Three Levels of Push-Pull Dynamics Among Chinese International Students’ Decision to Study Abroad in the Canadian Context
Abstract and Figures
The extant literature on student migration flows generally focus on the traditional push-pull factors of migration at the individual level. Such a tendency excludes the broader levels affecting international student mobility. This paper proposes a hybrid of three levels of push-pull dynamics (micro−individual decision-making, meso−academic marketing, and macro−national marketing) to paint a more accurate picture of student migration flows. A case study of 15 semi-structured interviews with Chinese international students at a Canadian university was conducted to illuminate the underresearched reality that universities and Canada as a nation offer additional incentives, in conjunction with individual/familial reasons, for study abroad. The paper concludes with recommendations for new research directions arising from the present study.
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... The four studies carried out by Chankseliani (2018aChankseliani ( , 2018b, Lee and Sehoole (2015), and Lee (2017) were interconnected in the cluster illustrated in dark blue. The yellow cluster consisted of the studies by Chen (2016), Lipura and Collins (2020), Ortiga (2018), and Yang (2018). The cluster in purple revealed a connection among the research conducted by Jokila (2015), Xu and Montgomery (2019), Yu and Zhang (2016), and Yu et al. (2021). ...
... A range of multifaceted dynamics, including social, cultural, organisational, and individual reasons, affects the mobility of international students (OECD, 2015;Perez-Encinas et al., 2021). Consistently, this cluster explored the factors that shape international student mobility (Chen, 2016;Lipura & Collins, 2020;Ortiga, 2018;Yang, 2018). The articles within this cluster explored various aspects of student mobility, including marketing strategies, non-traditional study destinations, and the impact of migration and labour export on education hubs. ...
... The articles within this cluster explored various aspects of student mobility, including marketing strategies, non-traditional study destinations, and the impact of migration and labour export on education hubs. Chen (2016) focused on marketing strategies and study abroad, while Lipura and Collins (2020) discussed educational mobilities and non-traditional study destinations. Ortiga (2018) examined education hubs and migration in the Philippines, whereas Yang (2018) explored medical education and international student mobility. ...
Migration has become a challenging issue in the field of education and an ongoing crisis for many countries. The migration crisis and education have a reciprocal relationship in that the influx of migrants puts a strain on educational systems, particularly regarding resources, funding, and linguistic and cultural differences. However, education can play a crucial role in addressing some of the challenges associated with migration, such as the need to integrate, skill acquisition and cultural awareness in host countries, as well as brain drain in the countries of origin. It is crucial to investigate how education can both address the problems caused by migration and maximise its potential for sustainable development. This chapter targets analysing relevant scholarship and aims to illustrate the broad patterns of relevant scholarly sources on migration in the field of education indexed in the Web of Science between 2015 and 2022, explore their collaboration trends, and reveal the conceptual structure of these studies in the context of international sustainable development. A bibliometric methodology is employed for the exploration and analysis of the publications; 991 studies on migration in the field of education are descriptively analysed in terms of distribution of publications with their citations, topics at the micro level, journals, and the number of authors contributing to these papers. The results contribute to picturing the characteristics and collaboration trend of the scholarly sources on migration in the area of education as a challenging disabler or a driving force that contributes to societal development within the scope of international sustainable development.
... The decision to study abroad is a high-involvement purchase involving complex factors (Eder et al., 2010). Our assessment of ISM literature notes that the "push-pull" models are a popular framework that explains the forces involved in determining international student flow directions and destinations (Ahmad & Buchanan, 2016;Chen, 2017;Eder et al., 2010;Gbollie & Gong, 2020;Lee, 2017;Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002;McMahon, 1992). Mazzarol and Soutar (2002) describe a three-stage decision involving international students' decision to go overseas, choose the destination country, and select the higher education institution (HEI). ...
... Pull factors are the attractive elements in the prospective destination country environment. Pull factors in selecting a particular host country include recommendations of family and networks, lower fees, job prospects, and quality of education; pull factors that influence institution selection are factors such as its reputation for quality and a higher presence of international students (Ahmad & Buchanan, 2016;Chen, 2017;Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002). Examining the push-pull variables of Asian and African international students in China, Gbollie and Gong (2020) identify several other pull factors, including hospitality, receptiveness, and citizens' attitudes. ...
... Although some themes are traditional pull factors common in the extant studies concerning the enrollment motivations of developing country international students, several themes may be more salient to the STEM international student context. The long-standing and more common pull factors identified in the present study include the career advancement of the student (Rafi & Lewis, 2013;Wu, 2014), the opinion of the people in the student's network, such as friends, family, alumni, and the HE consultant (Chen, 2017;Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002;Wu, 2014), HEI reputation and ranking (Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002;Wu, 2014), an opportunity for the student to migrate to the host country (Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002;Rafi & Lewis, 2013), and the costs associated with study abroad (Cheung et al., 2010;Rafi & Lewis, 2013). ...
An evaluation of extant research reveals a significant blind spot around investigating the enrolment decision-making of Indian international students in the STEM fields. This study qualitatively explores the motivations of Indian international students to pursue a STEM Master’s program in an industrialised country. To elicit pertinent information, 29 Indian international students in four leading study-abroad destination countries (the USA, Australia, Germany, and the UK) were interviewed online. The interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analysed using a thematic approach. The analysis reveals 20 motivation themes that underlie the enrollment decision making journey of the respondent set. Although some themes are traditional pull factors common in extant studies (e.g., career advancement, university reputation, migration), several other motivations may be more salient to the STEM international students in this study (e.g., an opportunity to be a part of high-quality research with expert faculty, a yearning for internships and projects with leading business organisations). The findings reveal that students’ enrollment decisions are motivated both intrinsically and extrinsically. The intrinsic motivations show the international student's innate scholarly interests and aspirations. Extrinsic motivations reflect the international student’s need for rewards and conscious valuing. The findings of this qualitative exploration act as a market intelligence input for university managers and host country policymakers to develop compelling value propositions.
... Researchers have predominantly focused on students moving from developing countries to developed countries for education, based on which the pushpull theory has been proffered to explain the ISM. The theory delineates the allure of the political, economic, and cultural advantages offered by destinations like the UK, US, Australia, and Canada (pull factors), juxtaposed with the disadvantages prevailing in the sending countries (push factors) (Cebolla-Boado et al., 2018;Chen, 2016;Lee, 2017;Jing et al., 2021;Zhai et al., 2019). Meanwhile, as we mentioned above, the global patterns of ISM have been continuously evolving. ...
... First, we propose the A-E-O model to integrate the numerous and scattered factors in the classical push-pull model (Chen, 2016;Lee, 2017;Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002), which provides a logically coherent framework for analysing the factors influencing students' choice of study abroad destinations. When choosing a study abroad destination, students consider the three stages of 'Access-Experience-Outcome'. ...
The surge in international student mobility (ISM) has seen China emerge as a leading source of international students, including being one of the largest sources in the Nordic countries. This paper draws upon empirical evidence to explore the factors influencing Chinese college graduates’ decisions to study in the Nordic countries. While confirming the impact of economic and scholastic capital on study abroad decision making, this study also highlights the significant role of students’ perceptions of the destination country in the context of China-Nordic degree mobility. An Access-Experience-Outcome (A-E-O) model is proposed to explain students’ decision-making process regarding degree mobility, which reintegrates the various scattered factors affecting students’ choice of study abroad destinations in the push-pull theory. The findings suggest that the Nordic countries, known for their welfare systems and quality of life, provide an attractive alternative for students seeking unique educational and cultural experiences, as well as promising prospects for immigration and employment. This research contributes to the literature by offering a nuanced perspective on Chinese student mobility beyond the mainstream destinations and provides policy implications for the Nordic countries in attracting and supporting international students in a competitive higher education market.
... However, the extant push-pull literature on ISM in both the Western contexts or others, falls short in capturing the complex interplay of macro and micro motives that students face when making their educational choices (Chen, 2017). This limitation can stem from a methodological bias, as push-pull studies are predominantly quantitative and thus may not fully capture the nuanced push-pull dynamics of international students' decisions to study abroad (Marginson, 2014). ...
... By embedding the analysis within the increasingly complex matrices of push and pull power that characterise the contemporary multipolar landscape, this study highlights the importance of local politics, legacies, and individual agency in the decision-making process (Gao, in press). To explicate the education migration, this study drew upon, expanded and adapted the push-pull model and captured the interplay between macro-and micro-level forces at the sending and host countries (Chen, 2017). ...
The past decade has witnessed an unprecedented transformation of China into an important “receiving” nation for international student mobility (ISM), underscored by the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)-tied African countries becoming the main import markets. The emerging China-bound ISM, driven by contextually-specific motivations, necessitates a re-theorisation of the Western-centric, neo-liberal-driven push–pull model within the broader context of multipolarity in higher education. Through semi-structured in-depth interviews with eight international students from BRI African countries pursuing postgraduate programmes in Beijing, this micro study explores the dynamic macro–micro interface of push and pull factors. These narratives of how the push (e.g. the under-developed higher education system in the home country) and pull factors (i.e. host nation’s financial support for international students, economic and political links between the home and host countries, and host nation’s exponential growth) intersected with individuals’ desire, reflect the multipolar shifts in global higher education landscapes. By extending the macro-focused push–pull model to incorporate these complexities, this study echoes the need to recognise contemporary multipolarity when explaining ISM in diverse contexts.
... The decision to pursue higher education abroad is a significant milestone in the lives of so many international students today (Chen, 2016;Jafar & Legusov, 2021;Wu, 2020). Among these countries, the U.S. has been mentioned as a popular destination for undergraduate education for international students in recent years because it also has a variety of academic programs, the best institutions in the world, and possibilities to equip students for personal and professional development. ...
The United States is the top destination for international students seeking higher education. These students encounter various factors that shape their decisions throughout the college application journey. This research aims to pinpoint the main variables that influence international students’ choices to study in the US. Important factors include the reputation and rankings of universities, tuition costs, geographic location, personal recommendations, unique connections, and the complexity of the admissions process. Despite facing challenges like strict immigration policies and lengthy visa application procedures, US universities continue to attract students due to their global prestige and the numerous opportunities they provide for personal and professional development. The study sheds light on the preferences and considerations of international students when choosing colleges in the US. By doing so, it offers valuable insights for higher education institutions to improve their support services and refine recruitment strategies, ultimately enhancing the experiences and outcomes for international students.
... However, this journey is not easy. International students face challenges like adapting to a new academic environment (Ammigan, Jones, 2018;Calder et al., 2016), dealing with academic uncertainties (Alqudayri, Gounko, 2018;Chen, Zhou, 2019), and overcoming language barriers (Burel et al., 2019;Chen, 2017). I know these challenges well because my first days in Canada were filled with culture shock (Ammigan, 2019;Burel et al., 2019). ...
In this study, the researcher used the Appreciative Inquiry's dream phase to investigate international master's students' ideal learning experiences at a Canadian university. The research question was, "How do international students describe their ideal experience in terms of quality and learning experiences in a master's program?" Findings revealed a strong desire for an education that blended theoretical knowledge with practical skills. Key themes included the importance of fair tuition fees, meaningful interaction with local students, and comprehensive career development opportunities. These conditions were identified as pivotal to a transformative educational journey. The study findings urge educators and policymakers to focus on international students' well-being and future employability and highlight the multifaceted benefits for students, institutions, and broader international relations. The insights gathered underscore the potential of a student-centered academic approach in shaping an educational landscape that responds to the aspirations and needs of international graduate students.
The internationalization of higher education has increased student migration and the possibility of permanent settlement in the host country. The latter phenomenon is associated with student intentions to relocate and the socioeconomic development of the host country. Several countries are competing to attract international students whether to train them to return home or to retain them to fill labour shortages. Most scholars focus on Western countries such as the US, the UK and Australia due to the high volume of international students they receive and the advantages of the English language. Despite substantial research into student migration globally, the literature has not focused on international student migration to Russia, and the few publications that studied this topic are mostly written in Russian. Most student migration to Russia was from neighboring, former Soviet, countries. Scholars have not focused on African student migration to Russian for several reasons including the small size of this group. Since the 2000s, however, the flow of students from Africa began to increase. Therefore, this study explores the plans of African students in Russia and their decisions after graduation whether to remain or relocate. A conceptual framework was developed to assess the factors associated with this migration. The data were collected from a sample of 385 students from 28 African countries. Thirteen variables were tested which include sex, marital status, previous degree, foreign languages, tuition fees, difficulties in obtaining a residency permit, climate, high housing costs, difficulties integrating into the local community, the current level of education, age, and knowledge of Russian. The dependent variable was the intention of African students in Russia to stay or relocate after graduation. A logistic regression was applied to examine the relationship between the students' socioeconomic status and the intention to stay or relocate. Tuition fees, previous degree, the current level of education, difficulties in obtaining a residency permit, high housing costs, and age had no influence on students' plans after graduation. The results expand the understanding of the situation of African students in Russia. The findings revealed that having a job in the host country and language competencies (Russian and another international language) are the most important factors that determine intention to stay. Offering part-time jobs to foreign students can significantly contribute to retaining these students in Russia. A high degree of integration into the local society also contributes to students' decisions to stay. Teaching Russian language to foreign students would significantly help in student retention. The Russian climate did not affect plans after graduation.
Интернационализация высшего образования привела к росту миграции студентов с возможностью постоянного проживания в принимающей стране. Это явление связано со стремлением студентов переехать в другую страну и с уровнем социально-экономического развития принимающей страны. В настоящее время несколько стран конкурируют между собой за привлечение большого количества иностранных студентов, с одной стороны, для того чтобы после обучения они вернулись домой и применили полученные знания, а с другой – чтобы удержать их для преодоления дефицита рабочей силы и накопления человеческого капитала. Большинство исследований международной образовательной миграции сфокусировано на западных странах, таких как США, Великобритания и Австралия, из-за большого количества иностранных студентов, которых они принимают, и преимуществ английского языка. Несмотря на значительное количество исследований в области студенческой миграции, в литературе уделялось мало внимания миграции иностранных студентов в Россию, а редкие публикации, посвященные этой теме, были написаны в основном на русском языке. Иностранные студенты приезжали в Россию главным образом из стран ближнего зарубежья – Узбекистана, Украины, Таджикистана и других. До недавнего времени ученые не занимались углубленным анализом миграции африканских студентов в Россию по ряду причин, но главной из них была малочисленность этой группы.Однако с 2000-х гг. поток студентов из Африки начал постепенно увеличиваться, и ситуация стала меняться. Данное исследование направлено на изучение миграционных планов африканских студентов после окончания учебы – остаться в России или переехать в другую страну. Для оценки факторов, связанных с этой миграцией, была разработана концептуальная схема. Данные собирались в ходе социологического опроса 385 студентов из 28 африканских стран. Были протестированы 13 переменных, в том числе пол, семейное положение, предыдущий (до приезда в Россию) уровень образования, знание иностранных языков, плата за обучение, трудности с получением вида на жительство, климатические условия, стоимость жилья, трудности интеграции в местное сообщество, текущая ступень образования, возраст и знание русского языка. Зависимой переменной выступило намерение африканских студентов остаться в России или переехать после окончания учебы. Для анализа взаимосвязи между социально-экономическим статусом студентов и их намерением остаться или переехать в другую страну использовалась логистическая регрессия. Основой для формулирования гипотез в данной работе, как и для интерпретации результатов, послужила push-pull теория миграции. Было установлено, что плата за обучение не оказывает влияния на решение студентов остаться в России или переехать в другую страну после окончания учебы. Другие переменные, такие как предыдущий уровень образования, текущая ступень обучения, трудности с получением вида на жительство, высокая стоимость жилья и возраст, также не влияют на принятие решения о миграции после окончания учебы. Результаты исследования расширяют представление о положении африканских студентов в России, демонстрируя, что наличие работы в принимающей стране и владение несколькими языками становятся наиболее важными факторами, определяющими миграционный отбор студентов: среди языков – это русский язык и один из международных языков. Предоставление иностранным студентам работы с частичной занятостью во время учебы в значительной мере может способствовать тому, чтобы они остались в России. Кроме того, принятию студентами решения остаться содействуют высокая степень их интеграции в местное общество и изучение русского языка. Особо обращает на себя внимание тот факт, что африканские студенты не жаловались на суровый климат России.
Purpose
This paper aims to examine the effect of push and pull factors motivating international students to study abroad as two pre-departure factors to their mobility decision; and the effect of two post-departure factors – cultural distance and academic/university environment – on international students’ adjustment.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were collected from 339 international students studying in Egypt. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to assess the effect of the independent variables on two facets of adjustment, the cultural adjustment and the academic adjustment.
Findings
The descriptive studies showed differences in level of adjustments, where the academic adjustment was higher than the cultural adjustment. Moreover, the SEM results have confirmed the significant role of all studied variables on general cultural adjustment; and all variables except for the push factors, on interaction cultural adjustment; and the effect of only push and academic environment on academic adjustment.
Originality/value
This paper is an attempt to extend the work on international students’ mobility via identifying the main pre-departure and the post-departure factors affecting their decision to study in Egypt and the interplay of those factors in shaping their level of adjustment. This study is among a relatively limited attempts in the field that would link push and pull motivational factors to level of adjustment and via detecting the effects on two different adjustments dimensions: the cultural and the academic dimensions; and within an under researched context as Egypt.
This study investigates the factors that drive African students to Russia. The number of African students studying in Russia from the 2010/11 to 2022/2023 academic year increased more than fivefold: from 6.7 thousand to 34.4 thousand. The paper was based on an online survey provided to African students between February and November 2023. A sample of 275 African students from 28 countries was used. Findings revealed that the major factors that draw African students to Russia are the quality of education and the quality of life. We compared the quality of education between both genders along with the quality of life. The findings also revealed that females are more interested in the quality of life than males, while males are more interested in the quality of education than females. The findings suggested that policymakers should consider age and previous education as major variables in student migration.
The objective of this study was to understand perspectives, expectations, and experiences of Chinese international students studying in the graduate and undergraduate programs at a Canadian university, paying special attention to the challenges these students faced in the process of acculturation. Multiple data gathering techniques were used for the quantitative and qualitative data, including a survey questionnaire, individual interviews and focus group discussions. Findings related to the participants’ adjustment to the new environment include English language proficiency, previous education background, communication with other students, and understanding of the local culture. The study found that participants experienced various challenges in their new learning and living environment and some recommendations are offered for improvements. L’objectif principal de cette étude est de comprendre les perspectives, les attentes et les différentes expériences des étudiants internationaux chinois de deuxième et de troisième cycles dans des programmes canadiens. L’article décrit également avec beaucoup de détail les défis que ces étudiants doivent relever lors du processus d’acculturation. Plusieurs techniques de collection de données quantitatives et qualitatives ont été appliquées dont un questionnaire, des interviews individuels et des discussions en groupe. Les résultats en rapport avec l’adaptation des participants au nouvel environnement incluent la compétence langagière en anglais, la formation antérieure et la compréhension de la culture locale. L’étude exposera plusieurs défis auxquels ont dû faire face les participants pour pouvoir s’adapter aux nouveaux environnements et quelques recommandations seront offertes pour faciliter ce processus.
The world of higher education is changing and the world in which higher education plays a significant role is changing. The international dimension of higher education is becoming increasingly important, complex, and confusing. It is therefore timely to reexamine and update the conceptual frameworks underpinning the notion of inter-nationalization in light of today’s changes and challenges. The purpose of this article is to study internationalization at both the institutional and national/sector level. Both levels are important. The national/sector level has an important influence on the international dimension through policy, funding, programs, and regulatory frameworks. Yet it is usually at the institutional level that the real process of internationalization is taking place. This article analyses the meaning, definition, rationales, and approaches of internationalization using a bottom-up (institutional) approach and a top-down (national/sector) approach and examines the dynamic relationship between these two levels. Key policy issues and questions for the future direction of internationalization are identified.
The present article reports a systematic review of the studies related to psychological well-being among East Asian international students. A total of 18 quantitative studies published in peer-reviewed journals from 2000 to 2011 were reviewed. Our review revealed three major results: (1) a majority of researchers (n=13, 72.2%) tend to choose Chinese international students as a representative of East Asian and Asian international students in their studies; (2) studies on psychological well-being of East Asian international students are closely associated with the following variables: length of stay in host country, English proficiency, attitudes toward seeking help, depression, and acculturation; (3) depression was the most frequently reported variable (n=6,33.3%), followed by acculturation (n=5, 27.8%). Recommendations for further research in psychological well-being were provided.
This paper discusses the unique barriers and learning difficulties encountered by Chinese, Japanese, and Korean international students when they study at institutions of higher education in the US. These learning difficulties arise because of inability of some American professors to use discourse markers, summarize at the end of lectures, write key concepts on the blackboard, etc. (Cox & Yamaguchi, 2010; Huang, 2004; Huang & Brown, 2009; Lee & Carrasquillo, 2006). The author argues that by using emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1998), the creating mind (Gardner, 2007), and the respectful mind (Gardner, 2007), American professors institutions of higher education in the US can enhance the learning experiences of their international students.
This article focuses on the kinds of adjustment problems that international students had while they studied at a university in the United States, as well as the adjustment behaviors they used when faced with these problems. Qualitative data was collected and analyzed for over a decade through on-going interviews with 85 international students, as well as through observation field notes and student-written narratives about their adaptation experiences. Findings show that students were challenged by academics, social interaction, and emotional reactions to their new life. To manage their problems, students made use of behaviors that can facilitate adapting to the new culture, as well as behaviors that can obstruct them from adapting. Facilitative behaviors include coping strategies, use of supportive people, observation and imitation, and reflection. Behaviors interpreted as impeding adaptation include expecting others to adapt, complaining, and withdrawing.
This qualitative study investigates the career placement concerns of international graduate students returning to their home countries, heading to other countries, or remaining in the United States after their education. Using a phenomenological framework, structured interviews were conducted with 24 participants (i.e., 18 international students, 1 naturalized status student, 3 faculty members, and 2 career counselors). Assertions that emerged suggested that the students possess diverse career plans influenced by numerous unique factors. Major, gender, and geography were not salient factors affecting the students' career placement needs. Students used contacts in their academic fields far more than they used campus career services, due to negative perceptions of or limited services that the center could provide. Based on these findings, more outreach to the international student community and collaboration between the career counseling and placement center and other campus departments are recommended.
Cultural and developmental perspectives (Flowerdew & Li, 2007) of plagiarism were explored through interviews with Chinese graduates of UK master's degrees after they have returned to work in transnational higher education in China. This allowed reflection on experiences of plagiarism in the context of the participants' educational history, life in the UK and their return to China. These accounts provided narratives of their development of academic integrity and a cultural comparison of the British and Chinese understandings of plagiarism. Interpretive repertoires (Gilbert & Mulkay, 1984) identified the significant commonalities and inconsistencies within and between the participants' accounts. The findings suggest that the participants use UK institutional vocabulary and have developed a more strict approach to plagiarism and academic integrity during their master's course and in their subsequent educational career. Analysis indicates that rather than being equivalents, plagiarism and the corresponding Chinese terms are dependent on the particular assessment backgrounds in the UK and China. Having moved between and adapting to these educational contexts, the potential for these returning Chinese graduates to act as a cultural bridge for academic integrity within internationalised higher education is discussed.
This paper focuses on the emergence and expansion of the phenomenon of plagiarism in higher education. Through a mixed-method investigation, and by applying appropriate criminological theory, it explores the student motivations that have been identified as leading to plagiarism, and tests the means employed by higher education providers to combat it. The article highlights an apparent disconnect between the perceived realities of both student and education provider. It concludes that this disconnect must be carefully considered so that higher education providers can develop effective policies to prevent academic misconduct rather than exacerbate it.