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Modifying Hayes and Flower's model of skilled writing to explain beginning and developing writing
... Essa maior atenção à revisão é atribuída a uma representação mais forte da tarefa de escrita e do leitor (Kellogg, 2008), mas também a uma maior capacidade de memória de trabalho. Pesquisadores têm repetidamente chamado a atenção para as restrições à memória de trabalho para crianças pequenas como escritores Scardamalia, 1987;Berninger;Cartwright;Yates;Swanson;Abbott, 1994;Hayes, 2012): as exigências de transcrição e ortografia em jovens escritores exercem alta demanda sobre a memória de trabalho, reduzindo a disponibilidade de recursos cognitivos para revisão. Como consequência, quando a revisão ocorre, ela tende a ser mais focada em aspectos locais do que globais da composição do texto. ...
... Essa maior atenção à revisão é atribuída a uma representação mais forte da tarefa de escrita e do leitor (Kellogg, 2008), mas também a uma maior capacidade de memória de trabalho. Pesquisadores têm repetidamente chamado a atenção para as restrições à memória de trabalho para crianças pequenas como escritores Scardamalia, 1987;Berninger;Cartwright;Yates;Swanson;Abbott, 1994;Hayes, 2012): as exigências de transcrição e ortografia em jovens escritores exercem alta demanda sobre a memória de trabalho, reduzindo a disponibilidade de recursos cognitivos para revisão. Como consequência, quando a revisão ocorre, ela tende a ser mais focada em aspectos locais do que globais da composição do texto. ...
... Muito pouco de suas rasuras gráficas ou comentários metalinguísticos relacionados à composição da narrativa que está sendo construída ou ao efeito de sentido produzido pelo conteúdo narrado é verbalizado, pois tendem a se concentrar em aspectos mais locais e pontuais, e menos globais. Essa tendência em escreventes novatos de se concentrarem nos problemas locais e não em aspectos relacionados aos efeitos de sentido do texto ou a problemas globais é notada na pesquisa cognitiva Scardamalia, 1982;Berninger;Fuller;Whittaker, 1996), mas pode ser imprudente tratar isso como uma trajetória determinista de desenvolvimento. A pesquisa sociocultural chama a atenção para o desenvolvimento concorrente da transcrição e composição: Dyson (2009, p. 242) descreve, por exemplo, a necessidade de se considerar a "reflexão autoral dos jovens escritores sobre suas decisões de composição" e como, através de suas narrativas, eles dão sentido e recontextualizam seus mundos de infância (Calil, 2012b;Calil et al., 2015;Calil, 2021). ...
... Three models of writing are described here: Berninger and Swanson's (1994) model of children's writing processes, Bereiter and Scardamalia's (1987) model of the transition from novice to skilled writer, and Graham's Graham's (2025) writers within community model. These models are not instructional or pedagogic models -rather, they focus on how writers write, and the knowledge, dispositions and processes they bring to the writing task. ...
... The earliest models of writing, dating back to the 1980s (e.g., Hayes & Flower, 1980), mainly described the writing processes of adults. Berninger and Swanson's (1994) model sought to extend this early work to younger writers (Figure 1.1). This model highlights the distinction between pre-planning (advance planning) and the planning that writers engage in as they write or review words and sentences (more localised planning). ...
... In presenting their model of writing development for children, Berninger and Swanson (1994) describe how development progresses through three stages: ...
... Some researchers speak about a deficit in the identification of errors and their correction (Horowitz-Kraus and Breznitz 2011). Subjects with dyslexia do not automate spelling during childhood like typical subjects (Berninger and Swanson 1994). ...
... For typical subjects, the spelling process becomes automated with age and experience (Berninger and Swanson 1994), which allows for more resources to be allocated to higher-level processes, such as planning and reviewing. Among other things, this freeing up of resources enables writers to use a high-level planning strategy like knowledge transformation or knowledge crafting, rather than knowledge telling (Bereiter and Scardamalia 1987;Kellogg 2008). ...
... The development of these strategies is strongly linked to the automation of certain processes, in particular graphomotor gestures and the orthographic conversion system. Previous studies reveal that the quality and length of written texts depend on the automation of spelling conversion (Berninger and Swanson 1994), and the high cost of the spelling dimension is said to result in 'poor compositional performances' (Fayol and Miret 2005, 397). Indeed, in children with typical development, the phoneme/ grapheme conversion system and graphomotor processes are automated approximately between 9 and 12 (Berninger and Swanson 1994), even though it is not before the age of 16 that adolescents can totally manage all aspects of written production, including the planning process (Piolat 2004). ...
Despite the persistent difficulties of people with dyslexia concerning writing, few studies examine the impact of dyslexia on the dynamic aspects of written text production. Our objective is to examine the written productions of students with dyslexia (N = 21), compared with matched control students (N = 22), taking into consideration online indicators. They were asked to produce spontaneous narrative and expository texts. The written texts (N = 86) were collected using the Eye and Pen software with digitising tablets. Results show significant differences between the two groups concerning bursts and some pause locations and durations. While previous works conclude that the spelling difficulties of university students do not impact the transcription process anymore, which means that they no longer have effects on the dynamics of writing, and thus on writing fluency, our study qualifies these conclusions. Indeed, our results show that students with dyslexia's word transcription is atypical and problematic in terms of online indicators: they display shorter bursts (number of units written without a pause) and make longer pauses, especially inside and before words and before punctuation signs. The way in which they allocate cognitive resources is still partially altered by cognitive obstacles; their transcription process is also slowed down and disorganises other high‐level cognitive operations.
... The European Society of Radiology [3] references three types of biomarkers-biochemical or histological parameters; biochemical parameters or cells; and anatomical, functional or molecular parameters. Biomarkers have multiple applications, such as 1-prediction of disease risk; 2-detection: identification of patients with disease; 3-staging: classification of the extent of disease; 4-grading: use as an indicator of disease aggressiveness and prognosis; and 5-assessment of response to treatment [3] (p. 42). ...
... Writing also entails the following [40,41]: 1-the treatment of several linguistic and conceptual dimensions during the graphic realization; 2-the cost of the transcription step, regardless of how small it is and; 3-the possible impact of the cognitive resources allocated to the low-level processes on high-level processes. As regards the spelling process, it becomes automated with age and experience, and it is only between 9 and 12 that children with typical development automate conversion from phonemes to graphemes and the motor processes linked to the graphic activity [42]. Indeed, after the age of 10, handwriting becomes an autonomous skill, independent of spelling abilities [43,44]. ...
... But it is not before the age of 16 that adolescents can totally manage all aspects of written production, including the planning process [47]. Previous studies reveal that the quality and length of written texts depend on the automation and management of spelling conversion [42]. Indeed, if spelling conversion becomes a low-level process, cognitive resources can be allocated to higher-level processes, such as a high-level planning strategy to organize their text. ...
Dyslexia–dysorthographia is a neurodevelopmental disorder in which the symptoms appear during the person’s development (generally around the age of 7 or 8) and persist throughout life. The study of this written language disorder mainly focuses on children, principally in the clinical, cognitive science and neuroscience fields. The importance and originality of this study are that it investigates the impact of dyslexia–dysorthographia on written production in young adults (students) with dyslexia, from a psycholinguistic perspective. To do this, students and matched-control individuals were asked to produce written texts on the same theme. These productions were then analysed, observing on-line indicators, such as pause location and duration. The current investigation found that students with dyslexia still have important difficulties with writing and their lack of automation in spelling has consequences on the transcription and planning process: although they have the same handwriting speed, pressure and word rate as control students, they make longer pauses before words, especially before short and long words, words involving grammatical inflexion, grammatical words and punctuation.
... Rather, writing in early childhood classrooms typically involves isolated skill activities related to name, letter, and letter-sound writing to support handwriting and spelling (Bingham et al., 2017;Coker et al., 2016). Unfortunately, isolated skill practice is inadequate to facilitate children's development of a functional writing system (Berninger & Swanson, 1994;Berninger et al., 2002). ...
... Children then translate idea(s) into language forms, drawing on oral language skills like vocabulary, syntax, and discourse/pragmatics. Children bring these ideas to life on the page by transcribing language into written text at their developmental level (e.g., pictures, scribbles, letters to represent a word). It is precisely the translation aspect of composing that lays the groundwork for children to engage with language-and code-based skills at a challenging level, accelerating their reciprocal growth (Berninger & Swanson, 1994;Berninger et al., 2017;Farrow et al., 2024). Translation provides the motivational context for exploring one's ideas for expression (e.g., creative thinking), which heightens children's attention to not just their early literacy skills but also language skills. ...
... Although transcription (which includes handwriting and spelling) is typically regarded as a sub-process of translation, we use the term "translation" throughout this paper specifically to refer to the process of converting ideas into language. This distinction is based on research showing that the generative aspect of early writing-idea-to-language translation-is largely distinct from transcription (Berninger & Swanson, 1994;Juel et al., 1986;Puranik & Lonigan, 2014). ...
This study investigates translation strategies that enhance idea generation and linguistic construction in early childhood composing, focusing on high language-growth prekindergarten to first-grade classrooms. Our sample included 28 teachers from two under-resourced districts in the Northeastern United States, serving 324 children. Using an exploratory sequential mixed-method approach, we analyzed 28 video recordings of small group composing sessions to identify specific strategies employed by teachers. We found teachers’ use of strategies for idea generation and language construction were positively associated with children's receptive vocabulary growth. Teachers in high language-growth classrooms were approximately three and half times more likely to use translation strategies than teachers in low language-growth classrooms. Five strategies emerged that facilitate memory retrieval, comparative thinking, and idea synthesis related to idea generation. Additionally, five strategies related to language construction emerged for transitioning children’s language from contextualized to decontextualized forms, enhancing vocabulary, and constructing more complex sentences. These insights provide a framework for teachers to support early writing development through targeted and intentional instructional strategies to facilitate the idea-language translation process, thereby promoting significant gains in children's language skills.
... Die Schreibflüssigkeit stellt damit einen wichtigen Prädiktor von Schreibkompetenz dar: Zu Beginn der Schreibsozialisation hängt die Qualität der Texte vor allem davon ab, ob es Schülerinnen und Schülern in einer hinreichenden Geschwindigkeit gelingt, akkurat Schrift zu produzieren (Fayol, 2017;Berninger & Swanson, 1994), d. h. flüssig zu schreiben. ...
... Sie setzt neben den orthographischen Fähigkeiten zusätzlich bestimmte motorische Fähigkeiten voraus" (Bachmann & Becker-Mrotzek, 2017, S. 28). Sie umfassen die Handschrift und das Tastschreiben (Berninger & Swanson, 1994;McArthur & Graham, 2017), die zwar zusammenhängen (Troia et al., 2020), jedoch empirisch zu unterscheiden sind (Weinzierl & Wrobel, 2017 Keystroke logging studies have shown [. . . ] that not only the number of words per minute in the final text is an interesting measure of fluency, but also the number of words produced per minute (including revised words and characters). ...
... Gängige Einheit ist die Phase, in der mindestens ein Wort geschrieben wird (Schneider, Becker-Mrotzek, Sturm et al., 2013;Weinzierl & Wrobel, 2017;Wyss, 2020). Bei weniger erfahrenen Schreibenden empfehlen Berninger & Swanson (1994) (Weinzierl & Wrobel, 2017;vgl. zu Leseprozessen Pauly, 2021). ...
Sowohl im schulischen als auch im wissenschaftlichen Kontext ist die Diagnose von Schreibleistungen eine anspruchsvolle Aufgabe. In der Regel werden Kompetenz-Performanz-Modelle angenommen, mit denen aufgrund von beobachteten Schreibleistungen auf die zugrunde liegende Kompetenz geschlossen werden soll. Als Bezugsgröße kommen dabei hierarchieniedrige und -hohe Aspekte des Schreibprozesses sowie das Schreibprodukt und ggf. ressourcenbezogene Aspekte in Betracht. Welcher Aspekt im Vordergrund steht, hängt vom jeweiligen Untersuchungsziel ab. Eine fundierte Diagnostik setzt aber Kenntnisse in allen Bereichen voraus. Der folgende Beitrag gibt einen Überblick über den aktuellen Forschungsstand. [open access: https://doi.org/10.31244/9783830997580]
... However, 10-year-olds engaged more in changes on word level, and 13-year-olds attended to punctuation (Johansson, 2000). The writing development model by Berninger and Swanson (1994) (see also Berninger et al., 1996) takes the starting point in the writing processes described by Hayes and Flower, and use them in a description of three stages of writing development. The importance of transcription skills is especially emphasized in the model. ...
... The next cluster of measures concerns pausing, where we have included some of the measures automatically provided by Inputlog. The motivation for selecting these measures is to explore how automatization of transcription skills (as described by the model of Berninger and Swanson, 1994) and cognitive costs (following the capacity theory of writing described in McCutchen, 1996) will be shown ...
... Another fluency measure connected to longer texts was P-bursts (i.e., how many characters that were typed between pauses longer than 1 s) that were associated with more fluent writing. This is all in line with theories about automatization which suggest that when transcription skills are established, this will decrease the cognitive costs on low-level processes for the writers, and allow more elaborations on lexicon and expansion of the content and events in the texts (Berninger and Swanson, 1994;McCutchen, 1996;Fayol, 1999). Increased fluency was also associated with proportion spelling errors, indicating that less skilled typists also were occupied with attending to orthography. ...
The small body of research on writing and writing processes in the group of deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) children has shown that this group struggles more with writing than their hearing peers. This article aims to explore in what ways the DHH group differs from their peers regarding the written product and the writing processes. Participants are all in the age span 10–12 years old and include: (a) 12 DHH children with knowledge of Swedish sign language (Svenskt teckenspråk, STS) as well as spoken Swedish, (b) 10 age-matched hearing children of deaf adults (CODA) who know STS, (c) 14 age-matched hearing peers with no STS knowledge. More specifically we investigate how text length and lexical properties relate to writing processes such as planning (measured through pauses) and revision, and how the background factors of age, gender, hearing and knowledge of STS predict the outcome in product and process. The data consists of picture-elicited narratives collected with keystroke logging. The overall results show that age is a strong predictor for writing fluency, longer texts and more sophisticated lexicon for all the children. This confirms theories on writing development which stress that when children have automatized basic low-level processes such as transcription and spelling, this will free up cognitive space for engaging in high-level processes, such as planning and revision—which in turn will result in more mature texts. What characterizes the DHH group is slower writing fluency, higher lexical density, due to omitted function words, and extensive revisions (both deletions and insertions) on word level and below. One explanation for the last finding is that limitations in the auditory input lead to more uncertainty regarding correct and appropriate lexical choices, as well as spelling. The article contributes with more specific knowledge on what is challenging during writing for DHH children with knowledge of STS and spoken Swedish in middle school, in the developmental stage when basic writing skills are established.
... Theoretical models suggest that early writers are more dependent upon transcription skills, which concern the construction of individual words, and eventually young writers develop stronger text generation skills that support their construction of ideas (Berninger, 2000;Berninger & Swanson, 1994). Given their age and nascent skills, it may seem unlikely that first graders could be tested with measures of written expression, but previous studies at this grade level successfully have included writing prompts (Berninger & Fuller, 1992;Coker et al., 2018;Kim et al., 2014;Kim et al., 2015;McMaster et al., 2009). ...
... Beyond the volume of words, organized writing reflects a hierarchical structure and relies upon executive function skills such as planning and revising the composition (Berninger, 2000;Berninger & Swanson, 1994). These cognitive processes are demanding, so greater automaticity of transcription skills would free up the necessary resources to organize a composition (Berninger & Swanson, 1994). ...
... Beyond the volume of words, organized writing reflects a hierarchical structure and relies upon executive function skills such as planning and revising the composition (Berninger, 2000;Berninger & Swanson, 1994). These cognitive processes are demanding, so greater automaticity of transcription skills would free up the necessary resources to organize a composition (Berninger & Swanson, 1994). Unfortunately, nearly half of the Cohort 2 first graders in our sample submitted responses that could not be scored. ...
To explore potential pandemic-related learning gaps on expressive writing skills, predominantly Hispanic (≈50%) and White (≈30%) primary-grade students responded to grade-specific writing prompts in the fall semesters before and after school closures. Responses were evaluated with an analytic rubric consisting of five traits (focus, organization, development, grammar, mechanics), each scored on a 1-4 scale. Data first were analyzed descriptively and, after propensity score weighting, with ordinal response models (for analytic scores) and generalized linear mixed effects models (for composite scores). Compared to first graders in 2019 (n = 310), those in 2020 (n = 203) scored significantly lower overall as well as on all rubric criteria and were more likely to write unintelligible responses. Second graders in 2020 (n = 194) performed significantly lower than those in 2019 (n = 328) in some traits but not all, and there was a widening gap between students who did/not score proficiently. A three-level longitudinal model analyzing the sample of students moving from first to second grade in fall 2020 (n = 90) revealed significant improvements, but students still performed significantly lower than second graders in the previous year. Implications for student resiliency and instructional planning are discussed.
... Como advierten Koutsoftas y Gray (2013), el nivel de desarrollo cognitivo del alumnado de los últimos cursos de primaria no es todavía suficiente para que este realice los procesos de escritura de manera recursiva, tal como lo hacen los/as escritores/as expertos/as. Con todo, las personas más jóvenes e inexpertas tienden a realizar operaciones de planificación mientras escriben (Sénéchal, Hill y Malette, 2018) y solo con la práctica comienzan a distinguir entre este proceso y el de producción textual, y a realizar el primero antes que el segundo (Berninger y Swanson, 1994). Los estudios en los que se le pedía al alumnado que planificara antes de escribir han demostrado que este es capaz de hacerlo para los 9 años, aunque su habilidad para ello va mejorando con el tiempo (Berninger y Swanson, 1994;Limpo, Alves y Fidalgo, 2014; Robledo-Ramón y García-Gutiérrez, 2021; entre otros). ...
... Con todo, las personas más jóvenes e inexpertas tienden a realizar operaciones de planificación mientras escriben (Sénéchal, Hill y Malette, 2018) y solo con la práctica comienzan a distinguir entre este proceso y el de producción textual, y a realizar el primero antes que el segundo (Berninger y Swanson, 1994). Los estudios en los que se le pedía al alumnado que planificara antes de escribir han demostrado que este es capaz de hacerlo para los 9 años, aunque su habilidad para ello va mejorando con el tiempo (Berninger y Swanson, 1994;Limpo, Alves y Fidalgo, 2014; Robledo-Ramón y García-Gutiérrez, 2021; entre otros). ...
... En cuanto al proceso de revisión, este incluye la lectura crítica o evaluación del texto escrito, la corrección o resolución de problemas, y la reescritura (cuando esta es necesaria) (Flower y Hayes, 1981). Se trata de una habilidad que se adquiere más tarde que la de textualización y que, al igual que la de planificar, parece desarrollarse con la práctica (Berninger y Swanson, 1994). No obstante, es probable que el alumnado infantil revise si se le da la oportunidad de hacerlo y si no se espera que su primera versión sea la definitiva (Calil y Myhill, 2020;Graves, 1983). ...
Las tareas de producción textual colaborativa constituyen un marco adecuado para el estudio de los procesos cognitivos de escritura. Este trabajo, de tipo descriptivo y cualitativo, utiliza datos provenientes de la escritura colaborativa para averiguar el modo como el alumnado de primaria lleva a cabo los procesos de planificación y de revisión textuales, en concreto, cuándo lo hace y a qué operaciones propias de estos procesos presta atención. Para ello, se grabaron y analizaron las interacciones orales de nueve parejas de estudiantes de primaria que escribieron fábulas colaborativamente en español L1. Los resultados muestran que la planificación está fundamentalmente dirigida a la generación de ideas y que esta se produce principalmente durante la escritura. En cuanto a la revisión, se observa que el alumnado revisa diversos aspectos de la escritura durante la textualización, pero solo dos parejas realizan una revisión final, la cual se centra exclusivamente en aspectos ortográficos. Esta investigación muestra el comportamiento del alumnado durante la escritura colaborativa y puede orientar la enseñanza-aprendizaje de la escritura menos centrada en el producto y más acorde con las necesidades del alumnado.
... The ability to produce a written text is a later developing language skill, possibly since it is dependent on multiple additional underlying linguistic and cognitive skills, as mentioned above. Based on a series of developmental studies of writing among elementary school children, Berninger and Swanson (1994) categorized two sub skills that support written production: transcription and text-generation. Transcription focuses on the ability to translate language from memory to writing-letter formation, spelling skills (Berninger and Swanson 1994), which are founded on a sound grasp of the alphabetic principle and strong orthographic memory for word spelling. ...
... Based on a series of developmental studies of writing among elementary school children, Berninger and Swanson (1994) categorized two sub skills that support written production: transcription and text-generation. Transcription focuses on the ability to translate language from memory to writing-letter formation, spelling skills (Berninger and Swanson 1994), which are founded on a sound grasp of the alphabetic principle and strong orthographic memory for word spelling. These skills develop early in literacy acquisition and lay the foundation for text-generation, which involves translating thought into varying units of languagewords, sentences, discourse. ...
... The present study was designed to examine the use of English inflectional verb morphology in written narratives among Arabic and Hebrew speaking children in their fourth year of studying English as a foreign language. We targeted this age group because in their fourth year of studying EFL, pupils in Israel have already acquired necessary transcription skills and should be able to use their text generation skills for text production, as suggested by Berninger and Swanson (1994). Considering the fact that there are significant structural differences between the two Semitic languages and English, as mentioned above, identifying specific difficulties Arabic and Hebrew speakers may encounter during production of written narratives in EFL in terms of the use of appropriate morphosyntactic structures to convey meaning, should provide additional information regarding possible cross-linguistic transfer between L1 and EFL that would support acquisition of English morphosyntax. ...
The present study examined elicited written English as a foreign language (EFL) narratives produced by 6th grade Hebrew and Arabic speakers in their 4th year of learning EFL. We examined the use of correct verb morphology and morphosyntactic structures, in relation to supporting L1/EFL skills. Fifty-eight pupils (29 Arabic speakers) participated in this study. Assessment tasks included Hebrew and Arabic (L1) morphological awareness (MA), EFL vocabulary, MA and reading comprehension (RC). Arabic speakers were also tested in second language (L2) Hebrew MA. English written narratives were coded for total words, verbs, nouns, correct and complex sentences, and use of verb morphology (past tense, present progressive, 3rd person singular, copula) in obligatory context. Both groups found 3rd person singular the most challenging, despite between group differences in EFL proficiency. Neither group showed crosslinguistic transfer of MA from L1 to EFL, however, Arabic speakers showed strong associations between HMA and EMA, suggesting possible indirect crosslinguistic influence. Hebrew speakers had strongest associations between EFL RC and MA with all aspects of EFL morphosyntactic use, while Arabic speakers relied on English MA for all aspects of correct morphosyntactic production. Regression analyses showed Hebrew speakers relied solely on English RC for verb and sentence production, whereas Arabic speakers drew on English MA. Results have theoretical and practical implications regarding typological considerations in cross-linguistic transfer, as well as point to specific difficulties and patterns in acquisition of EFL morphosyntax among speakers of Semitic languages, highlighting the role of L1 and EFL contributors to EFL written output.
... During the early years of learning, the phoneme-to-grapheme conversion system and the graphomotor processes must be automated. These two processes are not automated in typically developing children until around 12 years of age [48]. From this period on, children begin to mobilize cognitive resources, not only for the management of the conversion system but also for high-level writing processes such as planning or revising the text [49]. ...
... Around 12-15 years of age, adolescents can more easily manage all of the processes involved in a writing task [49], but it is not until they are 16 years old that they can fully manage the planning processes [50]. In typical subjects, spelling processes become progressively more automatic with experience [48], which allows-within the framework of the theory of capacity for written production [46]-more resources to be allocated to higher-level processes. ...
... Indeed, punctuation marks, like anaphora and connectors, are categorized among the cohe-sive marks of written production, which have real functional qualities in structuring the text [29]. Their production is determined during "textual linearization, an intermediary process between conceptual organization of planning and translation" [29], according to the models and work of Hayes & Flower [41] and Berninger & Swanson [48]. Linearization then appears as a high-level process, appearing early in the design of the message. ...
Punctuation strongly contributes to the cohesion of the text. Despite this relevant role in written activity, this linguistic paradigm is too rarely observed. Moreover, it is all the more important to analyze its management as it is one of the difficulties declared by students with dyslexia. In that sense, the purpose of this paper is to analyze punctuation management during written text production by students with dyslexia, compared to matched control students. Previous English and Dutch studies confirm this feeling and reveal that students with dyslexia make many punctuation errors. That being said, there is no consensus; other studies do not reach this conclusion. For this present study, students with dyslexia and control students matched in age, university level, and gender were asked to produce spontaneous written and spoken narrative and expository texts. The written texts (N = 86) were collected using Eye and Pen© software with digitizing tablets. Results reveal that if students with dyslexia use the same inventory of punctuation marks as control students, they use fewer punctuation marks and make more errors than control students. These results are discussed and highlighted by the literature dealing with written production as a complex cognitive activity. They reveal that punctuation management is deficient for students with dyslexia, suggesting that the cohesion system can be impacted by dyslexia.
... G. Kim, 2020;Martin-Requejo & Santiago-Ramajo, 2021;McCutchen et al., 1994;Rocha et al., 2022;Soto et al., 2021;van Dijk et al., 2016), 1 articles took into account an adolescent population aged between 14 and 18 years (Vanderberg & Swanson, 2007) and the remaining 3 articles studied both school-aged children and adolescents (V. Berninger et al., 1996;Hoskyn & Swanson, 2003;. 19 articles involved a population with typical development (L. ...
... G. Kim, 2020;McCutchen et al., 1994;Vanderberg & Swanson, 2007), structural complexity (Drijbooms et al., 2015;Hoskyn & Swanson, 2003), text length (Drijbooms et al., 2017), number of produced words, narrative quality (. , translating (V. Berninger et al., 1996), handwriting (V. W. Berninger et al., 2010;Hoskyn & Swanson, 2003), spelling, and writing fluency (V. ...
... Specifically, for what concerns the role attributed to WM in text composition, some of these authors suggested that WM supports the coordination of the main writing phase, that of generation , translation, planning, and reviewing the written text (V. Berninger et al., 1996;Vanderberg & Swanson, 2007). Moreover, verbal WM contributed directly to text length and indirectly through handwriting to all writing performance outcomes (i.e., syntactic complexity, story content, text length, and spelling; Drijbooms et al., 2015). ...
Writing is a complex task that is acquired in the early primary school years and continues to develop through adolescence and beyond. Studying the cognitive processes that support writing skills during the acquisition phase may be crucial to support this complex skill especially in less-skilled writers. Executive Functions (EF) could have an important role as they are high cognitive control processes that allow individuals to control and plan thoughts and actions in order to achieve a goal. Given that EF have a crucial development during childhood, when the basic writing skills are acquired, this systema- tic review aims to investigate the contribution of the main EF components to the writing process in children. Search string focused on three main concepts: executive functions, writing, and children. Twenty-six studies were included following the guidelines of the PRISMA Statement. From the analyzed studies, working memory, in comparison to inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and plan- ning, emerged as the most studied and the most related to writing skills. Nevertheless, the results also support the involvement of all EF basic components in writing, with a role that could vary depend- ing on the considered writing process.
... G. Kim, 2020;Martin-Requejo & Santiago-Ramajo, 2021;McCutchen et al., 1994;Rocha et al., 2022;Soto et al., 2021;van Dijk et al., 2016), 1 articles took into account an adolescent population aged between 14 and 18 years (Vanderberg & Swanson, 2007) and the remaining 3 articles studied both school-aged children and adolescents (V. Berninger et al., 1996;Hoskyn & Swanson, 2003;. 19 articles involved a population with typical development (L. ...
... G. Kim, 2020;McCutchen et al., 1994;Vanderberg & Swanson, 2007), structural complexity (Drijbooms et al., 2015;Hoskyn & Swanson, 2003), text length (Drijbooms et al., 2017), number of produced words, narrative quality (. , translating (V. Berninger et al., 1996), handwriting (V. W. Berninger et al., 2010;Hoskyn & Swanson, 2003), spelling, and writing fluency (V. ...
... Specifically, for what concerns the role attributed to WM in text composition, some of these authors suggested that WM supports the coordination of the main writing phase, that of generation , translation, planning, and reviewing the written text (V. Berninger et al., 1996;Vanderberg & Swanson, 2007). Moreover, verbal WM contributed directly to text length and indirectly through handwriting to all writing performance outcomes (i.e., syntactic complexity, story content, text length, and spelling; Drijbooms et al., 2015). ...
Writing is a complex task that is acquired in the early primary school years and continues to develop through adolescence and beyond. Studying the cognitive processes that support writing skills during the acquisition phase may be crucial to support this complex skill especially in less-skilled writers. Executive Functions (EF) could have an important role as they are high cognitive control processes that allow individuals to control and plan thoughts and actions in order to achieve a goal. Given that EF have a crucial development during childhood, when the basic writing skills are acquired, this systema- tic review aims to investigate the contribution of the main EF components to the writing process in children. Search string focused on three main concepts: executive functions, writing, and children. Twenty-six studies were included following the guidelines of the PRISMA Statement. From the analyzed studies, working memory, in comparison to inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and plan- ning, emerged as the most studied and the most related to writing skills. Nevertheless, the results also support the involvement of all EF basic components in writing, with a role that could vary depend- ing on the considered writing process.
... In general, there are two major types of students' practicing writing: copying and generative writing (Coker et al., 2018). Copying tasks offer opportunities for children to practice handwriting and spelling (Berninger & Swanson, 1994) and include copying letters or words. Different from copying, generative tasks require children to form ideas and produce a text and thus draw on a range of writing skills and knowledge. ...
... Different from copying, generative tasks require children to form ideas and produce a text and thus draw on a range of writing skills and knowledge. This includes handwriting and spelling skills and text genre knowledge to represent different genres, as well as composing processes to plan and revise text (Berninger & Swanson, 1994;Coker et al., 2018). Generative writing for kindergarten children includes composing a personal narrative or an informational text and writing sentences to accompany the picture. ...
The present study aims to examine whether the amount and type of writing instruction (basic skills and composing process) and children’s writing practice (copying and generative writing) predict children’s writing achievement. Additionally, it investigates whether the relationship between writing instruction and practice and writing achievement depends on children’s entering skills in writing. The study included 78 kindergarten teachers and 449 kindergarten children from three states in the United States. Teachers were videotaped three times during the academic year (fall, winter, and spring). Assessments of children’s letter writing, spelling, and composition were conducted in the fall and again in the spring. Multilevel models showed that composing process instruction significantly predicted children’s spring letter writing when controlling for their fall skills. Similarly, copying practice significantly predicted children’s spring letter writing skills after accounting for their fall scores. However, the impact of the amount and type of writing instruction and practice did not depend on children’s initial writing skills. These findings highlight the importance of composing process instruction and copying practice in enhancing children’s letter writing skills.
... Likewise, the lack of statistically significant improvement in certain areas underscores the complexity of writing skills development (Berninger & Swanson, 2000). For instance, orthographic skills require longer periods for optimal consolidation. ...
... Moreover, reinforcing underlying literacy skills is fundamental for communicative competence (Jiménez-Pérez, 2023) and for enhancing the higher-order process of writing (Berninger & Swanson, 2000). By developing these skills, writers can expand their vocabulary knowledge, grammatical structures, and linguistic resources and gain confidence to face challenging writing tasks. ...
This study explores the effectiveness of a comprehensive intervention program for improving writing skills in Spanish. Participants were 167 Spanish children (3rd to 6th Grades) with reading and writing difficulties and typical development. Children exhibited problems in writing, reading, and related skills, like phonological and prosodic skills. The intervention targeted the reinforcement of orthographic patterns, decoding activities based on meta-analytical strategies; meta-phonological, morphological, and prosodic activities; visual vocabulary; sentence building, and reading, considering the reciprocity between both skills in literacy development. It was a paper-and-pencil program, considering the main approaches of writing intervention (cognitive and multisensorial), the relevance of frequent and direct feedback, the use of explicit instructions, the recommended levels of intervention (sub-lexical, lexical, and sentence levels), and the use of motivating activities through a game-based design. Sixteen individualized sessions of direct, systematic, and explicit training were conducted with the support of a trainer who provided immediate and continuous feedback. A quasi-experimental non-equivalent waiting control group pre-post intervention design, with three groups (intervention group; waiting-control group; and typical development group), was applied. Results showed that the intervention had a positive impact on writing-related skills. Specifically, children who received the intervention performed close to peers without difficulties in several tasks after the intervention program, especially those involving phonological and prosodic processing. These findings support that phonological and prosodic training is related to writing performance and its development. Furthermore, this study presents psychoeducational implications because it supports that explicit and supplemental meta-phonological strategies could play an important role in teaching writing to children with reading and writing difficulties.
... Hayes and Flower's (1980) influential model lacks detail in terms of translation processes (turning plans and ideas into text to meet goals). While Berninger and Swanson (1994) adaption of the original Hayes and Flower model elaborated on these processes, punctuation was considered part of transcription (rather than an integral part of text generation). Alamargot and Fayol (2009) argue that models of text composition remain relatively imprecise in relation to the linguistic and orthographic processes involved in formulation. ...
... Alamargot and Fayol (2009) critique this model for neglecting the formulation component and its constituent processes. In an adapted version of the Hayes and Flower (1980) model, Berninger and Swanson (1994) included text generation and transcription within the formulation component with the latter including punctuation. In the past, punctuation has been relegated to a relatively subservient 'secretarial' role (Graves, 1983) where -along with spelling -it is considered part of the mechanics of writing (e.g. ...
Framed within literacy education and applied linguistics, children's playful punctuation is considered within a paradigm of 'writing as design'. Drawing particularly on the work of Sharples (1999), the article examines data from a repeat design study of 9-11 year old children tackling a persuasive description task. The data showed evidence of children making plans, setting goals and satisfying constraints to fulfil communicative effect. As well as being testament to children's ingenuity in using punctuation in creative ways, the findings have implications for how the writing process is conceptualised and for how writing is taught.
... Although early writing is a foundational literacy skill, our understanding of children's development of early writing skills and how to promote them outside of English orthography is limited. Conceptual models of children's early writing development in English suggests that writing skills can be organized into two broad domains: transcription and composing writing skills (Berninger & Swanson, 1994Juel et al., 1986Puranik & Lonigan, 2014). Importantly, early writing is conceptualized to involve not only the skills that reflect children's cognitive development (e.g., name writing, letter writing; Puranik et al., 2018;Zhang et al., 2017) but also the skills that reflect children's sociocultural knowledge of writing as a means to communicate and express ideas (e.g., composing skills; Quinn & Bingham, 2019;Rowe, 2008;Rowe & Neitzel, 2010). ...
... Fourth, we conducted this study with a theoretical framework developed for understanding children's writing development within alphabetic language contexts (e.g., Berninger & Swanson, 1994Juel et al., 1986Puranik & Lonigan, 2014). Because there is such limited research into young Chinese children's writing development, we may have overlooked certain practices that support children's early writing and key features of composing and transcription skills. ...
... The limitations of this model are then presented, highlighting the importance and role of working memory in production. The analysis of the production activity of expert writers is then proposed with the presentation of the work of Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) and the developmental model of Berninger and Swanson (1994). Finally, revision and planning models such as Hayes andNash's model (1996), Flower, Hayes, Carey, Shriver andStratman's model (1986) and Butterfield, Hacker and Albertson's revision model (1996) are described and analysed 1. ...
... Hayes and Flower's model is still a reference today (see Zoubir, 2020), even though it has been the subject of numerous criticisms, such as those of Berninger and Swanson (1994) and Hayes himself (1996). These criticisms concern, on the one hand, knowledge processing. ...
In this article, we present the main models of written verbal production activity that allow us to analyze and describe the processes implemented during this activity. According to these models, writers activate several types of knowledge: knowledge about the domain of the world evoked by the text to be produced, knowledge about language and texts, and pragmatic knowledge. The analysis of these models makes it possible to account for and describe the knowledge activated during the realization of this text production activity, but also the different processes implemented during this complex cognitive activity. We examine the effects of the development and generalized use of digital tools on the functioning of working memory and written verbal production.
... Research findings seem to support her assumptions as unskilled L1 writers have been found to produce text in sequential bursts of handwriting between planning phases (see e.g., Olive & Kellogg, 2002). Berninger and Swanson's (1994) work extended McCutchen's model, and showed that beginner L1 writers' WM resources are not only depleted because of lack of automaticity in handwriting but also due to effortful spelling. This can result in difficulties in paying attention to other aspects of writing, such as rhetorical structure and the use of complex and sophisticated language. ...
... This work led to the development of the Not-so-Simple View of Writing (Berninger & Winn, 2006) that further refined the role of the CE in writing processes and the development of writing skills. The key components of CE, inhibition, attention shifting, and updating have been found to influence not only lower-level transcription processes but also higher-level writing processes such as keeping strategic goals and multiple ideas active while writing, the retrieval and application of relevant linguistic knowledge and encoding procedures, as well as revising and editing (e.g., Bourdin & Fayol, 1994;Berninger & Swanson, 1994). Torres' study (2023, in this issue) also demonstrates that, regardless of whether they write in their L1 or L2, individuals with higher scores on the Ospan test (which taps into the updating function of CE) spend more time pausing within words to resolve linguistic encoding problems. ...
This article revisits the role of cognitive individual differences in creating synergies between second language (L2) writing and second language acquisition research that were proposed by Kormos (2012). It takes stock of the advances in research findings, in the past decade, on the role of working memory and language learning aptitude in L2 writing processes and performance. The article offers an overview of how cognitive factors can mediate learning gains when L2 users engage in writing. Using theoretical accounts of cognitive individual differences, the article discusses how the characteristics of writing tasks can interact with individual variation in cognitive functioning. The article concludes by proposing a Task-Mediated Cognitive Model of L2 Writing and Writing to Learn that describes the role of cognitive factors in L2 writing processes and in learning through writing, and an outline of a research agenda for future studies.
... Based on Hayes and Flower's model (1980), written production supposes three cognitive processes: planning (generating ideas and setting goals), translating (transcribing ideas into written text), and revising (rereading the text to improve clarity of idea expression). Further, Berninger and Swanson (1994) adapt this model to text production among younger writers. They describe two processes for translation: text generation, which occurs at different levels of language, and transcription, which includes handwriting (letter production) and spelling (word production). ...
... This observation concurs with Graham and Weintraub (1996) who note that when writing speed is not fast enough, children forget their ideas before they can write them, which, in turn, has a negative impact on text production. By writing faster, children thus appear to automate the graphomotor aspect of spelling information, which is a crucial element in the development of writing skills (Berninger & Swanson, 1994). Overall, our results confirm the cognitive view that "writing quality depends, at least partially, on the writer's skill in managing the writing processes" (Beauvais, Olive, & Passerault 1 , 2011, p.425) We also note the students' ability to develop their writing speed because of the significant differences observed between the beginning and the end of the year. ...
In the research area of writing development, an increasing number of researchers suggest that graphomotor skills could be much more important than they appear to be (Christensen, 2009). Few researchers have studied the link between handwriting and teaching practices, despite the fact that some studies indicate its importance (Graham, 2010). The general objective of this study is to explore the relationship between different handwriting styles and the development of writing skills among 715 children in Grade 2. Generally, our results show that the three handwriting styles (manuscript/cursive, manuscript, and cursive) have different effects on writing development (speed, quality, word production, and text production).
... We have sought to redress this separation by conceptualising writing, and thinking about writing, through an interdisciplinary lens with a tripartite focus on writing as an integrated process which combines the individual, the social, and the textual. An attention to the individual takes account of cognitive models of writing Hayes 1981, Bereiter andScardamalia 1987;Berninger and Swanson 1994) which primarily consider the mental processes involved in creating a text, and attend to the process of writing in terms of planning, generating and reviewing (Alamargot and Chanquoy 2001), and signal the importance of metacognition in writing (Hacker et al 2009). Of particular relevance to this chapter, cognitive psychology also frames writing as a problem-solving enterprise in which 'all writers must make decisions about their texts' (Kellogg 2008:2) -where multiple choices have to be made throughout the writing process about content, organisation and structure, and expression. ...
... So metacognition is broadly defined as 'any knowledge or cognitive activity that takes as its object, or regulates, any aspect of any cognitive enterprise' (Flavell 1992:114). Cognitive research has repeatedly signalled the importance of metacognition in writing (Kellogg 1994;Berninger et al 1994;Hacker et al 2009) because the act of writing requires self-monitoring and management of the task. Writing also requires high-level metacognitive rhetorical planning (Hayes and Flower 1980) and through metacognition, covert processes can be made visible (Bereiter and Scardamalia 1982). ...
... 3 Dans lequel on retrouve une vision cognitiviste du développement de la compétence à écrire (Berninger et Swanson, 1994 ;Hayes, 2012) Malgré cette complexité, les élèves du début du primaire sont généralement très motivés à apprendre à écrire (Archambault et al., 2010 ;Archambault et Dupéré, 2017 ;Pajares et al., 2007), mais cette motivation décline ensuite chez plusieurs ou subit des variations au cours du primaire (Archambault et al., 2010 ;Clark et Dugdale, 2009 ;Ekholm et al., 2018 ;Pajares et al., 2007) (MEES, 2017 ;Thériault et Allaire, 2022). Un des éléments caractérisant ces contextes est l'écriture numérique, c'est-à-dire l'écriture sur support numérique ou avec des outils numériques (Bouchardon, 2014). ...
Les élèves se disent plus motivés à écrire avec le numérique qu’avec le crayon (Alves-Wold et al., 2023 ; Camacho et al., 2021). Mais sont-ils plus engagés ? Peu d’études se sont intéressées à l’engagement des élèves vis-à-vis de l’écriture, et encore moins de l’écriture numérique (Martins et al., 2022). L’objectif de la présente étude est de comparer le niveau d’engagement comportemental d’élèves de 2e, 4e et 6e année (N = 255) vis-à-vis de l’utilisation du crayon ou du clavier pour produire un texte narratif. Après chaque séance d’écriture, les élèves ont répondu à un questionnaire (avec échelle de Likert) afin de rendre compte de leur engagement pendant l’activité réalisée. L’analyse de variance 3 (niveaux scolaires) X 2 (conditions : manuscrite, tapuscrite) sur le score moyen d’engagement montre que les élèves de 2e année sont aussi engagés dans les deux conditions, mais que les élèves de 4e et de 6e année sont plus engagés dans l’activité d’écriture tapuscrite. La discussion aborde le potentiel du numérique pour contrer le désengagement à un moment sensible du parcours primaire et trace les limites de la présente étude.
... , 여러 연구자들이 모형 기반의 설명에 의해 작문의 과정을 탐구해왔다 (Alamargot & Chanquoy, 2001;Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987;Galbraith, 1999;Hayes & Flower, 1980;Kellogg, 1996). 다양한 (Hayes & Flower, 1980)를 비롯하여, 켈로그 (Kellogg, 1996), 반 베이크 (van Wijk, 1999), 헤이즈 (Hayes, 2012a) (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987;Berninger & Swanson, 1994;김혜 연, 2015a). ...
Purpose: This study aims to examine the overall research trends of
writing categorization research by introducing the methodology of a systematic review and analyzing its topics, methods, and purposes. Methods: The research procedure is as follows. First, 1,026 research articles were collected through a search of a representative research database in the field. Through the selection process of deduplication, primary filtering, and secondary filtering, 46 research articles were finally selected through for the analysis. The qualitative content analysis technique was applied to the selected literatures. Results: The coding results were presented according to two dimensions: writing research general and features of categorization. As for the writing research general, the five criteria of research methodology, research participants, research topic, research area, and publication year were analyzed; as for features of categorization, coding results according to another three criteria were presented: the purpose of the analysis, what the categorical variable is targeting, and whether there was a difference in quality/level between subtypes. Conclusion: Implications for the designs of follow-up studies and the application of writing education could also be derived.
... Studies on handwriting acquisition showed that coordination of perceptions, motor processes, and cognitive processes are important for the production of proficient and efficient handwriting movements (Giordano & Maiorana, 2015;Gerth, Klassert, Dolk, Fliesser, Fischer, MyJICT -Malaysian Journal of Information and Communication Technology Vol 5 2020, Issue 1 | e-ISSN 0127-7812 52 Nottbusch & Festman, 2016). Berninger (1994) emphasized that this transcription skill is fundamental to learning because its failure can be a hindrance to the higher levels of handwriting process. ...
Difficulties in handwriting or dysgraphia can have a negative effect on one’s self-esteem and academic achievement in school. This phenomenon is considered a detriment when students have difficulty expressing knowledge through writing; causing extra hardship in mastering all subjects they are learning. Past studies did not deliberate on specific components related to the intervention of dysgraphic students’ handwriting skills development comprehensively, as can be seen in today’s existing handwriting models. Therefore, this study focused on the underlying models of dysgraphic students’involving the main components in the writing process, and the components of ICT support. The principles of modeling with the potential impact of 1) visualization, 2) imagination, and 3) automation in writing need to be considered in addition to the mastery of writing skills. With such a specific model, solutions to these dysgraphic students’ handwriting skill problems can be generalized. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to propose a technology-assisted Dysgraphic Children Handwriting Model (DCHM) to address the problems encountered. This DCHM was validated by four experts – three special education teachers and a paediatric and adolescent psychiatrist. The resulting score was calculated as a percentage value based on the total score obtained for each question. The average percentage for all the criteria evaluated was 91.5%. Overall, all four experts agreed on the key components of the DCHM supported by the ICT component. This study is important for considering handwriting development more holistically and to identify the performance of students’ handwriting in the context of a robust handwriting model.
... After planning, students were given 10 min to write their text (T1: "Do you think teachers should give homework every day?"; T2: "Do you think there should be more field trips at school?"; T3: "Do you think parents should give money to their children every week?"). To avoid biased judgements, we removed text identification, randomly organized all texts, and typed the texts correcting for spelling errors (Berninger and Swanson, 1994). Both plans and texts were evaluated by two trained judges, blind to the study purposes. ...
Introduction
Over the years, extensive literature attested to the value of the Self-Regulation Strategy Development model (SRSD) for writing. Additionally, feedback has been recognized as essential to the teaching and learning of writing, and as supporting evidence-based instructional models for writing. However, little is known of the effects of combining evidence-based practice models, such as SRSD, with instructional feedback, as well as with a component of meditation. The present study aimed to study the effects of an SRSD intervention and to study the importance of instructional feedback within an SRSD intervention.
Method
A total of 69 primary students (4th graders) participated in this study. The study was divided into two phases: in Phase 1, two classes participated in a SRSD intervention program (SRSD-1 group; N = 33), whereas two others received regular writing instruction (control group; N = 36); in Phase 2, the previous control group received the SRSD intervention with or without instructional feedback (SRSD-2 with feedback, N = 19, vs. SRSD-2 without feedback, N = 17, groups), while the SRSD received regular writing instruction (SRSD-1 group).
Results
The effectiveness of the intervention was confirmed in both phases for the writing outcomes variables, but not for motivation. Overall, our study showed that the SRSD intervention with an additional meditation component was effective in improving students’ writing planning for all intervention participants. Additionally, writing quality and writing structure improved among those with lower scores at the pretest. Concerning motivation, we only found an effect on self-efficacy for ideation.
Discussion
We expect the current research to stimulate future examinations of the value of providing students with instructional feedback in writing interventions.
... Writing development, as seen through the lens of theoretical models, is a multifaceted process, involving a delicate interplay between numerous cognitive and linguistic factors (Berninger & Swanson, 1994;McCutchen, 2006). It is understood through two key theoretical models: the simple view of writing and the not-so-simple view of writing (Berninger & Winn, 2006;Juel et al., 1986). ...
This study aimed to investigate the roles of transcription skills and oral language abilities in predicting writing quality and productivity among Spanish-speaking kindergarten children (N = 159). Using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), the study examined associations between these foundational skills and writing outcomes. The model demonstrated excellent fit, with significant relationships between observed measures and their respective latent variables. Transcription skills were found to robustly predict both writing quality and productivity, while oral language was a significant predictor only for writing quality. A notable covariance was observed between transcription and oral language constructs, emphasizing their interconnected influence on early writing development. The study’s findings contribute to the current discourse by aligning with the ‘not-so-simple’ view of writing, challenging conventional notions that prioritize transcription skills over oral language in early writing. These results have important implications for designing comprehensive early childhood literacy programs and suggest that both transcription and oral language abilities should be integrated for holistic writing development. Limitations and directions for future research are also discussed.
... Ces sujets produisent, en effet, des textes comprenant davantage de propositions pertinentes que les sujets qui ont travaillé en individuel. Ce résultat est cohérent avec les principaux modèles de la production verbale écrite (Bereiter & Scardamalia 1987 ;Berninger & Swanson 1994 ;Hayes & Flowers 1980) qui accordent à l'activation des connaissances un rôle fondamental et plus précisément dans le processus de planification. Ce type d'aide en situation plurilingue permet au sujet de réduire la charge cognitive liée à la planification et de posséder plus de ressources en mémoire de travail pour les processus de translating et de révision. ...
... Such production differences have shown that the quality of written texts may be better than dictated texts in skilled writers (in students' stories Graham and Weintraub, 1996) or typed texts (in college students Varghese and Abraham, 1998). Berninger and Swanson (1994) compared the written and dictated stories of children in grades 3-7 and found that the written stories were longer, contained more words, and had a more complex syntax than the dictated stories. ...
Composing a well-written text is a prolonged and challenging process. The present study explored the incipient stages in descriptive texts written (pen and paper) or dictated by 283 Hebrew-speaking Israeli children in second to fifth grades. This study aims to better understand the interplay between age, literacy-related abilities, and descriptive text quality by exploring developmental aspects across grade levels regarding text structural quality, length of text and literacy related abilities, and by analyzing the relation between text structural quality and literacy related abilities (cognitive, transcriptional, linguistic, and reading), beyond length of text and grade level. Regarding the developmental aspects, the results indicate that text structure quality becomes more sophisticated and complete with age, attaining high-quality descriptive text structure from third grade on in the production of autonomous texts with genre-driven elaborate features. Length of text and literacy related abilities also increase with age. Regarding the relation between text structural quality and literacy related abilities, we found in 2nd grade, for P&P text, a significant total effect of syntactic lexical ability on text structure rank, partially mediated by length of text, and a weaker but still significant direct effect of syntactic lexical ability on TS rank, when controlling for length of text. We also found in 5th grade, for DICT text, a significant total effect of reading high ability on TS rank, not mediated by length of text.
... Developmental research on writing commonly distinguishes between two fundamental aspects of writing: transcription and text generation [2,3]. Transcription skills, often also referred to as handwriting, encompass the cognitive and physical act of creating written representations of text, involving graphomotor and spelling processes [4]. ...
The acquisition of handwriting skills is a crucial goal in early primary school. Yet our comprehension of handwriting development, encompassing graphomotor skills and spelling, remains fragmented. The identification of predictors for handwriting skills is essential for providing early support. This longitudinal study aimed to explore the predictive roles of gender, working memory, and motivation to handwrite for graphomotor skills six months later and spelling skills one year later. Paper-and-pencil tasks (graphomotor skills, spelling), a tablet task (working memory), and a questionnaire (teachers’ ratings of children’s handwriting motivation) were employed. This study included 363 first-grade children (49.8% girls) aged 6–9 years. Results from a structural equation model, controlling for age and socioeconomic background, revealed that girls exhibited superior performance in graphomotor skills, while boys tended to spell more accurately. Furthermore, working memory predicted graphomotor skills but not spelling. Additionally, motivation to handwrite predicted both first-grade graphomotor skills and second-grade spelling. This study extends contemporary evidence, demonstrating that graphomotor skills predict spelling while considering gender and motivation. The findings underscore the pivotal role of graphomotor skills in spelling acquisition and suggest their contribution to spelling difficulties.
... However, handwriting activities, which dynamically integrate perceptual motor, cognition, tactile, and kinesthetic sensitivities (Feder and Majnemer, 2007), also involve high-level cognitive processes (Kao, 2000). The fact that the "central" cognitive processes and "peripheral" motor processes continuously interact during written word production (Berninger and Swanson, 1994;Graham and Weintraub, 1996;Purcell et al., 2011;Roux et al., 2013;Kandel et al., 2017;Zhang and Feng, 2017) supports this standpoint. Cognitive processes here generally refer to cognitive planning, working memory processes, and phonological and orthographic coding (e.g., McCutchen, 2000;Volman et al., 2006). ...
Background
Chinese handwriting has a close relationship with spatial cognition, and the legibility dimension is prominent with its spatial-oriented characteristics. However, handwriting evaluation focusing on the detailed spatial aspects of the legibility dimension in the Chinese context is rare.
Aims and methods
We aimed to develop a Chinese Handwriting Legibility Scale (CHLS) and examine its reliability, validity, and measurement invariance among Chinese primary students of different grades. A total of 684 students aged 8–12 years were recruited from a mainstream primary school in central China and were asked to copy a Chinese template as legibly as possible within 4 min. The developed CHLS was used to assess these students’ legibility performance.
Results
The seven-criteria CHLS favored content validity. The inter-rater reliability was good; however, the scoring instructions need to be refined. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed a one-factor solution explaining 62.336% of the variance of the seven-criteria CHLS, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) confirmed its appropriateness. There was a high internal consistency ( α = 0.902). In terms of measurement invariance, the factor structures and loadings of the CHLS were consistent across students of different grades; however, significant intercept variations were detected between students of Grades 2 and 4.
Conclusion
CHLS may be effective for evaluating Chinese handwriting legibility performance in the Chinese primary school context in the central region. Students’ Chinese handwriting legibility performance may have developmental specificity in different grades.
... De plus, Berninger et Swanson (1994), Alamargot et Chanquoy (2001) et Garcia-Debanc et Fayol (2002), reprochent ce modèle de l'absence d'intérêt à l'analyse des traitements langagiers. Autrement dit, Hayes et Flower (1980) ne se sont basés que sur la description des aspects conceptuels de la production écrite, mais ils n'ont pas essayé de les analyser. ...
Le présent travail de recherche a pour objet l’étude des effets de l’écriture collaborative sur la production d’un texte de spécialité à dominante explicative en contexte universitaire algérien et notamment au niveau de la branche des sciences économiques.
Les résultats obtenus ont démontré l’efficacité de ce genre d’écriture dans la gestion
des différents dysfonctions phrastiques, le développement des capacités relatives à la planification et à la révision des textes de spécialité, la génération des idées pertinentes, la production des textes cohérents, cohésifs et riches en procédés explicatifs.
... La escritura es una actividad esencial que permite a los estudiantes expresar sus conocimientos y pensamientos, y participar en la mayoría de las actividades académicas (Berninger, 1994). La transcripción puede ser especialmente importante para comenzar y desarrollar la escritura en los años de la escuela primaria (Berninger & Swanson, 1994). ...
A study was conducted to analyse the factorial structure and longitudinal invariance of the Indicators of Basic Early Writing Skills (IPAE) as Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) in Spanish 1st grade students. The proposed model is a one-factor model in which the five IPAE tasks (i.e. allograph selection, dictation of words with arbitrary spelling, dictation of words with regulated spelling, dictation of pseudowords, and dictation of sentences) serve as observable indicators for a single underlying factor (i.e., transcription). The IPAE is composed of three parallel forms (i.e., A, B, and C), and was administered three different times to 231 Spanish first-grade students during the school year (beginning, middle, and end). It is concluded that the IPAE presents an adequate construct validity and measurement equivalence that allows to evaluate first-grade transcription ability over time.
... 지금까지 형태인식 연구는 읽기 (Carlisle, 1995;Deacon & Kirby, 2004;Jung, 2014)나 쓰기 (Bryant, Nune, & Bindman, 2000;Han, & Jung, 2018;Nune, Bryant, & Bindman 1997), 그리고 어휘와의 관 련성에 대한 연구에 주로 초점을 맞추고 있다 (Jung, 2020;Mcbride-Chang, et al., 2008) (Apel, 2011). Ehri (1992) (Apel, 2014;Mc-Cutchen, Stull, Herrera, Lotas, & Evans, 2013;Northey, McCutcheon, & Sanders, 2016 (Berninger, & Swanson, 1994 ...
Objectives: The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between composition and morphological awareness of typical school-aged children in the 3rd to 5th grades.Methods: To this end, a total of 44 children’s (24 in 3rd grade, 20 in 5th grade) ‘My Dream’ writing samples were analyzed into single words and 3 complex words (inflection, derivation, and compound). This study found a correlation between morphological awareness used in the composition and measurements of individual morphological awareness. The effect on composition was investigated through regression analysis.Results: First, the single words and the three types of complex words used in the compositions increased significantly as the grade went up. In addition, the difference by word types was also significant and the interaction effect between grade and word types was shown. Second, the number of single words and subtypes of complex words also increased according to the grade, and the difference between the types was significant. Third, there was a significant correlation between all morphological awareness variables except compound complex words. The result of regression analysis indicated that derivative morphological awareness and derived complex words are significant predictors for the composition.Conclusion: The results of this study confirm that the use of morphological awareness in composition contributes to the improvement of the quality of the composition. This suggests that morphological awareness needs to be considered in composition evaluation and intervention.
... We included this measure for four reasons. One, text generation is an important component of theoretical models describing how students compose (e.g., Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987;Berninger & Swanson, 1994). Two, generating written content is a challenging task for most young developing writers (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1986). ...
... Also at Grade 2, transcription skills and text quality (but not executive functions) were related, which is congruent with past cross-sectional evidence suggesting that in beginning writing, both skills of quickly producing letters correctly (i.e., handwriting fluency) and of retrieving, assembling and selecting orthographic symbols with accuracy (i.e., spelling accuracy) are fundamental in the production of good texts (e.g., Limpo et al., 2017;Skar et al., 2021). Only when these skills become increasingly automatic with age, are the consequent spare resources devoted to executive functions, such as WM, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility (Berninger & Swanson, 1994;Diamond, 2013). In line with this claim, at Grade 3, executive functions (but not transcription) were associated with text quality, advocating the central role of executive functions in written expression, especially among older children (e.g., Drijbooms et al., 2015;Hooper et al., 2002). ...
... From a cognitive point of view, there is general agreement that three main processes interact recursively during composition: planning, formulation and revision (Alamargot and Fayol, 2009). Revision involves the interaction of the subprocesses of evaluation and revision (Flower and Hayes, 1981), and it is considered to be a demanding high-level process (De La Paz et al., 1998) that emerges later than both transcription and pre-planning (Berninger and Swanson, 1994). See also Torrance et al. (2007) for a discussion. ...
The ability to perform revisions targeting the content of the text is important for text quality improvement, and it is hypothesized that lower-level transcription processes need to be automatized in order to free up capacity for higher-level processes such as revision. However, for people with reading and writing difficulties due to underlying difficulties with decoding and spelling, the transcription process is rarely automatized because of their troubles with spelling. One possible way to circumvent spelling difficulties, and possibly gaining capacity for higher level processes such as revision, is to write using speech-to-text (STT). This study investigates the revisions performed when children with reading and writing difficulties (n = 16), and a reference group without such difficulties (n = 12), compose text using STT and using a keyboard. More specifically, the study investigates whether, and if so how, revisions at various levels, errors left in the final text product, and text quality differ between conditions and between groups. The compositions were logged using keystroke logging (keyboard) and audio- and screen-recording (STT). The level of revisions were manually coded. The results showed that children with reading and writing difficulties gain more from composing with STT compared to keyboard than the reference group. They leave fewer errors in their final text product when composing by means of STT, even though they need to engage more in the correction of surface errors because of the large number of STT errors. Despite the numerous STT errors, neither the proportion of meaning-related revisions nor text quality decreased in composing with STT (for either of the groups). Taken together, the results suggest, albeit not emphatically, that STT may be appropriate as a facilitatory tool for children with reading and writing difficulties. However, more research is needed to investigate instruction that addresses strategies for STT transcription and highlights the shortcomings of the tool in the target language, and also focuses specifically on higher-level aspects of composition such as planning or revising, in order to gain further knowledge about the feasibility of using STT as a means of composition for children who struggle with writing, and its possible effects over time.
... En primer lugar, el análisis de las estrategias de escritura del alumnado ha permitido determinar que, en general, los estudiantes hacen un uso moderado de estrategias de planificación y revisión textual. El hecho de que el alumnado no utiliza estrategias en mayor medida podría deberse a que las habilidades de preplanificación y revisión parecen emerger entre 4º y 6º curso, por lo que los estudiantes podrían estar aun desarrollando dichas estrategias (Berninger & Swanson, 1994). Igualmente, haciendo un análisis de la preferencia de los estudiantes hacia la utilización de estrategias de planificación o revisión, los resultados parecen claros. ...
El uso inadecuado y poco responsable que puedan hacer los jóvenes de las tecnologías, podría estar relacionado con cibercomportamientos como el ciberbullying o el sexting. Según los datos que recoge UNICEF (2021) uno de cada tres adolescentes en España hace un uso "problemático" de Internet y las redes sociales. Ese mismo informe recoge que uno de cada cinco podría estar sufriendo ciberbullying. Ante esta realidad se presenta el proyecto Ciberyet, cuyo objetivo es ofrecer a las familias un espacio en el que conocer, entrenar y fortalecer las competencias asociadas al modelo de la parentalidad positiva, para influir en los comportamientos de ciberbullying que puedan tener sus hijos adolescentes. Para el proyecto Ciberyet se ha diseñado un campus virtual que permite implementar un modelo educativo dinámico, interactivo y que fomenta un aprendizaje flexible, superando las barreras de espacio y tiempo, mediante la propuesta de actividades asincrónicas. El proyecto consta de 5 unidades didácticas: 1) Ciberbullying: características y tipologías, 2) Uso que hacen los adolescentes de las TRICs, 3) Desnormalización de las conductas de riesgo asociadas al uso de las TRICs, 4) Factores de riesgo para el desarrollo de comportamientos de ciberbullying y el estilo parental positivo como medida de afrontamiento y 5) Las competencias de la parentalidad positiva, como estrategias para influir en los comportamientos de ciberbullying. El contenido de estas unidades se apoya en el formato vídeo, como eje principal de la metodología diseñada para el proyecto. El tiempo de trabajo que compromete a las familias es de 10 horas, a realizar en un plazo de 3 meses. Finalmente, la evaluación del programa Ciberyet arroja resultados positivos, pues actúa para la reducción de la implicación en el fenómeno del ciberbullying; y provoca cambios en las competencias parentales de las familias, acercándose al modelo de la parentalidad positiva.
Palabras clave: Ciberbullying; Ciberyet; Parentalidad positiva; Familias; Adolescentes.
This longitudinal study explored the contribution of transcription skills, oral language abilities, and executive functions in kindergarten to written production in grade 1 among Spanish-speaking children (N = 191) through structural equation modeling (SEM). Three dimentions of written production were assessed, including productivity, quality, and syntactic complexity. Accordingly, three SEM models were tested to explore these relationships, and the estimated models for each endogenous variable demonstrated good fit. The results indicate that transcription skills and executive functions were key predictors of productivity, while both transcription and narrative oral competence contributed to writing quality. Syntactic complexity, on the other hand, was primarily influenced by narrative oral competence and executive functions. The results are interpreted within the framework of the not-so-simple view of writing model, particularly considering the characteristics of a shallow orthography. Limitations and educational implications are also discussed.
Data from regional and national reports suggest that text writing is a less studied
problem, although very clearly reported by teachers as an area of deep difficulty
for students. The objective of this study is to explore the results of the intervention
of the comprehensive development and literacy program “QA” in the writing
of words and texts of a group of first and second year primary school students
in Argentina, and to compare the results with a group from the same school that
has received a type of teaching based on the Whole Language approach. For this
purpose, an exploratory and longitudinal design was carried out in which the writing
of words and texts was evaluated pre intervention (at the beginning of first
grade) and post intervention (before the end of that year and in the middle of
second grade). Among the differences found among the groups, in favor of the
intervention group, the following findings stand out: an improvement in basic transcription
processes (writing words with syllabic complexity, greater length and low
frequency), an increase in the number of words used in textual production, better
legibility, punctuation and the presence of temporal markers. In the narrative
process, events are related in a cohesive way and are composed, in most cases,
of a scene, an orientation, a complication and a resolution. From these results it
is clear that, in order to achieve adequate performance in students’ written production,systematic intervention in the teaching of writing that addresses all the
aspects included in the program presented, starting with teacher training and
planned teaching, is essential.
Purpose
Although children with language-based learning disabilities (LLD) demonstrate significant difficulties with writing, empirical evidence to support interventions is sparse. Therefore, the purpose of this pilot study was to examine the feasibility and promise of a writing intervention for fourth- and fifth-grade students with LLD (WILLD: writing in students with LLD). The intervention components included word-, sentence-, and discourse-level writing processes and instructional practices using self-regulation strategies.
Method
Participants for this study were 15 students with LLD, recruited from three different schools. Students' writing was assessed using a sentence probe task and obtaining an informative paragraph writing sample as a measure of proximal writing outcomes. Trained speech-language pathologists (SLPs) and special educators delivered the intervention in a small-group format over 12 weeks. Using a within-group pre–post design, we examined changes in writing outcomes before and after the intervention.
Results
Results indicated that the intervention helped students improve their informative writing skills; students' writing quality showed a statistically significant increase, and grammatical errors showed a significant decrease.
Conclusions
Evidence from this pilot effort indicates that WILLD was feasible and appears to show promise for improving writing outcomes for fourth- and fifth-grade students with LLD when delivered by SLPs and special educators in a small-group format. Implications of the results and directions for future research are discussed.
Supplemental Material
https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.26053132
Early detection and intervention play a crucial role in the prognosis of children with specific learning disabilities. Due to the
complexity of the writing process and its persistence into adulthood, tools for early detection are essential. Curriculumbased measures (CBMs) are quick, reliable, and evidence-based tools used for early assessments. This systematic review
aims to summarize the technical features of CBM in writing for kindergarten students following the PRISMA guidelines.
A total of 311 articles from PsycINFO, SCOPUS, ERIC, and WOS were examined, and five studies met the inclusion criteria.
Production measures and transcription skills were the most studied. The reviewed tasks demonstrated criterion validity,
reliability, sensitivity to the timing of assessment, or diagnostic accuracy in at least one of their measures, with a greater
presence of the dependent production measures. The findings emphasize the scarcity of evidence-based tools for
identifying early writing difficulty, underscoring the need for rigorous research in early childhood education
Construire des phrases efficaces à l’écrit, syntaxiquement exactes et d’une certaine complexité, est au coeur de la compétence à écrire (Hayes et Flower, 1980; Berninger et Swanson, 1994). Cependant, l’amélioration de la syntaxe à l’écrit en français langue seconde (FLS) chez les élèves du secondaire en milieu anglophone constitue un défi : l’enseignement grammatical habituel, souvent basé sur des exercices mécaniques, ne semble pas porter fruit, et les élèves ne semblent pas transférer les habiletés syntaxiques qu’ils ont développées pour écrire en anglais, leur langue d’enseignement et souvent leur langue dominante, lorsqu’ils écrivent en français. Dans l’optique de trouver un moyen efficace d’améliorer les habiletés syntaxiques des apprenants de FLS, nous avons testé un dispositif didactique connu des milieux scolaires et universitaires américains, la combinaison de phrases libre (Saddler, 2019). Dans le cadre de notre thèse doctorale, nous avons adapté ce dispositif pour la classe de FLS en y ajoutant une touche d’enseignement intégré des langues, de façon à faire des ponts avec la syntaxe de l’anglais. Dans le cadre de cet article à visée didactique, nous décrirons ce dispositif d’enseignement de la syntaxe tel qu’il a été adapté pendant notre expérimentation.
This study sought to examine the influence of transcription skills, evaluated using graphonomic measures, on the proficiency of text generation in students attending primary schools in Spain. A longitudinal design was employed involving 278 Spanish students distributed across three cohorts (cohort 1: 1st-2nd-4th grade; cohort 2: 2nd-3rd-5th grade; and cohort 3: 3rd-4th-6th grade). Two data collection points were used to administer the graphonomic measures, and a composition letter task was conducted at the conclusion of the study. Four multigroup structural equation models were employed, examining the direct pathways from graphonomic measures (i.e., pressure, speed, pauses, and road length) on text generation (i.e., length, fluency, planning, revision, and organization). The models demonstrated a good fit to the data. The findings from the four models, analyzed within the three cohorts, indicated that the significant effect of transcription (i.e., handwriting) on text production was primarily observed in Cohort 1 (early grades), while no significant effects were found in Cohort 2 (intermediate grades). This suggests that the importance of handwriting in text production in a transparent orthography may be more pronounced during the initial stages of writing development when students are acquiring foundational writing skills.
The present study aims to investigate the role of vocabulary knowledge in composition writing among Chinese children. Drawing on Nation’s (2001) vocabulary framework, this study operationalized Chinese vocabulary knowledge from receptive and productive perspectives and in form, meaning, and use domain, respectively. A total of five measures assessing receptive vocabulary knowledge, productive vocabulary knowledge (form, meaning, and use), and composition writing skills were administered to 249 Chinese students in grade 4 (N = 91), grade 5 (N = 90), and grade 6 (N = 68). Hierarchical regression results showed that across upper elementary grades, productive vocabulary knowledge made a significant and substantial contribution to Chinese writing performance after controlling for age and receptive vocabulary knowledge. Inspections on vocabulary knowledge in each individual domain further revealed that knowledge of vocabulary form was the strongest predictor of writing performance at grade 4, while knowledge of vocabulary meaning and use make increasing contributions to composition writing at higher grades. Findings from this study underline the relative importance of productive vocabulary knowledge in form, meaning, and use at different developmental stages and extend writing models to non-alphabetical languages. Pedagogical implications were also drawn from the present study to inform better educational practices on scaffolding beginning writers with specific aspects of vocabulary knowledge.
Writing strategies are needed to manage the complexity of writing tasks, especially at university, where writing tasks are for learning, professional, or scientific purposes and are highly demanding. The literature shows that many undergraduate students have defined, stable, writing strategies, although some lack proper strategic development and require explicit instruction in this regard. In both cases, adapting writing tasks to undergraduate students’ preferences and instructing them effectively requires understanding their writing strategies, which will encourage optimal learning and writing proficiency. This is why valid, reliable, writing strategy assessment tools are essential. The present study focused on the validation of the Spanish Writing Strategies Questionnaire-Undergraduate Students (WSQ-SU), aimed at measuring undergraduate students’ preferences for using different writing strategies. The sample comprised 978 Spanish undergraduates doing degrees in Infant, Primary or Social Education, Pedagogy and Psychology. The data from the questionnaire was explored by means of exploratory and confirmatory analysis, test–retest reliability to analyse temporal stability and convergent validity. Two factors, planning and revising, were identified through exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, representing different writing strategies and supporting the original model. The results indicated adequate test–retest reliability and temporal stability. The results also showed the questionnaire’s convergent validity; a direct, linear correlation between two factors and off-line planning and revising variables. Based on the results, the WSQ for undergraduate students-Spanish version has been shown to be a reliable and valid, scale that can be easily applied in the university context to explore undergraduate students’ writing strategies.
Nachhaltige Bildung in der Grundschule kann unter mehreren Blickwinkeln betrachtet werden: In einem weiten Begriffsverständnis bezieht sich das Thema auf nachhaltige Bildungsprozesse im Sinne einer langfristigen Verfügbarkeit. Dies spielt für die Grundschule als erste Schule mit ihrem Auftrag der grundlegenden Bildung eine besondere Rolle. Gleichzeitig ist ein enges Begriffsverständnis mit eingeschlossen, welches die Bildung für nachhaltige Entwicklung aus einer ökologischen, ökonomischen und sozialen Perspektive betrachtet. Dabei zielt das Handeln auf eine nachhaltiger und gerechter gestaltete Gegenwart und Zukunft. Der vorliegende Band stellt Beiträge der 30. Jahrestagung der Kommission Grundschulforschung und Pädagogik der Primarstufe zusammen, welche im September 2022 in Regensburg stattfand und das Thema „Nachhaltige Bildung in der Grundschule“ adressierte. (DIPF/Orig.)
La conciencia morfológica es la habilidad para manipular y reflexionar sobre las diferentes unidades morfémicas del lenguaje (Carlisle (1995, p. 194). En español, González, et al. (2011) definen conciencia morfológica como el aspecto de la conciencia metalingüística que se refiere al plano consciente de las estructuras morfémicas de las palabras y su habilidad para la reflexión y manipulación de dichas estructuras (p. 142). El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar el efecto que ejerce la conciencia morfológica sobre el proceso de escritura de palabras, y si ese efecto se ve mediado por el conocimiento de vocabulario y la eficiencia lectora, controlando la conciencia fonológica y la edad de los alumnos.
Dans les écoles primaires, un nombre grandissant d’enseignant·e·s mobilisent les technologies numériques dans leurs pratiques, notamment en contexte d’écriture (Jolly et Gentaz, 2013; Jordan et al., 2016; Neumann, 2018). Celles-ci suscitent un vif intérêt dans ce contexte puisqu’elles permettent d’accéder à certains aspects dynamiques de l’écriture, notamment la rapidité d’exécution et la fluidité du geste d’écriture, plutôt que de limiter l’analyse à des aspects statiques. Cela dit, entre possibilités et périls, il existe un monde riche en nuances. Lors de cette communication, nous articulerons une réflexion critique sur le sujet au regard de l’enseignement et l’apprentissage de l’écriture. Pour étayer notre propos, nous présenterons quelques résultats préliminaires obtenus lors de la conception et la mise à l’essai d’une application d’écriture numérique qui s’adresse à des scripteurs du 1er cycle du primaire. Nous traiterons également des influences de celle-ci au regard des habiletés graphomotrices et orthographiques de ces scripteurs jeunes et peu expérimentés. À terme, nous expliciterons les avantages théoriques et pratiques d’un tel outil, mais aussi les défis inhérents à sa création et son usage, tel que vécu lors de la recherche-développement menée.
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