Metal Deposition of Copper and Lead Bullets in Moose Harvested in Fennoscandia

Abstract

Fragments from bullets used for moose (Alces alces) hunting contaminate meat, gut piles, and
offal and expose humans and scavengers to lead and copper. We sampled bullets (n¼1,655) retrieved from
harvested moose in Fennoscandia (Finland, Sweden, and Norway) to measure loss of lead and copper.
Concordant questionnaires (n¼5,255) supplied ballistic information to complete this task. Hunters
preferred lead-based bullets (90%) to copper bullets (10%). Three caliber classes were preferred: 7.62mm
(69%), 9.3mm (12%), and 6.5mm (12%). Bullets passed completely through calves (76%) more frequently
compared to yearlings (63%) or adults (47%). Metal deposition per bullet type (bonded lead core, lead core,
and copper) did not vary among moose age classes (calves, yearlings, and adults). Average metal loss per bullet
type was 3.0 g, 2.6 g, and 0.5 g for lead-core, bonded lead-core, and copper bullets, respectively. This
corresponded to 18–26, 10–25, and 0–15% metal loss for lead-core, bonded lead-core, and copper bullets,
respectively. Based on the harvest of 166,000 moose in Fennoscandia during the 2013/2014 hunting season,
we estimated that lead-based bullets deposited 690 kg of lead in moose carcasses, compared with 21 kg of
copper from copper bullets. Bone impact increased, whereas longer shooting distances decreased, lead loss
from lead-based bullets. These factors did not influence loss of copper from copper bullets. In conclusion, a
significant amount of toxic lead from lead-based bullets is deposited in the tissue of harvested moose, which
may affect the health of humans and scavengers that ingest it. By switching to copper bullets, Fennoscandian
hunters can eliminate a significant source of lead exposure in humans and scavengers.

Full text

Original Article
Metal Deposition of Copper and Lead Bullets
in Moose Harvested in Fennoscandia
SIGBJØRN STOKKE,
1
Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, P.O. Box 8685 Sluppen, NO-7485 Trondheim, Norway
SCOTT BRAINERD, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Wildlife Conservation, 1300 College Road, Fairbanks, AK 99701, USA;
and Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432 A
˚s, Norway
JON M. ARNEMO, Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Hedmark University of Applied Sciences, Campus Evenstad, NO-2480
Koppang, Norway; and Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-90183 Umeå,
Sweden
ABSTRACT Fragments from bullets used for moose (Alces alces) hunting contaminate meat, gut piles, and offal
and expose humans and scavengers to lead and copper. We sampled bullets (n¼1,655) retrieved from harvested
moose in Fennoscandia (Finland, Sweden, and Norway) to measure loss of lead and copper. Concordant
questionnaires (n¼5,255) supplied ballistic information to complete this task. Hunters preferred lead-based
bullets (90%) to copper bullets (10%). Three caliber classes were preferred: 7.62 mm (69%), 9.3 mm (12%), and
6.5 mm (12%). Bullets passedcompletely through calves(76%) more frequently compared to yearlings (63%) or
adults (47%). Metal deposition per bullet type (bonded lead core, lead core, and copper) did not vary among
moose age classes (calves, yearlings, and adults). Average metal loss per bullet type was 3.0 g, 2.6 g, and 0.5 g for
lead-core, bonded lead-core, and copper bullets, respectively. This corresponded to 18–26, 10–25, and 0–15%
metal loss for lead-core, bonded lead-core, and copper bullets, respectively. Based on the harvest of 166,000
moose in Fennoscandia during the 2013/2014 hunting season, we estimated that lead-based bullets deposited
690 kg of lead in moose carcasses, compared with 21kg of copper from copper bullets. Bone impact increased,
whereas longer shooting distances decreased, lead loss from lead-based bullets. These factors did not influence
loss of copper from copper bullets. In conclusion, a significant amount of toxic lead from lead-based bullets is
deposited in the tissue of harvested moose, which may affect the health of humans and scavengers that ingest it.
By switching to copper bullets, Fennoscandian hunters can eliminate a significant source of lead exposure in
humans and scavengers. Ó2017 The Wildlife Society.
KEY WORDS Alces alces, bullet, caliber, human health, hunting, lead, moose, toxicity, wound ballistics.
Moose (Alces alces) hunting is an important recreational and
economic activity in Fennoscandia (Finland, Sweden, and
Norway; Lavsund et al. 2003). There are approximately
411,000 registered moose hunters in these countries
(100,000 in Finland [Natural Resources Institute Finland
2015], 250,000 in Sweden [Swedish Hunters’ Association
2008], and 61,000 in Norway [Statistics Norway 2014]).
During the 2013/2014 hunting season, 166,000 moose were
harvested in Fennoscandia (38,000 in Finland [Finnish
Game and Fisheries Research Institute 2014], 95,000 in
Sweden [Swedish Hunters’ Association 2016], and 33,000 in
Norway [Statistics Norway 2014]). Thus, moose meat is an
important source of protein for a significant proportion of the
population in these countries. Additionally, animals scavenge
on gut piles and offal from harvested moose and carcasses of
wounded moose.
In all 3 countries, moose can only be hunted with rifles
using centerfire cartridges with expanding bullets weighing
9g (139 grains). For bullets weighing 9–10 g (139–154
grains), the minimum impact energy required is 2,700 joules
(275 kg/m) at 100 m. For bullets weighing 10 g (154
grains), the minimum impact energy must be >2,200 joules
(225 kg/m) at the same range. Bullets approved for big game
hunting include various alloyed lead (92–96% lead, 1–2%
arsenic, 3–6% antimony with traces of silver, cadmium,
bismuth, tin, zinc, copper) core bullets or copper (90–95%
copper) or copper–zinc alloy (5–10% zinc) bullets (Peters
2002). Lead-based bullets are semijacketed in sheaths of
copper. All hunting bullets are required to expand on impact.
Expansion (“mushrooming”) is a highly complex process,
which intends to increase the cross-sectional area of the
bullet tip upon impact.
Lead is widely available, easily extracted from ore and simply
purified with low energy input. Thus, lead is cheap compared
with most other nonferrous metals. The density of lead is
particularly high (11.3 g/cm
3
) compared with other metals.
Tensile strength on the other hand is approximately 12–
17 MPa, which is much lower than other commonmetals; mild
Received: 15 March 2016; Accepted: 9 October 2016
Published: 13 February 2017
1
E-mail: sigbjorn.stokke@nina.no
Wildlife Society Bulletin 41(1):98–106; 2017; DOI: 10.1002/wsb.731
98 Wildlife Society Bulletin 41(1)

steel and cast copper are approximately 15 and 10 times
stronger, respectively (Schmid and Kalpakjian 2013). Yielding
occurs already at 5 MPa making lead highly ductile; thus, it can
deform plastically before it fractures. This is contrary to most
common metals, which have limited ability to deform before
they become hard and brittle (Guruswamy 2000). Technically,
lead is therefore an excellent choice for hunting ammunition.
However, lead has no known biological function in vertebrates
and is toxic to most physiological systems, including the
nervous, renal, cardiovascular, reproductive, immune, and
hematologic systems (Bellinger et al. 2013).
Copper is found in sulphide ores or in carbonate, arsenide,
and chloride forms. The market price of copper is 2–3 times
greater than that of lead. It has superb thermal and electrical
conductivities, corrosion resistance, and alloying capability.
Density of copper is relatively high (8.96g/cm
3
) compared
with most forms of steel (<8.05 g/cm
3
), but is inferior to lead.
Tensile strength is approximately 210 MPa, which is similar to
cast iron (200 MPa). Copper is regarded as ductile, having an
elongation at rupture at approximately 20–35%. This is about
the same as aluminum, but inferior to lead, which is 1.5 times
more ductile than copper. Copper is an essential element
required to maintain homeostasis in vertebrates, even though
too high or too low dietary intake can induce adverse health
effects (Stern 2010). Although copper is technically inferior to
lead as a ductile component in bullets, it has lately been
introduced as the sole component in nontoxic expanding rifle
bullets used for big game hunting (Thomas 2013).
A fundamental characteristic of semijacketed lead-core
bullets is the ability to fragment into tissues surrounding the
permanent cavity or wound channel (Fackler et al. 1984,
Gremse et al. 2014).Although debated, bullet fragmentationis
commonly considered to be a primary cause of increasing the
permanent wound cavity by weakening the tissues under
tension from the temporary cavity (Fackler et al. 1984,
Coupland 1999, Trinogga et al. 2013). In contrast, deforming
copper bullets can withstand fragmentation and thus sustain
momentum ensuring proper penetration (Hunt et al. 2009,
Batha and Lehman 2010, Gremse et al. 2014). Although
copper bullets are considered to be nontoxic (Thomas et al.
2007, Caudell et al. 2012, Franson et al. 2012, Irschik et al.
2013), there is a huge body of evidence showing that fragments
from lead-based ammunition contaminate venison, carcasses,
and offal from shot animals (Iqbal et al. 2009, Kosnett 2009,
Grund et al. 2010, Lindboe et al. 2012, Bellinger et al. 2013,
Arnemoet al. 2016). However, few studieshavequantifiedlead
fragments in the carcasses of big game shot with lead-based
bullets (Hunt et al. 2006, 2009; Knott et al. 2010; Cruz-
Martinez et al. 2015). These studies found large amounts of
lead fragments using X-ray imaging. Knott et al. (2010)
reported an average of 356 lead fragments in the carcass and
180 fragments in the viscera of 10 red deer (Cervus elaphus)and
2 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) shot with lead based bullets in
United Kingdom. Further, they estimated the total amount of
lead residues in a carcass to be 17% of the bullet weight. All
studies, however, likely missed a considerable share of smaller
fragments because of the resolution limit of the radiographs.
Only 3 studies have addressed fragmentation of copper bullets
(Hunt et al. 2006, Irschik et al. 2013, Cruz-Martinez et al.
2015). They all found significantly less fragmentation
compared with lead bullets. Irschik et al. (2013) studied
fragmentation of 2 brands of copper bullets in 46 roe deer, red
deer, fallow deer (Dama dama), and wild boars (Sus scrofa), and
found copper fragments in all animals (n¼10) shot with one
bullet type (Aero, Styria Arms, Zeltweg, Austria) whereas only
one fragment was found in 34 animals shot with the other
brand (Barnes TSX, Barnes Bullets, Mona, UT, USA).
To the best of our knowledge, no published studies have used
retrieved bullets toquantify metal deposition in carcasses of big
game. Here, we report loss of lead and copper from bullets
collected from moose harvested in Fennoscandia.
STUDY AREA
We collected data from moose hunters in Fennoscandia
(Fig. 1). The total mainland area was 1,111,127 km
2
and
approximately 1,850 km long and 370–805 km wide. Moose
occurred primarily in coniferous mixed forests dominated by
Norway spruce (Picea abies), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), and
deciduous trees and shrubs including alder (Alnus sp.), birch
(Betula sp.), willow (Salix sp.), and aspen (Populus tremula)in
the boreal and boreo–nemoral zones (Ahti et al. 1968). The
predominate climate in Fennoscandian moose range varied
from subarctic in the north to humid continental further
south.
Figure 1. Map of Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, and Finland), where we
sampled bullets retrieved from harvested moose and concordant question-
naires during the 2004/2005 and 2005/2006 hunting seasons to estimate the
amount of lead and copper deposited in carcasses.
Stokke et al. Estimating Metal Deposition From Bullets in Moose 99
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METHODS
Data Sampling
We sent questionnaires to Swedish and Finnish moose
hunters through the Swedish Association for Hunting and
Wildlife Management and Finnish Wildlife Agency,
respectively (2004/2005–2005/2006 hunting seasons). In
addition, we provided information on where to download our
survey online to Norwegian hunters through hunting
magazines. We asked participants to complete a form for
each harvested moose, with information on sex, age,
cartridge and bullet types, and description of bone impact.
In addition, respondents were asked to provide shooting
distance and number of bullets impacting tissue, including
euthanizing shots used to dispatch moose at close range. We
also asked hunters to include bullets retrieved from the
carcass together with the corresponding questionnaire.
Respondents also reported whether a bullet stopped in the
body or passed through the moose. This information was
used to calculate the frequency of use of cartridge and bullet
types and quantify weight retention and loss of lead and
copper.
Bullet Inspection and Estimation of Metal Loss
In the laboratory, we submerged bullets overnight in a fat-
soluble solvent. We then cleaned them by using compressed
air together with a thin bodkin to remove bone and other
tissue fragments. We weighed bullets on a digital scale
accurate to 0.01 g (Mettler PC 440; Mettler-Toledo, Inc.,
Mississauga, ON, Canada). Loss of mass (i.e., amount of
metal deposited in the carcass) from a bullet was the
difference between the bullet mass provided by hunters on
the data forms and retention mass determined in the
laboratory. We discarded 384 bullets with missing jacket
parts or separated lead cores from the metal loss analysis.
Loss of lead was calculated for lead bullets, whereas loss of
copper was quantified only for homogenous deforming
bullets. We checked bullet mass given by respondents
against factory mass from the manufacturers. We assumed
that bullets passing through animals had similar retention
mass as retrieved bullets of the same type.
Pooling of Data According to Bullet and Caliber
Classification
Cartridges are classified according to the diameter measured
between the raised portions of the rifling groove, or “land” of
a gun bore. We converted the Anglo-American classification
for bore diameters (caliber) in inches to millimeters to
standardize cartridge classes. We categorized cartridges into
5 major caliber classes: 1) 6.5 mm (0.254 in.); 2) 7.62 mm
(0.300 in.); 3) 8.58 mm (0.338 in.); 4) 9.3 mm. (0.354 in.);
and 5) 9.52 mm (0.375 in.; Supporting Information A).
Because 9.3 mm is commonly used in Fennoscandia, we
decided to classify this caliber separately.
We categorized bullets into 3 major types: 1) lead core; 2)
bonded lead core; and 3) homogenous copper (Supporting
Information B). The first type included a semijacketed
copper mantle filled with a lead core. The second type had
the same basic construction but with a lead core bonded to
the copper mantle. The third type was composed of solid
homogenous copper or a copper alloy. Bullet types 1) and 2)
were collectively referred to as lead bullets whereas type 3)
was defined as copper bullets.
Estimation of the Amount of Metal Deposited in Moose
Tissue
First, we estimated average metal loss per bullet type. Then,
knowing the number of bullet impacts, we could estimate
metal loss per bullet type within each moose age class (calf,
yearling, and adult) to see whether metal loss within bullet
types differed among age classes. In the next step, we
estimated the average amount of metal mass lost per bullet
type and caliber class. This was estimated both as absolute
values and percentages.
Our categorization of applied cartridges and bullets into 3
bullet types and 5 caliber classes meant that we had 15
combinations. We assumed that our data sample was
representative for the distribution of ammunition types
among moose hunters in Fennoscandia. Then, knowing the
total amount of moose harvested in Fennoscandia (N
F
)
during the 2013/2014 hunting season, we could estimate the
amount of metal deposited (M
di
) in moose per combination
(i) in Fennoscandia for the same season by using the
following equation:
Mdi ¼niNF
S15
i¼1ni
mibi
Where n
i
is the number of moose harvested in combination i,
m
i
is the average amount of metal loss per bullet for
combination i, and b
i
is the average number of bullets used to
dispatch moose in combination i. Thus, we could estimate
the expected metal deposition in harvested moose for the
whole of Fennoscandia for each combination of bullet type
and caliber class. Experimentally, we substituted m
i
for lead
bullets with m
i
for copper bullets within corresponding
caliber classes to estimate the amount of copper that
potentially could replace deposited lead if all users of lead
bullets changed to copper bullets. Finally, we explored
whether metal loss was affected by shooting distance or tissue
type impacted (bone vs. soft tissue).
Statistical Approach
For simple testing among many factors, we generally used
chi-square tests to determine whether differences existed
at a¼0.05 level. For correlation analyses, we used the
nonparametric Spearman’s rho with bootstrapping. We
applied generalized linear models and 95% Wald confidence
interval (Poisson distribution and log-link function) to test
for differences except for shooting distances, where we used
general linear model univariate analysis of variance. We used
IBM SPSS Statistics Version 22 (International Business
Machines Corporation, Armonk, NY, USA) for statistical
analyses and Visual FoxPro 9.0 SP2 (Microsoft Corporation,
Redmond, WA, USA) for storing and SQL querying of data
as well as for programming to calculate M
di
and other
statistical processes.
100 Wildlife Society Bulletin 41(1)
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RESULTS
Applied Calibers and Bullets Classes
We received 5,255 questionnaires and 1,655 bullets (Table 1).
Hunters in Fennoscandia most commonly used the following
calibers: 7.62 mm (69%), 9.3 mm (12%), 6.5 mm (12%),
9.52 mm (4%), and 8.58 mm (3%;see complete list of cartridges
and caliber classes in Supporting Information A). The most
commonly used bullet types were lead core (47%), followed by
bonded lead core (43%) and copper (10%; see Supporting
Information B for complete list of bullet types). Copper bullets
were used more frequently in Finland (17%) than in either
Sweden (2%) or Norway (6%; x
24
¼50.42, P<0.001). Copper
bullets were more commonly used in larger calibers (9.3 mm)
and the least in small calibers (x
28
¼126.46, P<0.001).
Mantel and lead core separation occurred at approximately the
same frequency for bonded lead-core and lead-core bullets
(11% and 16% respectively: x
21
¼2.66, P¼0.10). Bullets
passed completely through 47.0% of adults, 62.8% of yearlings,
and 76.2% of calves (x
22
¼402.0, P<0.001).
Metal Deposition per Bullet Type and Caliber Class
The amount of metal deposited in tissue per bullet type did
not differ among moose age classes (Fig. 2; Wald x
22
¼0.39,
P¼0.82). Thus, it was not necessary to account for body size
in the estimation of metal loss. Average metal loss differed
among bullet types: lead-core bullets 3.00 0.17 g, bonded
lead-core bullets 2.65 0.15 g, and copper bullets
0.54 0.18 g (Fig. 2; Wald x
22
¼148.53, P<0.001).
Among bonded lead core bullets, 6.5 mm lost on average
1.38 g less lead compared to the other caliber classes (Table 2;
Wald x
28
¼50.47, P<0.001). Similarly, for lead core
bullets, 6.5 mm lost on average 1.51 g less lead than bullets
from larger caliber classes (Table 2). There was a weak
positive correlation between lead-core bullet loss of mass and
bullet diameter (Spearman’s r¼0.13, P¼0.003). There was
no such correlation for bonded lead-core bullets (Spearman’s
r¼0.01, P¼0.82). No differences were found for copper
bullets (Table 2). There was a decreasing trend in the
proportional (%) amount of metal loss among bullet types
from lead-core to copper bullets (Fig. 3; Wald x
22
¼176.42,
P<0.001),18–27% for lead-core bullets, 10–24% for bonded
lead-core bullets, and 0–15% for copper bullets (Fig. 3; Wald
x
22
¼176.42, P<0.001).
Total Metal Deposition to Moose Tissue
In total, 689.5 kg of lead was deposited in 166,000 harvested
moose (Table 3), wherein lead-core and bonded lead-core
bullets added 389.9 and 299.6 kg, respectively. Copper
bullets deposited 20.6 kg (Table 3). All deposited lead could
potentially be replaced with 169 kg of copper if all users of
lead bullets changed to copper bullets.
Factors Influencing Metal Loss
Lead loss from lead bullets was greater for bone hits than for
soft tissue penetration (23% vs. 29%; Fig. 4: Wald x
21
¼12.04,
P¼0.001). Bonded lead-core bullets lost relatively more lead
than lead-core bullets after bone hits, but lost less than lead-
core bullets after soft tissue penetration (Wald x
21
¼8.01,
Table 1. The number of questionnaires and bullets received from
respondents to a survey that asked hunters in Fennoscandia to submit
bullets retrieved from carcasses of moose harvested during the 2013–2014
hunting season, along with information about moose age and sex, cartridge
and bullet types used, description of bone impact by bullets, shooting
distance, and number of bullets impacting tissue.
Country Questionnaires Bullets
Finland 2,750 1,340
Sweden 1,543 232
Norway 962 83
Table 2. Estimated marginal means x(SE and 95% Wald CI) for metal
deposited in moose harvested in Fennoscandia (Finland, Sweden, and
Norway) during the 2013/2014 hunting season. These estimates were based
on retention mass of bullets retrieved from moose harvested during the
2004/2005 and 2005/2006 hunting seasons. Marginal means are shown per
bullet type and caliber class.
95% Wald CI
Caliber class (mm) Bullet type x(g) SE Lower Upper
6.5 mm Lead core 2.60 0.30 2.01 3.18
Bonded lead core 0.92 0.41 0.13 1.72
Copper 1.99 0.70 0.61 3.37
7.62 mm Lead core 2.74 0.09 2.57 2.91
Bonded lead core 2.77 0.08 2.61 2.93
Copper 0.41 0.13 0.15 0.66
8.58 mm Lead core 4.51 0.77 3.00 6.02
Bonded lead core 2.15 0.50 1.18 3.13
Copper 0.30 0.65 0.97 1.58
9.3 mm Lead core 3.91 0.27 3.38 4.45
Bonded lead core 2.26 0.25 1.76 2.76
Copper 1.02 0.30 0.45 1.60
>9.52 mm Lead core 4.27 0.34 3.59 4.94
Bonded lead core 2.03 0.77 0.52 3.54
Copper 0.65 0.70 0.73 2.03
Figure 2. Metal loss (g) for bonded lead-core, copper, and lead-core bullets
retrieved from adult, calf, and yearling moose harvested during the 2004/
2005 and 2005/2006 hunting seasons in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden,
and Finland).
Stokke et al. Estimating Metal Deposition From Bullets in Moose 101
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P¼0.005). Shooting range varied between 2m and 330 m
with a mean distance of 65.8 m (SD ¼40.3 m, SE ¼0.60, 95%
CI: LB ¼64.8, UB ¼67.0, n¼5,245 shots). There were no
differences between average shooting distances (mean) for
bonded lead-core (64.1 m, SD ¼39.4, SE ¼1.71, range
¼288, 95% CI: LB ¼60.8, UB ¼67.5), lead-core (63.4 m,
SD ¼35.8, SE ¼1.65, range ¼225, 95% CI: LB ¼60.1,
UB ¼66.6), and copper (65.3 m, SD ¼40.5, SE ¼2.8, range
¼265, 95% CI: LB ¼59.8, UB ¼67.5) bullets (F
2,2
¼0.20,
P¼0.82). In general, there was a weak trend for mass loss from
lead bullets to decrease with shooting distance (Spearman’s
r¼0.15, P<0.001). Copperbullets lost the same amount of
mass independentof tissue type (Wald x
21
¼1.72,P¼0.19)or
shooting distance (Spearman’s r¼0.002, P¼0.98).
DISCUSSION
The vast majority of hunters used lead bullets. Three caliber
classes dominated cartridge choice among the hunters,
7.62 mm, 9.3 mm, and 6.5 mm. Hunters with larger calibers
tended to use copper bullets more frequently. This is
probably related to the poor stabilization of homogeneous
bullets fired from smaller calibers because of a mismatch
between bullet length and barrel twist (Caudell et al. 2012,
Carlucci and Jacobson 2014). Finnish hunters used copper
bullets more frequently than did hunters in Norway and
Sweden.
Bullet penetration characteristics are important and many
hunters believe that complete penetration (in and out) will
provide a better blood trail for tracking wounded animals
(Jeanneney 2006, Trinogga et al. 2013). The length of the
bullet path to achieve complete penetration increases with
body size, implicating that total drag on bullets will increase
correspondingly. As expected, complete penetration
depended on body size and was most frequent for moose
calves, followed by yearlings and adults. This effect of body
size is supported by Trinogga et al. (2013), who reported
Figure 3. Metal loss (%), within 5 caliber classes, for lead-core, bonded lead-core, and copper bullets retrievedfrom moose harvested during the 2004/2005 and
2005/2006 hunting seasons in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, and Finland).
Table 3. Estimated total amount (kg) of lead and copper deposited in moose harvested in Fennoscandia (Finland, Sweden, and Norway) during the 2013/
2014 hunting season. Metal loss from bullets was based on retention mass of bullets retrieved from harvested moose during the 2004/2005 and 2006/2007
hunting seasons. We divided bullets into 3 types and pooled cartridges into 5 caliber classes to obtain reasonable sample sizes. We estimated the total amount
of lead and copper deposited in moose carcasses during 2013/2014 hunting season by multiplying the number of harvested moose per bullet type and caliber
class by the estimated deposited metal per moose (metal loss per bullet times spent bullets per moose).
Bullet type
Caliber
class
nharvest moose
in sample
Estimated n
harvested in
Fennoscandia
Metal loss
per bullet (g)
Bullets
per
moose
Deposited lead
and copper (kg)
Total lead and
copper (kg)
Lead core 6.5mm 361 13,359 2.60 1.74 61.33 14.01 689.5 129.5 (lead)
7.62 mm 1,356 50,179 2.74 1.69 232.89 22.35
8.58 mm 36 1,332 4.51 1.42 9.97 6.62
9.3 mm 252 9,325 3.91 1.60 59.64 16.51
9.52 mm 93 3,441 4.27 1.63 26.08 14.89
Bonded lead core 6.5 mm 144 5,329 0.92 1.68 9.04 6.44
7.62 mm 1,418 52,473 2.77 1.69 246.92 23.68
8.58 mm 68 2,516 2.15 1.43 8.66 5.48
9.3 mm 197 7,290 2.26 1.51 26.01 10.95
9.52 mm 67 2,479 2.03 1.49 8.95 8.07
Copper 6.5 mm 18 666 1.99 1.78 3.80 3.7 20.6 14.7 (copper)
7.62 mm 352 13,026 0.41 1.68 9.20 4.15
8.58 mm 22 814 0.30 1.59 0.62 0.62
9.3 mm 80 2,960 1.02 1.58 5.54 4.88
9.52 mm 22 814 0.65 1.36 1.42 1.42
102 Wildlife Society Bulletin 41(1)
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complete penetration in 33 out of 34 shot wild boars, roe
deer, chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), red deer, and fallow
deer. The body size of most of these species is smaller than a
moose calf.
One main reason for bonding the lead core to the jacket is
improved resistance to mantel separation, which is a serious
functional failure. Another intended advantage is greater
retention mass. Surprisingly, mantel separation occurred as
frequently for bonded lead-core bullets as for lead-core bullets.
How Valid Are the Assumptions?
We made the assumptions that bullet mass loss from
retrieved bullets was equal to the amount of metal deposited
in the body of shot moose and metal loss from retrieved
bullets were comparable to metal loss from bullets exiting the
body. Lead and copper bullets deform very differently from
full metal-jacketed ones, which mainly deform if they tumble
and either flatten radially or break as a result of the
weakening of the jacket at the cannelure (Berlin et al. 1988).
Lead bullets expand because of the force acting on the
exposed lead tip at impact. The drag forces generated by the
stagnation pressure at the exposed bullet tip exceeds the yield
limit for lead, which then behaves like an incompressible
fluid (MacPherson 2005, Kneubuehl et al. 2011). Thus,
pressure disperses within the floating lead and acts on the
jacket from inside the bullet causing it to burst (Berlin et al.
1988, Kneubuehl et al. 2011). Deformation is extremely
rapid, taking place within 0.1 ms (Berlin et al. 1988,
Kneubuehl et al. 2011). As a result of the high velocity,
significant deformation and fragmentation is present after
2–4 cm of tissue penetration and it continues as long as the
stagnation pressure exceeds the yield limit (Berlin et al. 1988,
MacPherson 2005, Kneubuehl et al. 2011).
Copper bullets expand in a similar manner because of the
same mechanisms as long as the penetrated medium enters
the hollowed-out tip and bursts the bullet as a result of the
sudden increase of pressure in the cavity (Kneubuehl et al.
2011). Thus, it is reasonable to assume that all shed lead and
copper will remain inside the animal as long as there is bullet
seizure in tissue.
We cannot certainly say that bullets passing completely
through moose shed the same amount of metal to tissue as
bullets retrieved from moose tissue. Bullet deformation
depends not only on bullet design, but also on impact velocity
and the time for which the bullet tip is subjected to pressure.
Penetration depth is directly proportional to sectional density
and inversely proportional to energy transfer (Kneubuehl
et al. 2011). Energy transfer strongly depends on the size of
the frontal area; therefore, penetration depth decreases as
bullet expansion increases (Wolberg 1991). It is therefore
possible that we have overestimated lead deposition to tissue
because exiting bullets probably possess less expansion and
fragmentation of the lead core. On the other hand, we
suggest a mechanism whereby bullets might lose a lot of mass
and still exit from the animal. Bullets that penetrate large
bones may become cylindrical in shape because bent-out
jacket parts, supporting the protruding lead mushroom, are
stripped off or flattened out during penetration. Even though
they have lost a lot of lead, they might still pass through the
moose because of a small frontal area that easily penetrates
the skin on the exit side of the animal (the same applies for
copper bullets). A fully expanded bullet of approximately
similar retention mass will need much more energy to pass
through the body. Thus, it is very difficult to determine if the
estimated amount of deposited metal in the carcass is too
high or too low.
Data sampling took place in 2004/2005 and 2005/2006
hunting seasons, whereas the number of harvested moose we
use is derived from the 2013/2014 hunting season. Even
though metal loss from fragmenting bullets probably is
reasonably stable over time, we cannot assure that the
distribution of rifles, cartridges and bullet types among
hunters remained unchanged between the period of our
study and the later hunting season. However, because
hunters seem to be quite conservative and firearms tend to be
retained over long periods, it is probable that no significant
change in the use of calibers and bullets occurred during this
period.
Because respondents in Sweden and Finland were selected
randomly, but self-selected in Norway, the question of
potential nonresponse bias emerges. Thus, Norwegian
respondents could include hunters with certain caliber or
bullet preferences or shooting habits that differ from random
respondents. However, because bullets from Norway
contributed only 5% of the total amount and 18% of the
questionnaires, we do not expect any marked effect of this
bias. Further, one might expect that metal loss from bullets is
independent of origin as long as the penetrated medium is
fully comparable. That said, metal loss from bullets used with
recreational hunting is very complex and addressing all
variables is not feasible. For example, for a given bullet, metal
loss might vary with shot placement, type of cartridge, type of
penetrated tissue, shooting range, length of the permanent
wound cavity, and water content in fur. Thus, individual
shooting habits might in fact affect metal loss from bullets,
because hunters tend to prefer different points of aim. The
complexity and diversity of uncontrollable factors regarding
this topic will therefore raise difficulties when attempting to
Figure 4. Lead loss (%) from bullets after penetration of bone and soft
tissues, retrieved from moose harvested during the 2004/2005 and 2005/
2006 hunting seasons in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, and Finland).
Stokke et al. Estimating Metal Deposition From Bullets in Moose 103
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design replicable studies intended to represent this aspect of
recreational hunting.
Deposited Metal in Moose Tissue
Surprisingly, loss of metal did not depend on body size for
any of the bullet types. This suggests that there is bullet
seizure in tissue after a certain loss of mass. The important
difference is that copper bullets lost much less metal on
average (0.7 g) compared with lead-core bullets (3.0 g) and
bonded lead-core bullets (2.6 g). The superior resistance to
abrasion of copper compared with lead is probably due to
lower ductility, harder surface, and higher yield limit. Similar
to our findings, few fragments in tissues of ungulates shot
with copper bullets have been reported from other studies
(Hunt et al. 2006, Irschik et al. 2013, Cruz-Martinez et al.
2015). This resistance to fragmenting applies primarily to
copper bullets intended to deform. However, partially
fragmenting copper bullets have recently appeared on the
market. These bullets shed 4–6 relatively large fragments
(petals) from the frontal area on impact where after they
propagate sideways into tissue while the remaining rear
shank penetrates deeply and normally exit the body. The
intention of this design is increased wounding and killing
efficiency due to fragments as suggested by Fackler et al.
(1984). Lead-core bullets exhibited a correlated increase in
lead loss with increasing caliber; this was not evident for
bonded lead-core and copper bullets. Apparently, bonding of
the lead core to the jacket seems to reduce lead loss to some
degree.
Our results are similar to Knott et al. (2010), who estimated
that 6.85-mm-caliber, 8.39-g (130 grains) lead-core bullets
deposited 17% of their weight as fragments into carcasses of
red deer and roe deer. Knott et al. (2010) presumed that they
might have lost smaller fragments as a result of low resolution
of the radiographs. Their concern seems to be relevant
because our results indicate about 25% lead loss due to
fragmentation.
Lead Contamination of Carcasses, Meat, and Offal
Lead residues from hunting bullets may have serious
implications for human, wildlife, and environmental
health. We estimated that lead bullets used to harvest
166,000 moose during the 2013/2014 hunting season in
Fennoscandia deposited 690 kg of lead in the carcasses.
It is difficult to estimate the amount of lead consumed by
people. According to Knott et al. (2010), 83% of the total
amount of deposited lead fragments remained in the carcass
(including heart, lungs, liver, and kidneys), whereas 17%
were found in the viscera (stomach, intestines, and spleen).
In Fennoscandia, the lungs, diaphragm, and liver are also left
in the forest and we estimated that 30% of the lead would
be in the gut pile and offal. Thus, 483 kg of lead may remain
in edible parts of moose harvested in Fennoscandia. Several
studies show that considerable amounts of lead are found in
consumer packages of venison, especially in ground meat
(Cornatzer et al. 2009, Hunt et al. 2009, Lindboe et al.
2012). According to Tsuji et al. (2009) and Falandysz et al.
(2005), tissues surrounding the wound channel, embedded
with fine dust particles of lead from lead bullets, are used in
processed food, such as pies, stew, and sausages. Grund et al.
(2010) documented with X-ray imaging that lead fragments
can spread 45 cm from the wound channel in animals shot
with lead bullets.
Other studies show that people consuming meat from
game shot with lead bullets or shot have greater blood levels
of lead compared with the general population (Iqbal et al.
2009, Verbrugge et al. 2009, Bjermo et al. 2013, Meltzer
et al. 2013) and lead exposure from spent ammunition poses
significant health risk both for human consumers (Kosnett
2009, Knott et al. 2010, Green and Pain 2012, Bellinger et al.
2013, Arnemo et al. 2016) and scavenging animals (Fisher
et al. 2006, Knott et al. 2010, Bellinger et al. 2013). Madsen
et al. (1988) showed that human patients with one or two
lead pellets in the appendix, identified by radiography, had
blood lead levels almost twice as high as matched controls.
These authors did not retrieve pellets from the patients but
stated that “the weight of one single lead pellet is often
several hundred milligrams” (Madsen et al. 1988: pp 745).
Shot #3, #4, and #5, commonly used for bird hunting,
contain 237 mg, 202 mg, and 168 mg of lead, respectively.
According to our estimation, moose harvested with lead
bullets in Fennoscandia contain on average 4,668 mg of lead,
which is up to 28 times the amount of the lead in a single
pellet used for bird hunting.
Recommendations on dietary intake of meat from cervids
hunted with lead bullets, butchering and trimming practices,
and handling of waste tissues have been released both in
Norway (Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety
2013) and Sweden (Bjerselius et al. 2014, Kollander et al.
2014). The Norwegian recommendations are only based on a
literature review, whereas the Swedish ones are partly based
on studies of a limited number of cervids and birds killed with
lead-based ammunition.
Moose harvested in Fennoscandia are eviscerated in the
field and the intestinal tract, liver, spleen, kidneys, lungs, and
diaphragm are left in the forest before transporting the
carcass out for butchering. These remains can contain a large
proportion of the lead fragments if animals were shot with
lead bullets. Butchering practices and the extent of trimming
vary. Some of the bones and other tissues not used for human
consumption may be used to feed dogs, whereas the rest is
transported back into the forest or used for baiting red foxes
(Vulpes vulpes) or other carnivorous game species. Moose
meat can be sold commercially; and these carcasses, usually
together with required organs for meat inspection (kidneys,
liver, spleen, lungs, and heart), are processed at small
butcheries. There are no public statistics available in any of
the countries in Fennoscandia, but Wiklund and Malmfors
(2014) estimated that 12% of the moose harvested in Sweden
are processed in this way. Professional butchers are required
to send their waste for incineration.
Pattee et al. (1981) found that an initial dose of 10 #4 lead
pellets (2.02 g of lead) fed to bald eagles (Haliaeetus
leucocephalus) was lethal and that one bird had only 1 pellet
(202 mg) in the stomach at the time of death 20 days later; 6
pellets had been regurgitated, but they were unable to
account for 3 pellets. Carrion eaters will consume gut piles
104 Wildlife Society Bulletin 41(1)
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and offal and also animals fatally wounded by lead bullets and
not recovered by the hunters. Our estimate is that 30% of the
lead deposited by bullets in harvested moose remains in gut
piles and offal (i.e., 207 kg). Assuming that 12% of the
animals are handled by professional hunters (Wiklund and
Malmfors 2014), we estimate the net amount of lead in gut
piles and offal available to scavengers was about 182 kg
during the 2013/2014 hunting season. Reports on wounding
rates (cited in Stokke et al. 2012), show that the number of
moose fatally wounded and not retrieved by the hunters is
approximately 2% of the number of animals actually
harvested. Thus, close to 3,000 carcasses are available for
scavengers each year. Assuming that each of these carcasses
contain 2.77 g of lead (average lead loss per bullet), this
amounts to 8 kg of lead. The total amount of lead in gut piles,
offal, and carcasses is 215 kg in 1 year in Fennoscandia. This
constitutes >100,000 lethal lead doses for eagles. Not
surprisingly, Helander et al. (2009) reported that lead
poisoning from lead-based ammunition in shot game is a
significant mortality factor for the white-tailed sea eagle
(H. albicilla) in Sweden.
MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS
Lead bullets used for moose hunting in Fennoscandia pose a
significant health risk for human consumers and scavenging
animals that ingest lead deposited in moose tissue. Copper
bullets are a nontoxic alternative that are readily available and
already used for big game hunting. Copper bullets perform
more consistently than lead bullets and retain much greater
mass. Hunters and governments should consider ways to
reduce the use of lead-based ammunition for hunting moose
and other big game species, to protect human health and the
environment.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was carried out in collaboration with the Swedish
Association for Hunting and Wildlife Management and the
Finnish Wildlife Agency and partly funded by Norwegian
Environment Agency. We thank L. Botten, who carried out
the laboratory work; and thousands of anonymous hunters in
Norway, Sweden, and Finland, who submitted bullets and
provided data on hunting practices. Finally, we want to thank
the Associate Editor and reviewers for their constructive
contributions to this manuscript.
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Additional supporting information may be found in the
online version of this article at the publisher’s web-site.
A. Applied cartridges in Fennoscandia, ordered by frequency
of use.
B. Applied expanding hunting bullets in Fennoscandia,
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