued up-sizing of wind turbines in the future. Based on a literature review and interviews with experts in the European wind industry, the key challenges for large onshore wind turbines are identified and qualitatively analyzed in a European context. Further developments of large wind turbines depend on several components and related challenges rather than just one. The main challenges are thought to be related to social acceptance, the logistics of transport and erection, and the medium term sustainability of the political and economic support for wind energy. It seems likely that social acceptance will center around the issue of aerodynamic noise and the allowed distance from the turbine, although further research is required to fully understand the public perception of especially large wind power plants. In addition, the sheer size of larger wind turbines in the future presents significant challenges in terms of the materials and structures employed. There is little consensus on the likely development of drive train technologies, though a slight tendency towards direct drive systems with permanent magnet generators as well as multi-stage gearboxes was encountered, which could also serve to improve reliability. For the rotor blades, a trend towards fully carbon fiber blades is expected, and towers will continue to be constructed from steel and/or concrete, albeit both of these components increasingly in the form a modular construction.
Rising demand for fibre reinforced polymer composite material and environmental issues necessitates resource efficient use of manufacturing and end of life composite waste. The impact of such sustainability or recycling initiatives can be limited and misguided if the global/national picture is not thoroughly considered. This problem is addressed in this paper with the aid of new Sankey diagrams generated from virgin material and waste volumes in the UK. Environmental footprints of virgin material and recycling were used to explore the resource benefits of composite re-manufacturing. The use of Sankey diagrams enables better decision making with respect to targeting sustainability effort.
Fiber-reinforced polymer composites are engineered materials commonly used for many structural applications because of the high strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios. Although the service life of these materials in various applications is usually between 15 and 20 years, these often keep the physical properties beyond this time. Recycling composites using chemical, mechanical, and thermal processing is reviewed in this article. In this review of carbon, aramide, and glass fiber composites, we provide, as of 2011, a complete view of each composite recycling technology, highlight the possible energy requirements, explain the product outputs of recycling, and discuss the quality (fiber strength) of recyclates and how each recyclate fiber could be used in the market for sustainable composite manufacturing. This article also includes the new concept of 'direct structural composite recycling' and the use of these products in the same or different applications as low-cost composite materials after small modifications.
Wind turbines with a rated power of 5 to 6 MW are now being designed and installed, mostly for offshore operation. Within the EU supported UpWind research project, the barriers for a further increase of size, up to 20 MW, are considered. These wind turbines are expected to have a rotor diameter up to 250 m and a hub height of more than 150 m. Initially, the theoretical implications of upscaling to such sizes on the weight and loads of the wind turbines are examined, where it is shown that unfavourable increases in weight and load will have to be addressed. Following that, empirical models of the increase in weight cost and loads as a function of scale are derived, based on historical trends. These include the effects of both scale and technology advancements, resulting in more favourable scaling laws, indicating that technology breakthroughs are prerequisites for further upscaling in a cost-efficient way. Finally, a theoretical framework for optimal design of large wind turbines is developed. This is based on a life cycle cost approach, with the introduction of generic models for the costs, as functions of the design parameters and using basic upscaling laws adjusted for technology improvement effects. The optimal concept or concepts is obtained as the one that minimizes the total expected costs per megawatt hour (levelized production costs). Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Electric generation by wind turbine is growing very strongly. However, the environmental impact of wind energy is still a matter of controversy. This paper uses Life Cycle Assessment, comparing two systems: a 4.5MW and a 250W wind turbines, to evaluate their environmental impact. All stages of life cycle (manufacturing, transports, installation, maintenance, disassembly and disposal) have been analysed and sensitivity tests have been performed. According to the indexes (PEPBT (primary energy pay back time), CO2 emissions, etc.), the results show that wind energy is an excellent environmental solution provided first, the turbines are high efficiency ones and implemented on sites where the wind resource is good, second, components transportation should not spend too much energy and, third, recycling during decommissioning should be performed correctly. This study proves that wind energy should become one of the best ways to mitigate climate change and to provide electricity in rural zones not connected to the grid.
The wind power industry is growing rapidly. Wind turbines (WTs) are perceived as a low environmental impact energy generation technology. While the service life of a WT is relatively long (20-40 years), at some point a significant number of WTs will reach the end of their service lives. To recover maximum value from these WTs, planning for the end-of-service life of wind turbines (EOSLWTs) is paramount. Historically, environmental life cycle assessments of WTs have often only considered the materials extraction and processing, manufacturing, and use phases, leaving the management of EOSLWTs outside the scope of their attention. Four key EOSLWTs issues that are essential for the continuing development of wind energy technologies are presented: i) The challenges of managing of EOSLWTs given the fast growth rate of the industry and the large number of existing installed WTs; ii) The EOSLWT alternatives such as remanufacturing and recycling to recover functional and material value respectively; iii) The critical activities in the WT reverse supply chain such as recovery methods, logistics of transportation, quality of returns, and quality of reprocessed WTs; and iv) The economic and business issues associated with EOSLWTs. It is expected that the discussion provided will stimulate a dialog among decision makers and raise awareness of economic opportunities and unanticipated challenges in the wind power industry.
Stella Job, Knowledge Exchange Expert for the Materials Knowledge Transfer Network (KTN), UK, discusses the issues surrounding the recycling of glass fibre reinforced plastics (GRP), and reviews some of the options available today.
Part 1
https://www.reinforcedplastics.com/content/features/recycling-glass-fibre-reinforced-composites-history-and-progress-part-1
Part 2
https://www.reinforcedplastics.com/content/features/recycling-glass-fibre-reinforced-composites-history-and-progress-part-2
The main concept currently in use in wind energy involves horizontal-axis wind turbines with blades of fiber composite materials. This turbine concept is expected to remain as the major provider of wind power in the foreseeable future. However, turbine sizes are increasing, and installation offshore means that wind turbines will be exposed to more demanding environmental conditions. Many challenges are posed by the use of fiber composites in increasingly large blades and increasingly hostile environments. Among these are achieving adequate stiffness to prevent excessive blade deflection, preventing buckling failure, ensuring adequate fatigue life under variable wind loading combined with gravitational loading, and minimizing the occurrence and consequences of production defects. A major challenge is to develop cost-effective ways to ensure that production defects do not cause unacceptable reductions in equipment strength and lifetime, given that inspection of large wind power structures is often problematic.
WITH A BOOMING WIND ENERGY INDUSTRY, DRIVING THE DEVELOPMENT OF LARGER AND LARGER TURBINES, THE QUESTION IS NOW ARISING OF HOW TO DEAL WITH WIND TURBINES AT THE END OF THEIR LIFECYCLE, AND PARTICULARLY THOSE WIND TURBINE BLADES MADE OF HARD-TO-RECYCLE COMPOSITES. RENEWABLE ENERGY FOCUS' KARI LARSEN INVESTIGATES POSSIBLE ROUTES FOR THE RECYCLING OF WIND TURBINE BLADES.
This model intends to provide projections of the impact on cost from changes in economic indicators such as the Gross Domestic Product and Producer Price Index.
Although wind technology produces no emissions during operation, there is an environmental impact associated with the wind turbine during the entire life cycle of the plant, from production to dismantling. A life cycle assessment is carried out to quantify the environmental impact of two existing wind turbines, a 1.8 MW-gearless turbine and a 2.0 MW turbine with gearbox. Both technologies will be compared by means of material usage, carbon dioxide emissions and energy payback time based on the cumulative energy requirements for a 20 year life period. For a quantitative analysis of the material and energy balances over the entire life cycle, the simulation software GEMIS® (Global Emission Model of Integrated System) is used.The results show, as expected, that the largest energy requirement contribution is derived mainly from the manufacturing phase, representing 84.4% of the total life cycle, and particularly from the tower construction which accounts for 55% of the total turbine production. The average energy payback time for both turbines is found to be 7 months and the emissions 9 gCO2/kWh. Different scenarios regarding operation performance, recycling of materials and different manufacturing countries such as Germany, Denmark and China are analysed and the energy payback time and carbon dioxide values obtained. Finally, the wind energy plant is compared with other renewable and non-renewable sources of energy to conclude that wind energy is among the cleanest sources of energy available nowadays.
The technologies for recycling thermoset composite materials are reviewed. Mechanical recycling techniques involve the use of grinding techniques to comminute the scrap material and produce recyclate products in different size ranges suitable for reuse as fillers or partial reinforcement in new composite material. Thermal recycling processes involve the use of heat to break the scrap composite down and a range of processes are described in which there are various degrees of energy and material recovery. The prospects for commercially successful composites recycling operations are considered and a new initiative within the European composites industry to stimulate recycling is described.
Life cycle assessment is a technique to assess environmental aspects associated with a product or process by identifying energy, materials, and emissions over its life cycle. The energy analysis includes four stages of a life cycle: material production phase, manufacturing phase, use phase, and end-of-life phase. In this study, the life cycle energy of fiber-reinforced composites manufactured by using the pultrusion process was analyzed. For more widespread use of composites, it is critical to estimate how much energy is consumed during the lifetime of the composites compared to other materials. In particular, we evaluated a potential for composite materials to save energy in automotive applications. A hybrid model, which combines process analysis with economic input–output analysis, was used to capture both direct and indirect energy consumption of the pultrusion process in the material production and manufacturing stages.
Both environmental and economic factors have driven the development of recycling routes for the increasing amount of carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) waste generated. This paper presents a review of the current status and outlook of CFRP recycling operations, focusing on state-of-the-art fibre reclamation and re-manufacturing processes, and on the commercialisation and potential applications of recycled products. It is shown that several recycling and re-manufacturing processes are reaching a mature stage, with implementations at commercial scales in operation, production of recycled CFRPs having competitive structural performances, and demonstrator components having been manufactured. The major challenges for the sound establishment of a CFRP recycling industry and the development of markets for the recyclates are summarised; the potential for introducing recycled CFRPs in structural components is discussed, and likely promising applications are investigated.
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