Diversity of Information Sources in the Digital Age: An Overview

Abstract

Modern tech savvy age is brimful with different types of information sources. Having a plethora of information sources at our fingertips, a user is does not knowing where to start, access, sort and select the best sources to his needs. Moreover, the amount of information in the sources can be vast and confusing. This paper provides a list of general types of print, electronic as well as online sources of information. An extensive review of literature has been carried out to achieve the objectives of the study. Various databases, websites and research articles have been accessed to retrieve the relevant information related to various sources. The study is highly applicable to information professionals and research scholars to locate the best sources of information that they may be in need of. Besides, it can also prove to be fruitful to academic libraries to categories modern sources of information into different types so that students can select and locate their related sources quickly and precisely.

Full text

JoALS (2015) 53-61 © STM Journals 2015. All Rights Reserved Page 53
Journal of Advancements in Library Sciences
ISSN: 2349-4352(online)
Volume 2, Issue 2
www.stmjournals.com
Diversity of Information Sources in the
Digital Age: An Overview
Shabir Ahmad Ganaie, Mudasir Khazer*
Department of Library & Information Science, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India
Abstract
Modern tech savvy age is brimful with different types of information sources. Having a
plethora of information sources at our fingertips, a user is does not knowing where to start,
access, sort and select the best sources to his needs. Moreover, the amount of information in
the sources can be vast and confusing. This paper provides a list of general types of print,
electronic as well as online sources of information. An extensive review of literature has been
carried out to achieve the objectives of the study. Various databases, websites and research
articles have been accessed to retrieve the relevant information related to various sources.
The study is highly applicable to information professionals and research scholars to locate the
best sources of information that they may be in need of. Besides, it can also prove to be fruitful
to academic libraries to categories modern sources of information into different types so that
students can select and locate their related sources quickly and precisely.
Keywords: Information source, books, journals, Internet, databases, electronic sources
*Author for Correspondence E-mail: mudasir1234@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
The beginning of information sources may be
traced to man’s earliest attempts to record
thoughts, concepts, ideas, and events.
Invention of printing machine by Johannes
Gutenberg in 1452 has contributed immensely
to printing industry. His invention has
significantly changed the social, economic,
political, educational, scientific, technological,
and cultural activities of human beings.
Further, advances in printing technology have
led to information explosion.
Printed documents are published in a variety
of forms. Marcum and George say that time
was when ambitious scholars began their
research by consulting the paper card
catalogues and finding aids of their campus
libraries, corresponding by mail with
professors, librarians, and archivists elsewhere
about available resources, and checking the
bibliographies of already published, printed
works [1]. Then they holed up in carrels in
library stacks to study printed works available
there and from others by interlibrary loan,
hoping all the time for financial aid to travel to
other repositories that contained needed books,
journals, and paper documents. In the
meantime, yesteryear’s professors also put
printed course materials physically on reserve
in campus libraries for their students, who
laboriously scribbled notes to take back to
their dorms, where they penned or typed their
course papers (making corrections with white-
out), and stayed up late reading expensive,
bulky textbooks to prepare for exams.
The arrival and proliferation of electronic
resources and digital libraries has already
influenced and changed the way faculty and
scholars use print resources and traditional
libraries. It has also sparked a new wave of
literature on the perceptions and preferences of
print and electronic resources. Researchers and
faculty have different perceptions and
preferences in their choices of print and
electronic resources.
Electronic publishing has become a major
topic in the world literature in recent years,
particularly because of the developments in
information technologies. Electronic
publications are usually known as electronic
sources of information. Dadzie reveals that
electronic resources are invaluable research
tools which complement print-based resources
in any traditional library [2]. Electronic
resources provide access to information that

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might be restricted to the user because of
geographical location or finances. They also
provide access to current information as these
are often updated frequently. Dhanavandan et
al. state that electronic resources are one of the
emerging environments in libraries and
information communication in the competitive
service [3]. E-resources usually consist of
e-books, e-journals, articles, newspapers,
theses, dissertations, databases and CD-ROMs,
which are likely to be the alternative to the
print media. Kumar and Singh believe that
e-resources are quick to access, save time and
keep up-to-date with the current happenings in
the specific fields and related areas [4].
Further, electronic information plays a pivotal
role in enhancing the research and
development activities and improving the
productivity of an individual. The electronic
media offer unique advantage for information
transfer, e.g., flexibility, rapid delivery, low
cost, compact storage and interactivity. It may
even displace print as a major media of
dissemination in foreseeable future.
OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of the study are:
1. To explore various print and electronic
sources.
2. To classify various information sources
into different types.
3. To provide a list of identified information
sources available in print as well as
electronic formats.
METHODOLOGY
An extensive review of literature has been
carried out to achieve the objectives of the
study. Various databases, websites and
research articles have been accessed to retrieve
the relevant information related to various
sources. In order to classify information
sources, various reputed University websites
(like University of Illinois, The state
University of New York, etc.) and reputed
research articles have been accessed. In order
to gain more authenticity, various subject
experts have been also consulted.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Documents enable us to transfer information
from one generation to another; also from one
place to another. Invention of printing machine
by Johannes Gutenberg in 1452 has
contributed immensely to printing industry and
has significantly changed the social, economic,
political, educational, scientific, technological,
and cultural activities of human beings.
Further, advances in printing technology have
led to information explosion [5]. An enormous
amount of information is currently available
within various information sources in the
universe of knowledge and its quantity is
remarkably growing. It has turned out to be a
challenge to locate accurate and relevant
information to meet one’s needs. To fulfill the
demand, various types of information sources
have evolved that too in varied formats. An
information source is a source that might
inform a person about something or provide
knowledge about it. Information specialists
and professionals have divided these sources
into different categories in accordance with the
nature, originality, frequency of publication
and the related characteristic. The main
categories/types in which the information
sources can be divided are as:
 According to the originality of
information, the sources of information
can be divided into:
Primary Sources
These are original materials which have not
been filtered through interpretation,
condensation, or, often, even evaluation by a
second party; for example, journal articles,
monographs, reports, patents, theses, diaries,
letters, photographs, poems [6]. While as,
according to TEXAS A&M University
Libraries, (2010), a primary source is an
original work created by a person who was
directly involved in the subject of the work.
Primary sources give you first-hand
information. Your instructors will usually
want you to use primary sources for your
assignments. Primary sources include things
like:
 Diaries
 Letters
 Autobiographies
 Art objects
 Research articles written by those who
performed the research
 Artifacts
 Interviews
 Blog posts
 Newspaper article written by a reporter
who witnessed the event

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Secondary Sources
A secondary source is information about
primary or original information, which usually
has been modified, selected, or rearranged for
a specific purpose or audience. It is not always
easy to discern the difference between primary
and secondary sources. Examples include
biographies, histories, monographs, review
articles, textbooks, and any index or
bibliography used to locate primary sources
[6]. While as The State University of New
York [7] states that the secondary source is a
second-hand account; it is the researcher-
author’s original thinking based on primary
sources. Secondary sources interpret concepts.
They are used to inform and substantiate a
researcher’s interpretation of the evidence.
Examples include:
 Scholarly books (monographs) or articles
 Some non-scholarly books and articles
 Some documentaries
Tertiary Sources
These consist of information, which is a
distillation and collection of primary and
secondary sources. Twice removed from the
original, they include encyclopedias, fact
books and almanacs, guides and handbooks.
Some secondary sources such as indexing and
abstracting tools can also be considered
tertiary sources [6].
Halder et al. [8] also state that information
finds its way into different types of sources:
(1) primary sources such as periodicals,
research reports, conference proceedings, and
theses; (2) secondary sources such as
periodicals, reviews of progress, reference
books, and textbooks; and (3) tertiary sources
such as yearbooks and directories,
bibliographies, guides to the literature, and
guides to organizations.
The State University of New York [7] has
categorized the sources of information on the
basis of use in research as:
 Articles, Online and in Print – Scholars
publish their latest findings in articles,
which are published in periodicals.
Articles cover topics that are important,
but not broad enough to fill a whole book.
 Newspaper Articles, editorials –
Journalists (who are usually not subject
experts) write articles based on interviews
and press releases. Investigative reports, as
their name suggests, may also involve
some research. Editorials are based on
opinions.
 Books, e-Books – Also called
monographs. Scholars write monographs
after they have done many years of study
on a topic and have a lot to say about it.
The information is not as recent as the
information in articles, but it is usually
much more in-depth.
 Dissertations, Theses – Graduate students
write these at the conclusion of their
graduate studies. A dissertation or thesis
has to be original research, so it is very
cutting-edge when it comes out. Also,
because the topics are obscure, a
dissertation or thesis may be the only
source that actually talks about that topic
in that way.
 Conference Proceedings – Scholars get
together and present their latest research to
one another. It is less formal than a
published article, and it is not peer
reviewed, but the information may be
newer and may not yet be available in
articles or books.
 Websites – Government agencies,
organizations and companies make
reports, white papers, articles and data
available on the Web. Libraries, archives
and museums digitize primary sources –
documents, scanned images, audio and
video recordings and photographs of
artifacts.
 Microform – Many libraries have
microfilm or microfiche archives of
primary sources such as old newspapers
and census records.
 Images – Available in online archives and
databases, images may also be
photocopied out of art books and print
journals, or printed from microfilm
machines.
 Videos – Documentaries and other kinds
of films may be used as primary sources
for research and are available in a variety
of formats, such as reel-to-reel, VHS,
DVD, streaming online video and online
video recordings.
 Audio – Audio-books, music and spoken
art forms may be used as primary sources

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and are available in a variety of formats,
such as records, tapes, CDs, streaming
online audio and online audio recordings.
On the basis of physical nature, there are
mainly two types of information sources. They
are: documentary and non-documentary.
1. Documentary sources: A document
constitutes embodied thought which is a
record of work on paper or other material
fit for physical handling, transport across
space and preservation through time. It
may include manuscripts, handwritten and
engraved materials including printed
books, periodicals, microforms,
photographs, gramophone records, tape
records, etc. [9].
2. Non-documentary Sources: The non-
documentary sources of information are
live sources which are extremely
important in the process of
communication. The non-documentary
sources of information include
government establishments, departments,
universities, technological institutions,
data centers, information centers, referral
centers, clearing houses, consultants,
technological gatekeepers, etc. Non
documentary sources of information also
include discussion with colleagues,
visitors, participants of seminars and
conferences, etc. [9].
S. R. Ranganathan Classification: Based on
the physical characteristics of documents, S.
R. Ranganathan classified documentary
sources of information into four categories.
These also reflect the chronological order of
their development. They are:
i) Conventional: Books, periodicals, map,
etc.
ii) Neo-conventional: Standards,
specifications, patents, etc.
iii) Non-conventional: Audio visual,
microcopy, etc.
iv) Meta document: Direct records
unmediated by human mind [8].
Further, The State University of New York,
[7] has divided the information on the basis of
origin into:
1. Current resources are contemporary
resources that have been created,
published or updated recently enough to
be considered up-to-date.
2. Retrospective (historical) resources are the
sources that are older in origin. These
sources are usually found in the field of
philosophy, history, geography,
humanities, etc.
Information sources can be further classified
on the basis of their format into print and
electronic sources.
1. Print Sources
The sources of information which are available
in print format are known as print sources.
Printing is facilitated by various tools like
typewriters, computers etc. A variety of
machines in the form of printers are used to
obtain the print out on paper using various
types of inks. Print sources are mostly in the
form of text books, reference books,
periodicals, diaries, etc.
2. Electronic Sources
The sources of information which are in
electronic or digital media are usually known
as electronic sources of information. In early
1970s, most of the electronic sources were
available on magnetic tapes and some were
online. These were of course, mostly
secondary sources (bibliographical databases).
Since then, many developments have taken
place. Today, electronic sources are available
on CD-ROMs or on the Net. In the present day
context, sources which are available on the Net
are often referred to as online sources. These
sources consist of reference documents
(dictionaries, encyclopedia, directories,
handbooks, atlases, etc.), data, research
publications, serial publications, etc. [5].
List of General Information sources
In general, a list of sources of Information
can be summed up:
1. Database – A large, regularly updated file
of digitized information (bibliographic
records, full-text documents, directory
entries, images, statistics, etc.), sometimes
related to a specific subject or field,
consisting of records of uniform format
organized for ease and speed of search and
retrieval and managed with the aid of
database management system (DBMS)
software that includes an internal
mechanism (search interface) for
searching based on proprietary metadata.

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Content may be created by the publisher or
be an aggregation of material published by
other entities. Databases are often
accessible online through the Internet.
Databases can be organized by the scope of the
information they contain. Being aware of what
this scope is can be helpful in selecting a
database to begin your information search.
i) General interest databases include
information from several different subject
areas and disciplines.
ii) Discipline-specific databases include
information for several related subject
areas.
iii) Subject-specific databases focus on
providing information for one particular
subject [10].
2. Electronic Book (e-book, e-library
book) – A digital version of a traditional
print book, or a book-like electronic
publication with no print counterpart,
designed to be read on a personal
computer or an e-book reader.
3. Repository – is a central place in which
an aggregation of data is kept and
maintained in an organized way, usually in
computer storage. The term is from the
Latin repositorium, a vessel or chamber in
which things can be placed, and it can
mean a place where things are collected.
Depending on how the term is used, a
repository may be directly accessible to
users or may be a place from which
specific databases, files, or documents are
obtained for further relocation or
distribution in a network. A repository
may be just the aggregation of data itself
into some accessible place of storage or it
may also imply some ability to selectively
extract data.
4. Portals: An Internet portal is a Website
that acts as a starting point for browsing
the Web. Portals typically include search
engines and large directories of websites.
Some popular portals are Yahoo, Excite,
Lycos, Netscape, AltaVista, MSN, and
AOL.com. There are also many smaller
portals, known as “niche portals,” for
specific interests. These sites include C|net
(for computers and technology), Fool.com
(for investors), and Garden.com (for
gardeners). Most large portals have
millions of Web pages indexed for visitors
to search through. They also have large
directories of Web sites, which are
categorized by topic. Though the primary
purpose of a portal is to find other sites for
you, many now include a lot of
information within their own sites.
5. Website: An information resource suitable
for the Internet which is accessible
through a Web browser. The content is
formatted with a markup language and
often provides navigation to other web
pages via hypertext links. Websites are
differentiated from online databases by
their general lack of internal database
management system (DBMS) software
although they may have a “search this
site” box (powered by external software
like Google, Yahoo!, Ask.com, etc.) that
allows a keyword search of the site.
i) Internal websites are sites whose content is
created and maintained by library
personnel.
ii) External websites are sites whose content
is not created and maintained by library
personnel.
6. Text Book: A text book is made of
continuous exposition, sentences mount
into paragraph, paragraphs into chapter,
chapters get woven into a single swelling
exposition in the continuous pursuit of a
single or many ideas, simple or complex.
Text books are read consecutively for
inspiration, enjoyment or information.
There is a link at each stage. There is an
element of continuity. According to
Grogan, “A text book is a teaching
instrument; its primary aim is not to
import information about its subject but to
develop understanding of it. It
concentrates on demonstrating principles
rather than recounting detail.”
7. Newspaper: Newspapers are usually
published as dailies or weeklies. The type
of paper they are printed on, called
newsprint is not meant to last. They are
usually preserved on microfilm for this
reason. Libraries usually keep paper
copies of newspapers until the microfilm
copies arrive. Nowadays many newspapers
are available on the Internet, some for free,
and others by subscription.

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8. Periodical: Periodicals are used at
intervals and numbered consecutively.
They are given volume designations,
several issues making up a volume.
Periodicals include journals and
magazines, transactions, proceedings or
similar works.
9. Journal: Journal is a scholarly publication
devoted to disseminating current
information about research and
development in a specific field or subfield
of human knowledge. Journal is usually
regularly published at intervals. Most
journal articles are long and include a
paragraph at the beginning, called an
abstract which summarizes the main
points of the article and at the end a
bibliography or list of works cited. The
writings of the journals are most often
peer-reviewed.
10. Magazine: The magazine usually refers to
the non-scholarly publications written for
an educated audience and contains popular
reading.
11. Reprint: Once an article is published in a
journal, additional copies are taken out
separately and provided to the author. A
fixed number is generally supplied free of
charge. Additional copies are supplied at a
cost; these copies are known as reprints
and used for exchange with other scientists
working in the same field.
12. House Journal: It is a publication issued
by an organization to inform the public of
its performance and style of function and
also to know the reaction, opinions of its
public. Generally, house journals are of
two types:
13. External House Journals: The external
house journal is meant for the external
audience of an organization. The external
audience of an organization refers to those
who do not work under the roof of the
organization, but are interested in it.
14. Internal House Journal: Internal house
journals are meant for the employees
under the roof of an organization. Broadly
speaking, it aims to inform and educate the
employees of all levels about the
organization’s activities, functions, etc.
15. Newsletter: Newsletter is a publication
issued by an organization often simple in
format and crisp in style to provide speedy
information for a definite audience.
Newsletters are always issued regularly
and have a short life span. It is a modest
publication containing limited pages,
nearly four to eight, and a few pictures and
illustrations. Generally, the organizations
that do not go for house journals find a
good substitute in newsletters. While some
newsletters are intended for the
employees, others are meant for the
external public.
16. Patents: A patent presents a detailed
account of a new manufacturing process or
improvement of an existing process, a new
product, a new method of testing and
control, etc. Generally, when some kind of
invention is made, the manufacturer wants
to protect his invention and the patent
offices in various countries on the request
of the manufacturer generally issue the
patent, which provides an exclusive right
to the manufacturer on the invention. It
takes the form of an official document
having the seal of the government attached
to it, which confers an exclusive privilege
or right over a period of time to the
proceeds of an invention.
17. Standards: Standards are units or
measures in terms of weight, size, length,
quality, composition, process of
production, etc., established by national
and international organizations. Standards
are often finalized through testing,
research, and study and prescribe the
accepted quality or performance value of a
product.
18. Research Report: Research reports are
published as part of the annual report of an
organization or as a separate report
published at periodical intervals by
individuals and agencies that obtain
research grants and have to produce them
as a condition of such grants. The research
reports are generally produced in a limited
number of copies and the distribution is
also restricted and controlled.
19. Trade and Product Bulletin/Journal:
Trade journals contain primary articles but
of the nature of applied research. It
contains the particulars of goods
manufactured by or sold by a firm.
Frequently illustrated and containing
prices, it also often contains application-
oriented description rather than theoretical
description. These are published by

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research and development organizations,
trade associations, etc. The original
objectives of all trade journals are product
advertisement. The complete description,
principles and working of a newly
developed and highly sophisticated
instrument may for quite time be available
only in the manufacturer trade journals,
e.g., International Product Finder.
Bombay: Business Press.
20. Conference Proceedings: Many
conference proceedings present new
findings or results of work for the first
time or at least months before they are
published in scientific journals.
Sometimes, conference proceedings also
include questions from participants and
answers and clarifications from the authors
of the papers. The conference proceedings
generally contain the statement of
objectives, opening address or presidential
address, list of participants or conference’s
who’s who, resolutions or
recommendations, etc.
21. Thesis and Dissertation: Thesis and
dissertation are the results of purely
academic pursuit. It reports some original
work in a specific field. Among all the
primary sources of information, thesis and
dissertation are probably least used mainly
because their existence is not known in
many cases and also due to the limited
number of copies of the document.
22. Treatise: A treatise provides an
exhaustive treatment of a broad subject. It
is encyclopedic in coverage of the subject
but different in its treatment. It presents in
a systematic and consolidated manner the
result of work and research in the field
with full reference to the primary sources.
23. Monograph: The scope of a monograph is
narrower than that of a treatise.
Monograph is on a single topic whereas a
treatise is on a broad subject. Research
monographs are separately published
reports on an original research that is too
long, too specialized or otherwise
unsuitable for publication in one of the
standard journals. Each monograph is self-
contained which frequently summarizes
the particular existing theory or practice
along with the author’s original work.
24. Review: A review is actually a narrative
account or critical synthesis of the
progress of a particular field of study
prepared by an expert in the field. It shifts,
evaluates and puts each significant
contribution into its proper perspective. It
indicates interrelationship of ideas,
significance and possible areas of
application and so on, so that one can
easily get an expert view of the subject
without having to go through the mass of
literature.
25. State-of-the-Art Report: These are types
of reviews which do not have all-
embracing scope and historical orientation.
These present information assembled from
various sources and subjects to the
operation of analysis, consolidation,
extraction and evaluation in a formal
presentation representing the most
advanced degree of technical achievement
in its field at the present time. Some owe
their existence to a specific query while
others are issued on a regular basis, in
many cases once in a year. State-of-the-art
report emphasizes on the recent and up-to-
date ideas.
26. Trend Report: Trend report gives an
account of the general direction of
research in the subject based on a review
of the documents on current development.
27. Technical Digest: A digest service is
directed to executives, engineers, technical
workers, etc., working in industries. It
provides up-to-date technical information.
It presents descriptive text of information
in a condensed form and on the core ideas
in brief and orderly forms [8].
28. Almanac and Yearbook: These reference
books are published yearly and contain
factual information pertinent to a specific
span of time. Medical, governmental,
industrial, and vital statistics are some
examples of information that can be found
in these resources.
29. Technical Report: A report is an account
or a text describing in detail an event,
situation or the like, usually as a result of
observation, inquiry, experiment, etc.
Technical reports generally give the results
of R&D experiments/projects; they are
primitive in the sense that they are
published as and when research activities

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progress; often, these are considered as
primary sources of information, especially
in the area of aeronautics, and applied
atomic energy. These are generally
unpublished or semi-published literature.
30. Pamphlet: It is a short treatise or essay,
generally a controversial tract on some
subject of contemporary interest. It is in
fact a complete publication, of fewer
“pages” stitched or stapled together and
usually has a paper cover [5].
31. Atlas: Books filled with maps, charts, and
tables. Atlases provide information
pertaining to populations and place
locations. Current and historical are the
two major types of atlases; however, there
are human anatomy atlases too.
32. Handbook and Manual: Handbooks
normally give a broad treatment of one
subject area. Manuals are reference books
that explain how something is done or
how something operates.
33. Library Service Desk is the source that
helps in identifying the right tools to find
information.
34. Subject Guide: Librarians who specialize
in different subject areas have created
Web pages called subject guides to find
particular information. These pages
provide links to online journals and library
databases, and recommend books and
other resources for doing research in
specific academic disciplines [11].
35. Bibliography: A compilation of sources
of information that provides literature on a
specific subject or by a specific author.
36. Dictionary: Defines words and terms;
confirms spelling, definition, and
pronunciation; used to find out how words
are used; helps to locate synonyms and
antonyms and to trace the origin of words
37. Biographical Dictionary: Sources of
information about the lives of people.
38. Directory: Lists names and addresses of
individuals, companies, organizations, and
institutions.
39. Encyclopedia: Covers knowledge or
branches of knowledge in a
comprehensive, but summary fashion;
useful for providing facts and giving a
broad survey of a topic; written by
specialists.
40. Gazetteer: A dictionary of geographical
places (no maps).
41. Guidebook: Provides detailed
descriptions of places; intended primarily
for the traveler; geographical facts plus
maps (e.g., Great Lakes Guidebook) [12].
CONCLUSIONS
Advancement in information technology has
highly boosted the information generation
process thereby leading to the creation of
numerous information sources that too in print
as well as electronic formats. Although, print
sources of information are highly significant
but literature reveals that electronic sources are
surpassing those and are found in good
numbers and varieties nowadays.
Information sources in any format are
facilitating enormous amount of information to
the end users and are acting as reliable
information channels. Electronic and online
sources have left no stone unturned in
facilitating fountains of information and acting
as backbone to the research and development
to not only academic institutions but also to
the government as well as private set ups.
The need of the hour is to organize the ocean
of information generated each day in various
subjects in the form of databases, portals, etc.,
so as to channelize that to the end user in a
precise and sophisticated manner. A good
number of sources are available on the Web
with much relevant and reliable information
but the user needs to know which of these is
more reliable than others. The paper has the
limitation of evaluating each information
source individually thereby giving more
dimensions to this work in that regard. A lot
has been done in this regard as witnessed in
the list of information sources provided above
but there is a long way to keep track of every
piece of information generated globally.
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Cite this Article
Ganaie Shabir Ahmad, Khazer Mudasir.
Diversity of information sources in the
digital age: An overview. Journal of
Advancements in Library Sciences. 2015;
2(2): 53–61p.