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Human Rights as International Constitutional Rights
Abstract
The Universal Declaration was, of course, the first of the three global international human rights instruments which have collectively come to be known as the International Bill of Rights. Very often, however, this latter term appears within quotation marks or is prefaced by the qualifying phrase, ‘so-called’, signalling that there are serious, although mostly unexplored, questions about the validity of the implied comparison with domestic bills of rights. In this article, I treat the anniversary as an occasion to take stock by exploring these questions and making the comparison express. I do so by considering the two parts of the term separately. First, regarding ‘bill of rights’, what are the similarities and differences between the UDHR, ICCPR, and ICESCR on the one hand and domestic bills of rights on the other? In particular, to what extent or in what sense, if any, has international human rights law become constitutionalized and, thereby, similar and closer to most domestic bills of rights? Secondly, regarding ‘international’, do the major international human rights instruments simply duplicate domestic bills of rights or provide a generally inferior substitute for them where unavailable – as a certain strand of human rights scepticism suggests? Or do they perform any distinctive functions over and above domestic bills of rights that make a novel and unique contribution to the development of constitutionalism?
... This is the community in general that can affect or be affected by the ICP (Liyanage et al. 2016). The general public is the most protected party under the constitution of most countries having armed with fundamental human rights even when the base root of public unrest lies far remote from the ICP (Gardbaum 2008). The degree of public involvement is based on the pressure due to losing livelihood, dwelling, and other basic needs as a result of an ICP, which leads to public protest. ...
... Most of the external parties involved in conflicts were government authorities and then, the general public. The general public is the most protected party under the constitution in many countries (Gardbaum 2008;Law and Society Trust 2015). External/secondary stakeholders, who influenced ICPs statutory were; GSMB, DFC and COPA where District Secretaries, Divisional Secretaries and Police came up with an official prejudice over the project. ...
Irrigation Construction Projects (ICPs) in Sri Lanka usually face conflicts with various external stakeholders, i.e. general public, government authorities. Such conflicts are most likely to end as court cases in litigation , which is a time and money-consuming process. With the view of avoiding conflicts at its first instance, this research assessed causes of conflicts and consequential influences of such conflicts over the lens of case-study research strategy. Four case-studies were evaluated via 21 expert interviews. The main conflict zones in ICPs are obstructions from government authorities, public protests, effects of government policy changes and political influences, difficulties of project area occupancy, and financial limitations. The origin for most causes of conflicts is poor coordination between stakeholders. Time-overrun is the most frequent consequential-contractual-influence. Causes of conflicts, solutions to overcome such causes, and consequential-contractual-influences were presented in cognitive-maps towards facilitating decision-makers in ICPs. This research recommends to utilize detail design and feasibility stage to avoid most conflicts in the construction stage.
... Les pays d'Amérique latine offrent de nombreux exemples d'ouverture des cadres légaux nationaux aux normes et instances internationales (Smulovitz, 2010) La seconde dimension du recours aux normes internationales est la possibilité donnée aux plaignants victimes de discrimination judiciaire dans leur propre pays de recourir à des juridictions supranationales pour réclamer leur bon droit -cours internationales de droits humains ; tribunaux civils des pays où les entreprises responsables de spoliations et d'abus (firmes oléicoles, hévéicoles, pétrolières, minières…) sont enregistrées 10 . Une dimension complémentaire des processus d'internationalisation des procédures de justice réside en effet dans la mise en place de cours internationales des droits humains pouvant prendre en charge les plaintes individuelles ou collectives des victimes d'abus qui n'ont pas été entendues dans leur pays (Gardbaum, 2008 ;Francioni, 2010) -quand bien même leurs sentences n'ont pas de caractère prescriptif 9 Il convient toutefois de souligner que seule la République Centrafricaine a souscrit à la Convention 169 de l'OIT sur le continent africain, et aucun pays dans l'aire Asie-Océanie, Fidji et le Népal exceptés. Parmi les anciennes puissances coloniales et/ou extractives, seule l'Espagne, l'Allemagne, les Pays-Bas et le Danemark en ont ratifié les principes. ...
Many rural people in the Global South are experiencing strong processes of land exclusion and exposure to health and environmental risks (pollution, etc.), often linked to particularly brutal extractivist logics. The concepts of socio-spatial and environmental justice are increasingly being used in research aimed at describing these situations and analyzing the various forms of resistance or contestation they generate. The result of a collective project, this text proposes a conceptual framework for identifying and analyzing local perceptions of injustice, the forms of their expression, the demands for justice and the responses they receive, in varied political and institutional contexts, but all marked by a colonial history and the forms of layered citizenship it induced.
... No pensamento ocidental, os direitos humanos são considerados a norma suprema da lei e constituem a base da maioria dos sistemas jurídicos. De acordo com a maior parte dos especialistas em direito internacional (SIMMA e PULKOWSKI, 2006;GARDBAUM, 2008), os direitos humanos não são meramente uma enumeração dos direitos individuais, mas formam um regime independente. O pilar integrante deste regime é uma antropologia baseada na autodeterminação e autonomia do ser humano (KANT, 1998). ...
A inteligência artificial (IA) evoluiu como uma tecnologia disruptiva, gerando impactos para uma ampla gama de questões relacionadas aos direitos humanos, que vão desde a discriminação até a devida diligência na cadeia logística. Dadas as crescentes obrigações de direitos humanos das empresas e a intensificação do discurso sobre IA e direitos humanos, lançamos luz sobre as responsabilidades dos atores corporativos em termos de padrões de direitos humanos no contexto do desenvolvimento e uso da IA. Quais são as implicações das obrigações de direitos humanos para as empresas que desenvolvem e usam IA? Em nosso artigo, discutimos, primeiramente, se a IA possui um conflito intrínseco com os direitos humanos e com a autonomia humana. A seguir, discutimos como a IA pode estar ligada ao critério de beneficência, que integra a ética da IA, e como a IA pode ser aplicada em áreas relacionadas aos direitos humanos. Por fim, aprofundamo-nos sobre aspectos particulares do que significa estar em conformidade com os direitos humanos, abordando áreas problemáticas específicas da IA. Palavras-chave: inteligência artificial, ética corporativa, privacidade, digitalização, direitos humanos.
... Thus, if digital civics is to incorporate an understanding of civic rights within a digital age environment and an appreciation of duties, obligations, and rights as a citizen, it should draw from such sources. For instance, it can explore how the Bill's broad aims have been enshrined or enacted in domestic law to appreciate its important utility, despite its non-binding status, in providing "a normative basis for fundamental rights" (Gardbaum, 2008). The provision of such guiding norms is useful given the discussed decoupling of law and territoriality that we are learning to manage. ...
Presenting the challenges that face digital age citizens as philosophical, as opposed to technological, this paper explores the underpinning structure of digital civics through an overview of its four foundational pillars and their informing scholarship. Through this framework and the literature that supports it, a set of five key concepts are identified as a useful guide for developing digital civics initiatives, including policy and educational interventions. In closing, this work urges the further exploration of the conceptual underpinnings of digital civics to improve future formulations of digital civics and digital citizenship endeavours.
... These strategies have the advantage of a priori deferring to immunities but subsidiarily ensuring that they are lifted when no remedy is forthcoming before the courts of the locus fori. They also stand to problematize a key feature of international law from a human rights angle, in line with a more 'constitutional' perspective on the role that rights should play in international law (Gardbaum 2008). As such, human rights approaches do not sheepishly defer to the international acquis, potentially transforming the exercise of jurisdiction for the benefit of victims into a human right (Mills 2014). ...
This article analyses the elusive search to restrict immunities for foreign officials accused of international crimes as a form of strategic litigation. It emphasizes how litigation ‘constitutes’ legal reality beyond particular victories. Problematizing ‘success’ in litigation makes it possible to pay attention to unintended effects and even perverse outcomes of certain strategic routes. A proper understanding of success as more than victory is then used to assess three routes that have been used to try and limit, circumvent or oppose functional immunities of former officials. These routes are found not to be of even value for human rights, independently of their legal validity or their odds of success: the idea that international crimes are not committed as part of state functions trivializes the ‘public’ character of most international crimes; the argument that the jus cogens norm that prohibits international crimes trumps immunities either constantly needs to be finessed or sets up too dramatic a showdown; the idea that immunities offend human rights finds some favour as the one that is closest to the heart of human rights, although its tendency to symbolically sanctify the right to prosecutions could also have problematic ripple effects. Offered as a contribution to thinking through the rights implications of litigation, the article insists on the responsibility of human rights lawyers in creating legal worlds of their own making.
... Per un verso espande la valenza personalistica dei principi costituzionali, per l'altro impone alla maggioranza di In sede penale un valido punto fermo lo offre un orientamento della Cassazione italiana: bisogna escludere la scriminante culturale in tutti i casi in cui la tendenza dell'agente a rimanere fedele alle regole del proprio gruppo "si traduce nella negazione dei diritti fondamentali configurati dall'ordinamento costituzionale e presidiati dalle norme penali" 146 . Posizione questa che, tenendo conto della giurisprudenza costituzionale 147 , è conforme ai diritti internazionali costituzionali 148 . Alla luce delle loro disposizioni, la tutela della diversità culturale non può essere invocata al fine di pregiudicare le libertà e i diritti umani sanciti, appunto, "dalla Dichiarazione universale e dal diritto internazionale" 149 . ...
SOMMARIO: 1. Introduzione - 2. Esperienze normative - 3. Nello spazio giuridico europeo e internazionale - 4. Valida e inefficace - 5. Una ragionevole normativa penale - 6. Rigidità e flessibilità - 7. Fondati timori - 8. Us and Them - 9. Le culture tra eguaglianza e differenze – 10. Conclusioni. Cultural Defenses between Monoculturalism and Multiculturalism ABSTRACT: In an increasingly globalized world, individuals and groups are seeking to have their own culture respected, maintaining their cultural diversity in the face of growing globalization. These claims are connected with the formal conceptions of the principle of equality, which often produces substantial and discriminatory inequalities. This situation becomes even more complicated when related to the specific field of criminal law concerning cultural defenses. The author analyses the different approaches to cultural defenses, those oscillating from multiculturalism to monoculturalism, taking into account the Italian and European-international legal context.
... Thus the human rights listed in the constitution are referred to as constitutional rights. Another reason for using the term constitutional rights is to open up opportunities for juridical interpretation so that the protection of the constitutional rights of suspects, victims and witnesses regarding the evidence seeking can be regulated firmly in law (Gardbaum, 2008). ...
The process of evidence seeking is often violations of constitutional rights. At this stage, the state authorizes law enforcers to carry out various coercive measures to obtain evidence. In many cases, the practice of violating constitutional rights in the evidence seeking raises the falses punishment. In Indonesia, coercive efforts to find evidence can be tested through pretrial institutions. Unfortunately, the existence of pretrial in Indonesia only test the formal truth of coercive measures and it is not yet authorized to examine the material truth. This article intends to explain the urgency and application of the exclusionary rule in various countries as well as the idea to push the regulation of exclusionary rules that allow judges to be not only examining judges but also investigating judges. Through this regulation, judges are expected to be able to examine formal and material actions as a control mechanism for the constitutional rights protection.
... The constructive interpretation that Habermas suggests for courts to integrate the normative architectonic principles into the legal system resembles Gardbaum's three-fold model to analyse the constitutionalisation of international human rights. 96 This model describes three general characteristics of constitutional law, which, for the most part, are met by international human rights law. These are the architectonic principles that permeate throughout the international legal order. ...
This article presents the Habermasian theory of adjudication’s role in and legitimacy to achieve three major objectives, first, to develop a diagnosis of the legitimacy crisis of investment arbitration; second, to understand why dominant positivistic approaches cannot solve it; and third, to propose argumentative strategies so that investment arbitrators can address this crisis.
... Researchs of S. Gardbaum, R.A. Falk, M.S. Alam [11][12][13] shows that international documents on human rights, starting with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, have largely shaped the menu of rights in national constitutions. These agreements seem to coordinate the behavior of national drafters, regardless of whether the drafting countries are committed to the laws of the agreements (although adherence enhances the effect). ...
Gender equality and the prohibition of discrimination are not only one of the fundamental human rights, but also a necessary basis for achieving sustainable development. Kazakhstan’s global rankings for gender equality in recent years show a steady decline, despite the legislation formed during the period of independence, which guarantees the prohibition of any form of discrimination and the proclamation of gender equality as a priority of national policy. An important aspect of reforms, ensuring their effectiveness, is changes in legislation. International labor agreements are mechanisms for the transformation of national legislation and practice on the basis of universally accepted standards for more sustainable development of employment and the labor market. This study analyzes the effectiveness of the national legal framework of Kazakhstan from the standpoint of implementation, compliance with international standards of prohibition of discrimination and ensuring gender equality. An analysis is made of how universal norms can affect the development of national legislation. The article concludes that the laws aimed at the implementation of international standards for promoting the prohibition of discrimination and gender parity do not fully achieve their intended goals due to a weak law enforcement mechanism and the lack of full practical implementation of the country’s obligations. Legal solutions are proposed to neutralize the inconsistency of the internal Kazakhstani labor legislation with international standards, as well as the necessary accompanying elements of changes in civil procedural, social, administrative, and criminal legislation. An overview is presented of how the ratification of ILO acts will further improve conditions in the labor market and what changes in laws will be required in the future.
... While our article focuses on the ICJ, we should like to briefly discuss other international courts that are part of the rich conversation about the role of international courts and global constitutionalism. The argument of constitutionalization on the international level has been somewhat of a mainstay in the literature devoted to international human rights instruments (Gardbaum 2008). Arguably, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACHR) plays a role of a constitutional court for 18. ...
Does a domestic constitutional court within a state encourage greater acceptance of the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice (ICJ)? This question is particularly relevant in Islamic law states (ILS). One might expect that ILS, which embrace the rule of law domestically, might do so internationally. However, this expectation paints an overly simplistic picture of the constitutional court’s role and its relationship with domestic and international politics. Employing original data on constitutional references to constitutional courts (1946–2012), we show that in the context of ILS, acceptance of the ICJ’s jurisdiction is conditional on an independent constitutional court.
... Lo anterior se plasma con evidencia, por ejemplo, en el contexto del régimen internacional de derechos humanos: también este se basa y se nutre de fuentes que no tienen carácter vinculante o de tratados que formalmente no prevalecen sobre otras fuentes del derecho internacional, pero que progresivamente y en su conjunto han adquirido un estatus especial en el orden público internacional, si bien no el de una constitución [82]. En lo que respecta al régimen transnacional de la economía, esta dinámica puede observarse en la función que desempeñan los códigos de conducta, las estructuras vinculadas a ellos y la interacción entre las diferentes formas del llamado soft law, esto es, entre los códigos de conducta privados y públicos. ...
Este trabajo ofrece un esquema y una sistematización exhaustivos del constitucionalismo social (CS); siendo este uno de los principales marcos metodológicos de la teoría del Derecho contemporánea, empleado para analizar la aparición de fenómenos constitucionales, especialmente más allá de los ordenamientos jurídicos estatales. Después de una introducción (sección 1), la segunda sección explica la rama analítica del CS, que, por un lado, de-construye algunos principios del constitucionalismo tradicional centrado en el Estado (2.1); y, por otro, identifica las funciones, arenas, procesos y estructuras necesarios para que un sistema sea constitucionalizado (2.2.). La tercera sección se ocupa de la rama normativo-prescriptiva del CS, señalando algunas propuestas de política normativa dirigidas, en particular, al aumento de las capacidades de autolimitación de los sistemas sociales (3.1); así como al desarrollo de un nuevo derecho de colisiones intersistémicas (3.2). Por último, la cuarta sección aborda algunos enfoques alternativos y críticas al CS, haciendo hincapié en las que provienen de los defensores del constitucionalismo centrado en el Estado (4.1); del constitucionalismo internacional/global (4.2); y del constitucionalismo contestatario o material (4.3).
... What sorts of freedoms exist? Hypothetical arrangements: A few hypotheses assist us with understanding where the idea of current-day primary liberties comes from (Gardbaum, S. 2008). "Normal rights" are an old philosophical idea. ...
Rights have become, in late years, a critical worry of legitimate scholars, just as of those engaged with the good and political way of thinking. This new article looks to push various discussions ahead by building up examining rights and centering upon more broad hypothetical contemplations identifying with rights. That separates into five sections. The first incorporates clarification of the part played by applied investigation inside statute, while the second directs a reevaluation of the examination of rights. This part manages the contentions progressed by various scholars. The third part contains the creator's structure for talking about rights, including models drawn from misdeed, established law, and global law, along with examining Unger's hypothesis of rights. This research article also focuses on the apparent struggle between the safeguards of a rights approach and the boss of utilitarianism and infers that neither arrangement with worries of profound quality on which based their hypotheses. The fifth part comprises an end which thinks about subjects and thinks about the job of rights inside the overall assumption. For understudies, accommodating highlights of the papers are the unmistakable thought of jurisprudential strategy and the chance to analyze various scholars connected by their different perspectives regarding rights.
... Indeed, they also result from acts that, while not of a super-primary nature or even not formally of any legal value, contribute to the establishment of fundamental rights specific to a certain system and, a posteriori, acquire constitutional value. This is evident, for example, in the context of the international human rights regime: It, too, is based on and fed by sources that are not binding in nature or by treaties that formally do not prevail over other sources of international law, but which progressively and on the whole have gained a special status in the international public order, if not that of a constitution (Gardbaum 2008). With regard to the transnational regime of the economy, such a dynamic can be observed in the function played by codes of conduct, the structures attached to them, and the interaction between different forms of so-called soft law, i.e. between "private" and "public" codes of conduct, now also with empirical evidence (Perez and Stegmann 2018). ...
... Indeed, they also result from acts that, while not of a super-primary nature or even not formally of any legal value, contribute to the establishment of fundamental rights specific to a certain system and, a posteriori, acquire constitutional value. This is evident, for example, in the context of the international human rights regime: It, too, is based on and fed by sources that are not binding in nature or by treaties that formally do not prevail over other sources of international law, but which progressively and on the whole have gained a special status in the international public order, if not that of a constitution (Gardbaum 2008). With regard to the transnational regime of the economy, such a dy-namic can be observed in the function played by codes of conduct, the structures attached to them, and the interaction between different forms of so-called soft law, i.e. between "private" and "public" codes of conduct, now also with empirical evidence (Perez and Stegmann 2018). ...
The paper provides an outline and systematisation of societal constitutionalism (SC), one of the main frameworks emerged in contemporary legal theory to analyse constitutional phenomena. After a general introduction in section A, section B recalls SC’s theoretical background, namely the Economic Constitution (B.I), legal pluralism (B.II), systems theory (B.III), and the work of David Sciulli (B.IV). Section C explains SC’s analytical limb, which on the one hand de-constructs some tenets of state-centred constitutionalism (C.I); and on the other hand individuates the functions, arenas, processes, and structures of a constitutionalised system (C.II). Section D turns to SC’s normative limb, pointing to some legal policy proposals, aimed at the increase of social systems’ capacities of self-limitation (D.I); and at the development of a law of inter-systemic collisions (D.II). Section E concludes addressing some of the main competing approaches and criticisms, namely those coming from the proponents of state-centred constitutionalism (E.I); of international/global constitutionalism (E.II); and of contestatory/material constitutionalism (E.III).
The rise of populism and its consequences – such as democratic backsliding, the erosion of constitutional principles, and the weakening of the rule of law – are among the most pressing issues facing comparative constitutional scholars today. To address these emerging challenges, the Unconstitutional Constitutional Amendment Doctrine (UCAD) has emerged as the most promising remedy for the “third counterwave of de-mocracy”. However, a fundamental problem with UCAD is how to apply it effectively without undermining constitutional democracy, as it is often criticised and deemed illegitimate from the perspective of democratic principles.
Chinese elites have celebrated its new Civil Code (2021) as the most important statute in the nation's history, and the ‘cornerstone’ of its turn toward ‘rule of law’. The Code expressly binds all persons, as well as public officials, and is judicially enforceable. The statute enshrines rights to dignity, equality, personal liberty, property, and privacy, among others, and codifies duties to protect the environment and to evolve effective means to combat sexual harassment. Echoing the German Code, the statute also contains ‘general clauses’ that enable the courts to restrict enumerated rights and entitlements for reasons of ‘good morals’, ‘public order’, and the rights of others. While constituting an act of massive delegation to the courts, judges remain prohibited from directly enforcing the PRC's Constitution. The article explores the relationship between the Code and Constitution, through a comparative analysis of: (i) the process of ‘constitutionalising’ the private law around the globe; (ii) the scholarly discourse on the ‘horizontal effect’ of rights in China; (iii) the structure of the Code itself; and (iv) the development of ‘political’ control mechanisms, to be deployed by the Communist Party of China and organs of the state to constrain how judges use their interpretive powers.
Characterizing human rights as ‘timeless’, a practice associated with individualism and so-called progressive narratives of international law, results in many pitfalls and exclusionary consequences. In particular, a uniform, ‘timeless’ concept of human rights that privileges individual autonomy and personal freedoms has sidelined the heritage of the interwar protection of minorities at the League of Nations and obscured its significance for the temporal trajectories of human rights. However, individual rights and freedoms have arisen out of the idea of group protection and the legacy of nationalism, which propelled the notion of group protection to the international scene. Overlooking the continuity between group protection and individual rights in international human rights discourse and practice has also led to an ambiguous treatment of collectives in international law—an issue which has remained largely unresolved to date. Moreover, neglecting groups in human rights discourse gives an incomplete picture of the position of individuals in society and fails to capture and protect the relational aspects of a person’s social life.
This article examines the role of human rights in international investment arbitration. A review of the historical origins of human rights and international investment law shows that the two fields are inextricably connected and share significant similarities, particularly in terms of their norms and principles. However, their separate origins and development has also given rise to ambiguities and tensions as to how human rights considerations can be invoked in international investment arbitration and by whom. The article examines the various contexts of such invocations and analyzes human rights references in investment treaties. It argues that ambiguities and tensions are especially problematic because they carry not merely theoretical but practical implications. It shows that the trend of convergence and overlap between the two fields is growing and concludes by arguing that greater integration of human rights law into international investment law and arbitration is not only desirable but essential for the unification of public international law and addressing many of its ambiguities.
In this era of globalisation, different legal systems and structures no longer operate within their own jurisdictions. The effects of decisions, policies and political developments are having an increasingly wide-reaching impact. Nowhere is this more keenly felt than in the sphere of European Union law. This collection of essays contributes to the co-operative search for interpretative and normative grids needed in charting the contemporary legal landscape. Written by leading lawyers and legal philosophers, they examine the effects of law's de-nationalisation by placing European law in the context of transnational law and demonstrate how it forces us to rethink our basic legal concepts and propose an approach to transnational law beyond the dichotomy of national and international law.
International trustee courts embody a specific form of delegation, in which state principals confer on such courts the authority to interpret and apply treaties agreed by the states in order to realize specific values and interests. Human rights courts help states resolve commitment and enforcement problems that are inherent in human rights treaties. This study seeks to answer the question, what happens when states parties seek to reduce or eliminate the authority of a human rights court? To answer these questions, the article assesses six human rights treaty regimes: the Council of Europe; the Organization of American States; the African Union; the Economic Community of West African States; the East African Community; and the Southern African Development Community. The article identifies four types of de‐delegation possible with respect to international human rights courts and assesses the extent to which states have sought to de‐delegate from them. With one exception (the SADC Tribunal), the regimes examined here have so far successfully withstood the challenge of de‐delegation.
Scholars of global constitutionalism have recently come to examine international criminal law (ICL) and its associated institutions, in particular the International Criminal Court (the ICC). This article prolongs these efforts by pointing to and remedying two deficits of that project with particular emphasis on the Rome Statute crimes. First, how does one account for the role of the international trial in global constitutionalist terms? Second, can global constitutionalism insightfully explain the content and scope of these crimes – that is, both their substantive definition and the predominant modes of liability developed by the ICC? This article answers both questions affirmatively and offers an account of their nexus. It first shows that the Rome Statute crimes are often perpetrated through a hierarchically organized apparatus of control, and interprets their global constitutional significance via the principle of constituent power. It then makes use of Antony Duff’s relational account of criminal liability to offer an account of the international trial. In the international context, one can conceive of the trial as allowing state or state-like authorities to call each other to account, which renders justice to the core function of enabling and limiting political authority on which global constitutionalism centres.
Питање степена усаглашености између судског система Европске уније и
судског система установљеног Европском конвенцијом о људским правима, као и питање избора најприкладнијег метода за изградњу ефикасног, усклађеног и целовитог система заштите људских права у Европи, поделила су у великој мери европску научну мисао и стручну јавност. Овом дисертацијом покушава се одговорити на дата питања и тиме осветлити један значајан сегмент неуређености у односима између различитих подсистема у оквиру међународног права, односно, према речима Комисије за међународно право, попунити део тзв. „црне правне рупе“. На тај начин, настоји се сузбити даљи развој европске фрагментације, која представља битан аспект проблематике фрагментације међународног права.
Corporations can significantly affect the fundamental rights of individuals. This book investigates what legal obligations they have to respect, protect and realise these rights. In doing so, it addresses important conceptual issues surrounding fundamental rights. From an investigation of existing legal models, a clear structural similarity surfaces in how courts make decisions about corporate obligations. The book seeks to systematise, justify and develop this emergent 'multi-factoral approach' through examining key factors for determining the substantive content of corporate obligations. The book defends the use of the proportionality test for ascertaining corporations' negative obligations and outlines a novel seven-step test for determining their positive obligations. The book finally proposes legal and institutional reforms - on both the national and international levels - designed to enhance the quality of decision-making surrounding corporate obligations, and embed fundamental rights within the corporate structure and the minds of key decision-makers.
The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) has evolved from an international agreement into a highly integrated legal community with an ever more pervasive effect on domestic law and individuals. The supranational authority of the European Court of Human Rights bypasses the nation state in a growing number of other areas. Understanding the evolution of the ECHR and its Court may help in explaining and contextualising growing resistance against the Court, and in developing possible responses. Examining the Convention system through the prism of supranationality, Cedric Marti offers a fresh, comprehensive and interdisciplinary perspective on the expanding adjudicatory powers of the Court, including law-making. Marti addresses the growing literature of institutional studies on human rights enforcement to ascertain the particularities of the ECHR and its relationship to domestic legal systems. This study will be of great value to both scholars of international law and human rights practitioners.
The paper carries out a legal appraisal of the recently approved Portuguese Charter of Human Rights in the Digital Age. It analyses its structure both as a human rights instrument and as Portuguese fundamental rights instrument focusing on new norms introduced in the system and redundant ones. In this latter case interpretation problems are highlighted, in particular when considering the Portuguese open clause of Article 16 of the Constitution that allows for fundamental rights approved by ordinary laws. Finally, a specific new right is given special attention - the right to protection against disinformation – especially concerning its relation with the freedom of expression. The paper aims to show that the scope of the new provision would allow an unconstitutional restriction on the freedom of expression and that a valid norm must be determined by adequate balancing.
Dans l’ordre juridique international, les organes de protection des droits de la personne sont de nature différente, indépendants et non hiérarchisés. Le phénomène du dialogue juridictionnel est une pratique spontanée qui consiste pour un organe de protection à intégrer dans le processus d’interprétation d’une disposition donnée, des éléments étrangers à son système, qu’il s’agisse de décisions ou d’instruments de protection émanant d’autres organes. Le dialogue est illustré avec la jurisprudence interprétée à l’aide de ces éléments extrasystémiques en matière de prohibition de la torture et autres peines ou traitements cruels, inhumains ou dégradants. Il est envisagé comme une technique interprétative permettant d’aboutir à des interprétations communes du contenu, du sens et de la portée de cette interdiction, bien que ces interprétations partagées puissent être extensives ou restrictives. L’étude interroge l’étendue et la teneur du pouvoir juridictionnel dans l’ordre juridique international ainsi que sa capacité à aboutir à une convergence normative en matière de protection des droits de la personne, qui découlerait d’une convergence interprétative. Implicitement, le dialogue joue le rôle d’un outil de régulation et de coordination qui s’impose spontanément dans la pratique interprétative des organes internationaux, contribuant à l’émergence d’un objectivisme jurisprudentiel. Ce dernier tend à s’opposer au volontarisme étatique dans un but de protection de l’ordre public international et de garantie des droits de la personne.
Neformalni postupak izmena važećeg Ustava Republike Srbije u delu koji se odnosi na pravosuđe počeo je još 2017. godine, kada je Ministarstvo pravde prvi put pozvalo predstavnike pravosudne struke i civilnog sektora da dostave svoje predloge izmena. Od tada se debatuje i piše o različitim problemima i nesuglasicama koje su se javile tokom ovog procesa, ali ne i o odnosu sudova i sudija prema međunarodnom pravu. Nezapaženo je prošao deo amandmanskog teksta prema kome sudije više ne sude na osnovu opšteprihvaćenih pravila međunarodnog prava. Zato, rad reinkarnira diskusiju oko toga šta su uopšte opšteprihvaćena pravila međunarodnog prava i kakav je njihov položaj u važećem Ustavu, a u širem smislu i kakav je odnos važećeg Ustava prema međunarodnom pravu uopšte. Imajući u vidu da se izmene Ustava vrše u cilju ispunjenja uslova za prijem Srbije u Evropsku uniju, važno je da Ustav zauzme jasan stav prema izvorima međunarodnog prava i time ohrabri sudije da u svom radu kontinuirano razmatraju i neposredno primenjuju međunarodno pravo. To bi, svakako, bilo otežano ako bi se iz Ustava eliminisala odredba prema kojoj sudije u svom radu primenjuju i opšteprihvaćena pravila međunarodnog prava. S obzirom da je formalni predlog za promenu Ustava podnet tek novembra 2018. godine, rad pretenduje da ukaže na značaj navedene odredbe i apeluje da se u predstojećem procesu izneti problemi reše.
In A Cosmopolitan Legal Order: Kant, Constitutional Justice, and the ECHR , we sought to demonstrate the power of Kantian theory to explain – or at least meaningfully illuminate – (1) the defining characteristics of modern, rights-based constitutionalism; (2) the evolving law, politics and constitutional architecture of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR); and (3) the emergence of a global, cosmopolitan commons, featuring inter-judicial dialogue at its core. This article responds to contributors to the special symposium on the book. In Part I, we defend our account of a Kantian-congruent, domestic system of constitutional justice. Part II reflects on the ECHR as an instantiation of a cosmopolitan legal order, and on the European Court’s case law – particularly its enforcement of the proportionality principle. In Part III, we assess the evidence in support of a broader ‘constitutionalization’ of international human rights law.
Constitutions are social and historical artefacts that take part in the government of humans. Based on a comparison of how contemporary ‘global’ and historical ‘local’ constitutional documents establish power relations between ‘humans’ and their ‘government’, this article suggests that both types of documents involve different constitutive logics. Global constitutional documents create a ‘new normativity’ – a reversed constitution – that turns the historical relationship between pouvoir constituant and pouvoir constitué on its head. Such documents shift the primary responsibility for human rights from governments to humans. Research in the academic field of global constitutionalism omits this constitutional reconfiguration. By offering a more historically sensitive and reflexive account of constitutionalization, the field of global constitutionalism can realize an as yet unexplored critical potential.
The inclusion of human rights in the constitution gives a new status for these rights to become constitutional rights. The guarantee of human rights in the constitution has not been in line with legal efforts to protect these rights. Mechanisms constitutional review in Indonesia only accommodates the testing effort constitutionality of Law (judicial review), whereas there are still many objects of state action that can harm the constitutional rights of citizens, but they do not have any resolution because they have not been provided for by Indonesian positive law. This study aims to identify how the interrelationship between guaranteeing human rights in the constitution and strengthening constitutionalism due to the inclusion of human rights in the constitution, how the concept of constitutional complaints in various countries is, and how relevant is it to be applied in Indonesia. This research describes the material that exists in historical, comparative and reconstruction (modification) aspects as an effort to make the concept relevant to be applied in Indonesia. This research shows that human rights and the constitution have a reciprocal relationship (reciprocal), various concepts in other countries have a lot of relevance to Indonesia, and there are several technical-procedural concepts and juridical arrangements that are relevant to be applied in Indonesia. So, it is necessary to regulate constitutional complaints as a legal measure to protect the constitutional rights of citizens which have been guaranteed by the constitution and increase the value of the constitutionalism of citizens in Indonesia.
Until recently, the concept of Buen Vivir has only been loosely articulated by practising communities and in progressive policy in countries like Ecuador. What it actually means has been unclear, and in the case of policy, contradictory. As such there has been a lack of understanding about exactly what Buen Vivir entails, its core principles and how to put it into practice. This book, based on extensive theoretical and field research of Buen Vivir as an alternative to sustainable development, fills that gap and offers a concrete way forward. It uses an ethnographic study in Cotacachi County, in Ecuador's highland communities, to explore how communities understand and practice Buen Vivir. Combining this with what we already know about the concept theoretically, the book then develops a framework for Buen Vivir with 17 principles for practice.
Exploring Buen Vivir’s evolution from its indigenous origins, academic interpretations, and implications for development policy, to its role in endogenous, community-led change, this book will be of interest to policy-makers and development professionals. It will also be of great value to activists, students, and scholars of sustainability and development seeking grassroots social and environmental change.
Abstract:
There are so many conflicts between companies and workers, and these conflicts often end up in court. At certain moments workers are declared winners and the company is obliged to pay the right to obligations as a provider of labor. Workers hope to receive all rights and be protected by law which can overshadow and protect the existence of workers, both individually and as a group. This research uses descriptive qualitative research methodology and refers to the 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia as the main legal foundation and other laws and regulations.
Keywords: Legal Protection, Constitutional Rights, Workers' Rights
Аннотация:
Существует много конфликтов между компаниями и работниками, и эти конфликты часто заканчиваются в суде. Бывают случаи, когда работники объявляются победителями, и компания обязана оплачивать права по обязательствам как работодатель. Рабочие надеются получить все свои права и быть защищены законом как индивидуально, так и в составе группы. В этом исследовании используется описательно-качественная методология исследования и упоминается Конституция Индонезии 1945 года в качестве основного правового закона и другие законодательные акты, представленные ниже.
Ключевые слова: Правовая защита, Конституционные права, Права работников
Despite the absence of a right to a healthy environment in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights or any global human rights treaty, environmental human rights law has rapidly developed over the past 25 years along three paths: ( a) the widespread adoption of environmental rights in regional treaties and national constitutions; ( b) the greening of other human rights, such as the rights to life and health, through their application to environmental issues; and ( c) the inclusion in multilateral environmental instruments of rights of access to information, public participation, and access to justice. After describing these developments, this review assesses the possible effects of UN recognition of the human right to a healthy environment, both on the environment and on human rights law itself.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Law and Social Science, Volume 16 is October 13, 2020. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
International courts regularly cite each other, partly as a means of building legitimacy. This study aims to show that judicial dialogue among the regional human rights courts and the Human Rights Committee has an additional effect: it contributes to the construction of a rights-based global constitutionalism. Judicial dialogue among the human rights courts is purposeful because the courts see themselves as embedded in, and contributing to, a global human rights legal system. Cross-citation among the human rights courts advances the construction of rights-based global constitutionalism in that it provides a basic degree of coordination among the regional courts. The jurisprudence of the United Nations Human Rights Committee (HRC), as an authoritative interpreter of core international human rights norms, plays the role of a central focal point for the decentralized coordination of jurisprudence. Using original data, this study demonstrates the extent of citations among the regional human rights courts and from them to the HRC. The network of regional courts and the HRC is building an emergent institutional structure for global rights-based constitutionalism.
Artificial intelligence (AI) has evolved as a disruptive technology, impacting a wide range of human rights-related issues ranging from discrimination to supply chain due diligence. Given the increasing human rights obligations of companies and the intensifying discourse on AI and human rights, we shed light on the responsibilities of corporate actors in terms of human rights standards in the context of developing and using AI. What implications do human rights obligations have for companies developing and using AI? In our article, we discuss firstly whether AI inherently conflicts with human rights and human autonomy. Next, we discuss how AI might be linked to the beneficence criterion of AI ethics and how AI might be applied in human rights-related areas. Finally, we elaborate on individual aspects of what it means to conform to human rights, addressing AI-specific problem areas.
Examination of the state-centric dynamics of constitutions can only partially illuminate the multi-faceted characteristics of constitutional law. A statist focus often obscures both internal and external dimensions of constitutions themselves, and of the broader structures and patterns of governance that exist within and beyond nations. Either explicitly or implicitly, constitutions speak to the sub- as well as to the inter- and supra-national, and provide a lens through which obligations and pressures arising in each differing context might be reflected. Constitutions are, as such, inherently multi-layered.
This final chapter delves into the dynamics of basic constitutional human rights in the selected jurisdictions by studying the key approaches taken by each of the jurisdictions in generally dealing with human rights matters. In examining the potential regulation of future pre-implantation genetic interventions in the jurisdictions (which should take into account human rights components such as the right to life, the right to privacy (autonomy) and the right to equality and non-discrimination), the chapter introduces the concept of ‘entry points of regulatory approaches’. These entry points of regulation are symbolic of concerns regarding various branches of biomedical technologies. In the chapter, I identify two spectrums of these entry points: firstly, the practical, positivistic and private law aspects; and secondly, the philosophical human rights aspects. I posit that these classifications point to the main prevailing and concerning issues that would prompt a state to regulate those technologies. Using these entry points of regulation as lenses of comparisons allows us to navigate the role of fundamental rights in the selected jurisdictions by determining how these jurisdictions prioritize the human rights components that would be relevant in pre-implantation genetic interventions.
The construction of the global constitutionalism's narrative requires interpretative efforts in order to recognize, at the same time, the basic values of the constitutionalism and the irreversible fragmentation of the international order, establishing legal frameworks to stimulate collective and coordinate actions in different scales of governance specially to handle top global threats as the case of the climate change. The polycentricity and its alternative and pluralistic approach that aims to maximize the potential convergence of multiple governance units appears in this context as an appropriate analytical method to develop a discursively narrative which generates a constitutional framework adjusted to handle with climate change, building the idea of a micro-global-climate-constitutionalized system. Therefore, the micro-global-climate-constitutionalism bounded by a set of overarching rules as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the constitutive and regulatory documents elaborated at the decision-making process of the Conference of Parties (COPs), specially the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, supports the international climate regime, generating a scheme of comprehensive values and principles through uniform standards that oriented coordinated initiatives of higher and lower levels of authority towards a dynamic and progressive model of governing.
Since the conclusion of the Paris Agreement, climate litigation has become a global phenomenon, casting courts as important players in multilevel climate governance. However, most climate litigation scholarship focuses on court actions in the Global North. This Article is the first to shine a light on the Global South's contribution to transnational climate litigation. Analysis of this experience is essential if transnational climate jurisprudence is to contribute meaningfully to global climate governance, and to ensuring just outcomes for the most climate-vulnerable.
This article articulates legal and practical discourse that seek to apply and extend the classic cosmopolitan ideals of Immanuel Kant to the evolving practice and reality of the twenty-first century. It identifies five major strands through which cosmopolitan law ideals express themselves in contemporary constitution-making, forming in turn the major composite cosmopolitan contents. In some sense, the proposed framework re-imagines Kant in the twenty-first century, mirroring a conjoined classic and contemporaneous concept of cosmopolitan constitution-making. Kantian cosmopolitanism is reinterpreted by way of conjoining the classic cosmopolitan moral and normative principles of universal freedom, human worth and global justice to emerging and actual contemporaneous constitution-making trends such as using international or comparative foreign models as a basis for constitutional design, using international law and foreign domestic law in national constitutional interpretation, or using regional or international bodies of adjudication and their jurisprudence as a constitutionally mandated source of law. The outlined framework seeks to transcend the occasional historical setbacks and sceptical objections to cosmopolitanism, while admitting their continuous, albeit gradually unobtrusive presence. This framework is naturally predisposed to be deferential to a bold imaginative project, such as the one embodied in the Kantian vision of cosmopolitanism, which is both rooted in and survived the historical forces that ran contrary to the cosmopolitan ideals, to reach a point of its ever closer materialisation.
International courts regularly cite each other, in part as a means of building legitimacy. Such international, cross-court use of precedent (or “judicial dialogue”) among the regional human rights courts and the Human Rights Committee has an additional purpose and effect: the construction of a rights-based global constitutionalism. Judicial dialogue among the human rights courts is purposeful in that the courts see themselves as embedded in, and contributing to, a global human rights legal system. Cross-citation among the human rights courts advances the construction of rights-based global constitutionalism in that it provides a basic degree of coordination among the regional courts. The jurisprudence of the U.N. Human Rights Committee (HRC), as an authoritative interpreter of core international human rights norms, plays the role of a central focal point for the decentralized coordination of jurisprudence. The network of regional courts and the HRC is building an emergent institutional structure for global rights-based constitutionalism.
Whilst most legal scholarship focuses on the responsibility of the United Nations for human rights violations few studies have ascertained the legal basis of the primary rules leading to such responsibility. This article fills this gap by reviewing the theories used to bind the un to customary human rights law: (1) the un has inherited its member states’ obligations, (2) participation in the formation of customary human rights law implies being bound by it, (3) the un is bound by international law because it has legal personality and (4) as the un is embedded in international law it must comply with its norms. Such theories are further tested against the backdrop of international organizations’ theories. The article draws the conclusion that (1) should be rejected, (2) is not yet legally sound and (3)-(4), despite their flaws, are more persuasive. Ultimately, recourse must be had to general international law.
Indonesia adalah negara yang memegang teguh ajaran agama, sehingga perilaku seksual menyimpang tentu tidak dapat diterima begitu saja. Di sisi lain Indonesia merupakan negara yang mengakui HAM, di mana kaum LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Biseksual, dan Transgender) merasa mengalami diskriminasi dan pelanggaran HAM karena orientasi seksual mereka yang menyimpang. Sementara itu, orientasi seksual sebenarnya tidak ditentukan dalam UDHR 1948 yang menjadi pandangan universal PBB terhadap HAM. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian doktrinal dengan menggunakan pendekatan hukum yuridis-normatif yang bersifat kualitatif dengan metode deskriptif-analitis, untuk menemukan data sekunder berupa norma hukum HAM dan norma agama yang berlaku terkait dengan isu LGBT, kemudian menganalisa data tersebut secara deduktif dari kedua perspektif yakni HAM dan agama. Kajian mengenai isu LGBT perspektif HAM dan agama dalam lingkup hukum di wilayah Indonesia dilakukan agar didapatkan pertautan sebagai peluang untuk menyelesaikan permasalahan yang muncul dari isu LGBT. HAM adalah hak dasar yang diakui di Indonesia, akan tetapi ada pembatasan yang ditetapkan UU, moral, etika, dan nilai agama yang menegaskan bahwa setiap manusia di samping memiliki hak asasi manusia untuk dilindungi, mereka juga memiliki kewajiban untuk menghormati hak asasi orang lain dan juga ketertiban masyarakat sekitar.
Public emergencies such as civil wars, natural disasters, and economic crises test the theoretical and practical commitments of international human rights law. During national crises, international law permits states to suspend many human rights protections in order to safeguard national security. States frequently overstep the limits of this authority, violating even peremptory human rights such as the prohibitions against torture and prolonged arbitrary detention. In this volume, leading scholars from law, philosophy and political science grapple with challenging questions concerning the character, scope, and salience of international human rights, and they explain how the law seeks to protect human rights during emergencies. The contributors also evaluate the law's successes and failures and offer new proposals for strengthening respect for human rights.
This Article explores issues at the frontier of international law and constitutional law. It considers five key structural and systemic challenges that the international legal system now faces: (1) decentralization and disaggregation; (2) normative and institutional hierarchies; (3) compliance and enforcement; (4) exit and escape; and (5) democracy and legitimacy. Each of these issues raises questions of governance, institutional design, and allocation of authority paralleling the questions that domestic legal systems have answered in constitutional terms. For each of these issues, I survey the international legal landscape and consider the salience of potential analogies to domestic constitutions, drawing upon and extending the writings of international legal scholars and international relations theorists. I also offer some preliminary thoughts about why some treaties and institutions, but not others, more readily lend themselves to analysis in constitutional terms. And I distinguish those legal and political issues that may generate useful insights for scholars studying the growing intersections of international and constitutional law from other areas that may be more resistant to constitutional analogies.