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Nigeria and World Bank Global Gas Flaring Reduction (GGFR) Partnership: The Tragedy of the Commons
Abstract
Globally, over 150 billion cubic metres of associated gas are being flared and vented annually. Africa flares 40 billion cubic metres annually in which 35 billion cubic metres are flared in sub-Saharan Africa. In Nigeria alone, gas flaring amounts to about 23 billion cubic metres per annum in over 100 flare sites, constituting over 13 percent of global gas flaring. This translates to greenhouse gas emission of 45 million tons of CO2 out of the global total of 400 million tons annually. Nigeria partners with the GGFR, a World Bank led public-private partnership that includes major oil and gas producing countries and companies. The GGFR was established to facilitate and support national efforts to utilize currently flared gas by promoting effective regulatory framework and tackling the constraints on gas utilization. The study essentially adopts qualitative method that relies on secondary data and applies radical environmentalism a combination of Marxism, rentierism and environmentalism as theoretical framework of analysis. The paper focuses primarily on the role of Nigeria in the GGFR vis a vis other partners; and thus, concludes that oil dependence of GGFR partners undermines the enforcement of associated gas flaring and venting reduction and elimination policy in Nigeria.
... • Background and the role of reductions in meeting environmental and economic objectives • Targets and limits specified by the regulator 2002b, 2002a, 2004c, 2022a, 2022bGerner, Svensson and Djumena, 2004;Aghalino, 2009;Loe and Ladehaug, 2012;Hassan and Kouhy, 2013a;Buzcu-Guven and Harriss, 2014;Agbonifo, 2016;Okafor and Aniche, 2016;Soltanieh et al., 2016;Osuoha and Fakutiju, 2017;Elvidge et al., 2018;Karasalihović Sedlar et al., 2018;Korppoo, 2018c;Hassan, 2020;Ialongo et al., 2021a;Babalola and Olawuyi, 2022;Rodrigues, 2022;Shahab-Deljoo et al., 2023;Wen, Xiao and Peng, 2023) Legal, regulatory framework, and contractual rights Gas flaring legal, regulatory framework and contractual rights are usually anchored in national or local legislation governing the jurisdiction of • Primary and secondary legislation and regulation (GGFR/The World Bank, 2002bBank, , 2002aBank, , 2004cBank, , 2004bBank, , 2004aBank, , 2009Bank, , 2022a ...
... Regulatory governance and organisation criteria define which institutions have regulatory authority over the oil and gas industrya factor essential to clearly define, along with the scope of their mandates and abatement strategies from the perspective of waste prevention. 2002b, 2002a, 2004c, 2022a, 2022bGerner, Svensson and Djumena, 2004;Aghalino, 2009;Hassan and Kouhy, 2013a;Buzcu-Guven and Harriss, 2014;Agbonifo, 2016;Okafor and Aniche, 2016;Soltanieh et al., 2016;Osuoha and Fakutiju, 2017;Elvidge et al., 2018;Korppoo, 2018b;Hassan, 2020;Ialongo et al., 2021a;Babalola and Olawuyi, 2022;Radhakrishnan, DiCarlo and Orbach, 2023) ...
Global policy actions to reduce the environmental and social impacts of gas-flaring are primarily derived from voluntary arrangements. This paper evaluates stakeholder preferences for different policies and regulatory options, determining the most optimised and effective to help eliminate routine gas-flaring by 2030 and achieve net zero emissions by 2050 whilst addressing good governance, justice, and fair implementation. Its mixed methods incorporate literature and document review, interviews, expert surveys, Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) and Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (G-TOPSIS), deriving two competing perspectives on gas flaring policy strategy, with differences revealed through the AHP ranking process of individual criteria. All criteria and sub-criteria identified were integral to achieving the flaring and emissions targets, with “policy and targets” and “enabling framework” the most important individual criteria. The “background and the role of reductions in meeting environmental and economic objectives” and “nonmonetary penalties” were the most crucial sub-criteria. G-TOPSIS showed that fully implementing gas-flaring policies and regulatory framework criteria to limit warming to 1.5°C is the most effective policy alternative. Globally coordinated, uniform and reciprocal legally binding agreements between countries to supplement national initiatives are imperative to improve the effectiveness of country-specific gas flaring policy strategies.
... However, nationalization or expropriation should be based on community needs, safety measures or indigenous advantage and upon reimbursement of suitable repayment or recompense under nations' law (Olawuyi & Olawuyi, 2018). Okafor and Aniche (2016) argue that the country is richly blessed with abundant mineral and human resources to the extent that it is ranked the seventh (7 th ) the main producer of crude oil globally. Despite low revenues made by the Federal Government from the sector which is approximately $50 billion a year, input to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is insignificant, can be more or less that 30 percent. ...
One of the aims of the local content policy (LCP) is the economic development of oil and gas producing countries through the utilization of local personnel and resources in the activities of oil and gas sector. Local content legislation and policies in oil and gas producing countries have become a key priority of host governments and industry players alike. Increasingly, more resource rich development countries are enacting local-content legislation as a means of maximizing the benefits to be gained from their petroleum industries. However, these laws and policies are being implemented with insufficient research into their efficacy, and as a result have often yielded mixed results. This paper examines the effect of local-content legislation and policies in the oil and gas industry presenting insights on the challenges faced by industry players with regard to their implementation. We traced the channels through which local-content legislation advances value creation by evaluating different implementation programmes, using clearly stated local-content targets to measure their efficacy. In this article, Nigeria, Ghana, Brazil and Norway are chosen as case study countries to highlight the diversity of local content strategies for countries at different developmental stages. The research adopts the doctrinal method, which is library-based involving the examination of primary and secondary source materials on this subject matter. The motivation for this study is to provide host governments, investors and domestic suppliers with guidelines on how to successfully develop and implement local-content regulations and strategies. The research findings from these case study countries aforementioned shows that the success or otherwise of local content legislation and policies remains a function of a country's institutional setting and developmental paradigm. Based on the review of the case studies, we summarized that the successful local-content legislation and policies should be anchored on the following principles: local content policies need to look beyond simple generation of economic rents to focus on the development of linkages, the tools developed to measure agreed local content benchmarks must be clearly defined to the acceptance of all industry players, and entrenching local-content depends on the availability of an industrial-supply base that can act as growth levers.
... In 2002, at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, the World Bank launched the Global Gas Flaring Reduction Partnership (GGFR) a public-private endeavour comprised of governments, oil companies and multilateral organizations working to end routine gas flaring at oil production sites around the world [21]. According to [22], "GGFR, is a World Bank led Public-Private Partnership that includes major oil and gas producing countries and companies, established to facilitate and support national efforts to utilize currently flared gas by promoting effective regulatory framework and tackling the constraints on gas utilization". In the expression of United Nations, "the initiative aims to supplement and strengthen efforts already underway, by mobilizing the petroleum industry, national governments, and development agencies in joint actions". ...
The flaring of gas is a double jeopardy of wasting valuable energy resource and environmental degradation. That had been the experience with the Niger Delta area since 1956 when oil was discovered in commercial quantity in the region. Gas flaring is an active contributor of Green House Gases (GHG) emissions, global warming, climate change crisis and the consequent acid rain, rising temperature and sea level, flooding, agricultural and aquatic food chain disruption. The Niger Delta area as a global spot rich in oil, gas, aquatic and agricultural foods had remained a paradox of plenty, poverty and hunger. In view of this stack reality, it is the concern of this study to determine if zero hunger can be achieved in the area by 2030 and make recommendations that will serve as blue print for national and global actualization SDG 2. The study adopted documentary research method, leveraged on Public–Private Partnership (PPP) and Win–Win Concept as frameworks of interpretation and unveiled that ending gas flaring is associated with inherent economic growth, environmental preservation and sustainable livelihood in and beyond Niger Delta.
... The zero routine flaring by 2030 initiative has the singular aim of mobilizing all stakeholders towards ending routine gas flaring by 2030. Thus, the zero routine flaring by 2030 initiative represents a common platform for all stakeholders such as governments, oil companies, and development institutions to cooperate and work together towards the elimination of routine gas flaring not later than 2030 (Okafor & Aniche, 2016). ...
This paper evaluates Nigeria's commitment to ending gas flaring within the context of the global quest for zero routine flaring by 2030. Nigeria has adopted a combination of strategies since 1969 to achieve zero flaring. Within this period, several unrealized flare-out dates were set. Several factors are responsible for the non-realization of the flare-out targets. These include Nigeria's weak institutional framework, the unattractiveness of economic payoffs associated with investing in gas-gathering infrastructure and the unwillingness of international oil companies (IOCs) to readjust their operations to accommodate zero gas flaring. Using data from secondary sources, the paper locates the non-realization of the various flare-out dates between legal enactments and economic permutations. A related factor is the huge capital outlay required to develop gas-gathering infrastructure vis-à-vis the uncertainty surrounding the gas market in Nigeria. The paper recommends the adoption of a holistic implementation strategy as a stimulus to extract commitments from all stakeholders towards zero gas flaring by 2030.
... The zero routine flaring by 2030 initiative has the singular aim of mobilizing all stakeholders towards ending routine gas flaring by 2030. Thus, the zero routine flaring by 2030 initiative represents a common platform for all stakeholders such as governments, oil companies, and development institutions to cooperate and work together towards the elimination of routine gas flaring not later than 2030 (Okafor & Aniche, 2016). ...
This paper evaluates Nigeria’s commitment to ending gas flaring within the context of the global quest for zero routine flaring by 2030. Nigeria has adopted a combination of strategies since 1969 to achieve zero flaring. Within this period, several unrealized flare-out dates were set. Several factors are responsible for the non-realization of the flare-out targets. These include Nigeria’s weak institutional framework, the unattractiveness of economic payoffs associated with investing in gas-gathering infrastructure and the unwillingness of international oil companies (IOCs) to readjust their operations to accommodate zero gas flaring. Using data from secondary sources, the paper locates the non-realization of the various flare-out dates between legal enactments and economic permutations. A related factor is the huge capital outlay required to develop gas-gathering infrastructure vis-à-vis the uncertainty surrounding the gas market in Nigeria. The paper recommends the adoption of a holistic implementation strategy as a stimulus to extract commitments from all stakeholders towards zero gas flaring by 2030.
... points out that in Nigeria, about 55% of oil-related gas is flared, while only 1% is flared in the United States. Okafor and Aniche (2016) report that Nigeria flares over 23 billion cubic metres of gas per annum at more than 100 flare sites, a figure which constitutes over 13% of global gas flaring. TOCs tend to disregard safety and environmental regulations in developing countries due to weak institutional safeguards, but usually cannot do the same in their home countries as a result of better monitoring and enforcement. ...
... points out that in Nigeria, about 55% of oil-related gas is flared, while only 1% is flared in the United States. Okafor and Aniche (2016) report that Nigeria flares over 23 billion cubic metres of gas per annum at more than 100 flare sites, a figure which constitutes over 13% of global gas flaring. TOCs tend to disregard safety and environmental regulations in developing countries due to weak institutional safeguards, but usually cannot do the same in their home countries as a result of better monitoring and enforcement. ...
... points out that in Nigeria, about 55% of oil-related gas is flared, while only 1% is flared in the United States. Okafor and Aniche (2016) report that Nigeria flares over 23 billion cubic metres of gas per annum at more than 100 flare sites, a figure which constitutes over 13% of global gas flaring. TOCs tend to disregard safety and environmental regulations in developing countries due to weak institutional safeguards, but usually cannot do the same in their home countries as a result of better monitoring and enforcement. ...
This book gives a comprehensive overview of Ghana’s hydrocarbon economy using actor network and assemblage theories to contest the methodological nationalism of mainstream accounts of the resource curse in resource-rich countries. Drawing upon recent field research focused on Ghana’s oil and gas sector and utilizing the theoretical framework of actor network theory, the authors contend that there is an assemblage of political, economic, social and environmental networks, processes, actions, actors, and structures of power that coalesce to determine the extent to which the country’s hydrocarbon resources could be regarded as a "curse" or "blessing." This framing facilitates a better understanding of the variety (and duality) of local and global forces and power structures at play in Ghana’s growing hydrocarbon industry. Giving a nuanced and multi-perspectival analysis of the factors that underlie oil-engendered development in Ghana, this book will be of interest to students and scholars of African political economy, development and the politics of resource extraction.
... points out that in Nigeria, about 55% of oil-related gas is flared, while only 1% is flared in the United States. Okafor and Aniche (2016) report that Nigeria flares over 23 billion cubic metres of gas per annum at more than 100 flare sites, a figure which constitutes over 13% of global gas flaring. TOCs tend to disregard safety and environmental regulations in developing countries due to weak institutional safeguards, but usually cannot do the same in their home countries as a result of better monitoring and enforcement. ...
... There are over 1000 flare sites amounting to about 23 billion cubic metres (constituting over 13% of global gas flaring) and approximately 300 spills per years in the Niger Delta region (Aniche 2015). Gas flaring and oil spills have therefore contributed tremendously in devastating the ecology and degrading the environment of the Niger Delta, constituting enormous health hazard (Aniche 2016;Okafor and Aniche 2016). Oil production has cost the people their farmlands, fishing rivers and exposed the people to health hazards. ...
The essence of the state as acknowledged by many authorities is the provision of security and welfare for the citizens. It is, therefore, a fundamental responsibility of every state to ensure the safety of its citizens and others living within its territorial jurisdiction. In this regard, the incidence and character of insecurity in Nigeria has continued to raise serious doubts about the commitment and capability of the Nigerian state to provide adequate security for her citizens. The primary concern of this chapter is to lay the theoretical foundations for the empirical issues raised by the different chapters in this book. Though our main interest lies in the theoretical discourses about the state and the provision and maintenance of security, the chapter is particularly interested in understanding the experience of the Nigerian state. In this regard, the central argument of this chapter is that the dysfunctionality of Nigeria’s federal system, which is a product of the post-colonial character of the Nigerian state, has resulted in the politicisation of security structures and governance processes involved in security management. This, in turn, has negatively aggravated and sustained internal security in the country.
... Fig. 6 indicates that less significant downward trends during this 15-years period were found in Egypt (∼30%), Gabon (∼20%) and Angola (∼10%). These country-level decreases are in-line with the local decreases mentioned above (and shown in Fig. 5), and are largely driven by the fact that the impacts of flaring have received more attention recently and corrective actions have been taken (World Bank, 2016;Okafor and Aniche, 2016). Some local governments and international producers have taken necessary initiatives to limit the amount of gas flared, including, for example, creating markets for selling the gas and putting it to productive use. ...
Flaring emissions are a major concern due to large uncertainties in the amount of chemical compounds released into the atmosphere and their evolution with time. A methodology based on DMSP (Defense Meteorological Satellite Program) nighttime light data combined with regional gas flaring volumes from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Centers for Environmental Information (NOAA-NCEI) has been developed to estimate flaring emissions. This method is validated in Nigeria where individual field company data are available. The spatial distribution of CO2, CH4, NMVOCs, CO, OC, BC, SO2 and NOx is derived for the African continent for the period 1995–2010. A range of the emissions due to flaring is estimated based on the range of emission factors (EFs) for each chemical species. An average decrease in CO2 emissions of about 30% is found over Africa from 1995 to 2010, with Nigeria being the largest contributor to this reduction (up to 50%). Changes in the spatial distribution with time indicate local increases, particularly at offshore platforms, which are attributed to a lack of regulations as well as aging infrastructures in oil and gas fields. Comparisons with current inventories reveal differences in the location and magnitude of point source emissions. For chemical compounds such as NMVOCs and CH4, the ECLIPSE and EDGAR country-level values are considerably higher than the highest flaring emission estimated in this study for 2005. For species such as CO, OC, BC, SO2 and NOx, the emissions provided by the ECLIPSE and EDGAR inventories are generally within the same order of magnitude as the average values found in this study, with the exception of OC, BC and SO2 in which EDGAR provides much lower emissions. These discrepancies are likely due to either differences in the methodologies used to estimate the emissions, in the values of the emission factors considered, or in the definition of flaring sector. Our current estimations suggest that BC, CH4 and CO2 flaring emissions in Africa account for 1–15% (on average 7%), 0.5–8% (on average 2%) and 8–13% (on average 11%) of African total anthropogenic emissions, respectively. The contribution of flaring to African anthropogenic emissions varies widely among countries. For example, in Nigeria the average emissions due to flaring are estimated to be as high as 18% for BC, 10% for CH4 and 50% for CO2, which is significantly greater than the continental average and highlights the importance of emissions in flaring areas.
... This seems to confirm the headway into drastically reducing the flaring of associated gas in Niger Delta, achieved through aggressive gas commercialization as said the NNPC Group General Manager [42]. Also online information, referring to the evolution of Nigeria gas flaring [11,43,44] are in line with BTE estimates confirming the decreasing of such a phenomenon in the Niger Delta basin. As reported by GGFR, in Nigeria alone gas flaring amounts to about 23 BCM per annum in over 100 flare sites, constituting over 13% of global gas flaring [44]. ...
An effective characterization of gas flaring is hampered by the lack of systematic, complete and reliable data on its magnitude and spatial distribution. In the last years, a few satellite methods have been developed to provide independent information on gas flaring activity at global, national and local scale. Among these, a MODIS-based method, aimed at the computation of gas flared volumes by an Italian plant, was proposed. In this work, a more general version of this approach, named RST-FLARE, has been developed to provide reliable information on flaring sites localization and gas emitted volumes over a long time period for the Niger Delta region, one of the top five gas flaring areas in the world. Achieved results showed a good level of accuracy, in terms of flaring sites localization (95% of spatial match) and volume estimates (mean bias between in 16% and 20%, at annual scale and 2–9% in the long period) when compared to independent data, provided both by other satellite techniques and national/international organizations. Outcomes of this work seem to indicate that RST-FLARE can be used to provide, at different geographic scales, quite accurate data on gas flaring, suitable for monitoring purposes for governments and local authorities.
The paper examined climate change and human security in Rivers State, Nigeria. The security environment in Rivers State has degenerated in the last few decades. The old security challenge has assumed a devastating dimension, while new threats such as climate change have propped up. The concept of human security is about people-centred security, an unconventional aspect of national security, which was previously focused on protection from external aggression and protection of sovereignty but now includes social, economic, and environmental problems that threaten global security. At present, human security is viewed from the angle of freedom that the citizens of a nation enjoy a peaceful and safe environment. However, the change in weather conditions has become a serious threat to human security. The effects of climate change include health challenges, high temperature, flooding and erosion, poor agricultural harvests, among others. The investigation was informed on the fact that greenhouse gas emissions emanating from anthropogenic activities have adverse effects on the inhabitants of Rivers State. The study aims at interrogating the cause and effects of climate change in Rivers State. The study adopted a qualitative method of data gathering technique. The paper unravelled that climate change has serious effects on human security emanating from flooding, poor agricultural harvest, health challenges, among others. The paper recommends the government should intervene in the adaptation of climate change to sustain the Rivers State inhabitants.
Nigeria is rated number one producer of crude oil in Africa, and owing to this oil exploration activities have resulted to a high rate of gas flaring, which was intensified by poor enforcement of anti-gas flaring laws by the regulatory authorities. Associated natural gas is generated from oil production, and it is flared in large volumes, thereby leading to the emission of greenhouse gases and a waste of natural resources which could have possibly generated billions of dollars for the Federal Government of Nigeria. There are concerned that if nothing is done to curtail this menace, the environment and man will be at peril due its negative consequences. There is therefore the
need to abate gas flaring by replicating the strategies applied in the selected relatively advanced petroleum countries to combat the menace. The study is a comparative analysis of national legal regimes on gas flaring in Nigeria, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Saudi Arabia. The study adopts a doctrinal legal research method with point-by-point comparative approach with library-based legal research method. Weak enforcement of laws is largely identified as the key factor responsible for the menace. The study recommends the use of more advanced technologies, a sophisticated mixture of regulations and non-regulatory incentives such as fiscal policies and gas market restructuring. It offers further suggestions based on the lessons learnt from the selected case study countries.
The Niger Delta is a trouble spot in contemporary Nigerian politics and, in fact, a hotspot of youth militant activities. This is because the nature of oil exploitation and the politics of distribution of oil wealth has created disempowerment, frustration and deprivation that underpinned outbreak of violence and conflicts in the form of youth militancy. The literature is awash with causes and consequences of Niger Delta militancy. Also, the violent repression and the militarisation of the Niger Delta by the Nigerian state is well documented in literature.
West Africa region has enormous gas reserves of over 182 trillion cubic feet and its total energy consumption estimated at 201 million tonnes of oil equivalent. At the GDP growth rate of 5.9% per annum and a 4.8% share of global population, the demand for energy is projected to increase nearly 80% by 2040. The region has the lowest access rate to quality
energy globally. Despite the strides in some energy infrastructural development, the region is yet to harness the opportunities in natural gas utilization as a sustainable source of energy with a larger percentage of the population still suffering from poor access to modern forms of energy despite the huge potentials for sustainable energy growth. We
have explored the production potentials of natural gas in the region, its share of the primary energy consumption, the strategic location of the major reserve holder – Nigeria with respect to other states in the West Africa region as well as potential challenges in creating a regional and functional gas market. By applying the discrete choice method on the primary energy supply, demand and pricing in the region, we demonstrate the role played by natural gas in achieving sustainable energy access in the region.
Keywords: Natural gas, energy security in West Africa, functional gas market, West Africa natural gas potentials, poverty and sustainable energy
Nigeria is abundantly endowed with mineral and human resources, and is reputed to be the seventh largest oil
producing country in the whole world. Despite the huge investments made by Nigerian government in oil and
gas sector, an average of $10 billion per annum, the contribution to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is minimal
an average of less than 30%. This abysmal contribution of oil and gas sector is often attributed to the high
foreign content and low inputs by Nigerian firms or low local participation in the sector resulting to huge capital
flight. Despite the introduction of local content policy since 2006 and enactment of the Nigerian Oil and Gas
Industry Content Development (NOGICD) Act in 2010, Nigerians have very little share of oil and gas business
over the years just about 14%. The thrusts of this study therefore is that the inability of the Nigeria Content
Development and Monitoring Board (NCDMB) and the previous regulatory agencies to bridge capacity gap
hinders oil and gas multinationals from complying with the Nigerian content directives.
Keywords: Local content, Nigeria, oil and gas, NNPC, oil multinationals, rentierism
There is enough empirical evidence to support the notion that the flaring of associated gas in Nigeria by multinational oil firms contributes enormously to gaseous emissions and thermal radiation in Nigeria, especially in the Niger Delta region of the Country. The Federal government of Nigeria's efforts to stop gas flaring has been inadequate as deadlines handed down to oil companies over the years have failed to deter them from flaring gas. A total of 71 million m 3 of associated gas from oil exploration is flared on a daily basis without attracting attention from the media and the international community as against the recent British Petroleum (BP) saga in the United States which drew widespread attention from the media, the public and the shareholders of the company. The BP oil spill incident which was an accident forced BP into spending unbudgeted billions of dollars to appease the American people and to maintain the firm's integrity. Nigeria loses 2.5 billion dollars annually through gas flaring. Furthermore there are attendant environmental and socio-economic impacts of gas flaring on the people living in the immediate environment where the gas is flared. In this paper household cooking gas, in form of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is proposed to reduce gas flaring and improve Nigeria's household cooking efficiency.
This work deals with the multi-faceted impact of gas flaring on a global scale and the different approach employed by researchers to measure gas flared and its resulting emissions. It gives an overview of methods employed by these re-searchers in the oil and gas industry, academia and governments in attempt to determine ways of measuring and reduc-ing gas flaring and its emission drastically. This approach so far includes analytical studies, numerical studies, modeling, computer simulations, etc. the goal behind each study being to mitigate the effects of gas flaring. The outcome indicates that there is a seemingly absence of a single global method, emission factor and estimation procedure used in the oil and gas industry all over the world to determine the volume of gas flared and its emissions be it from complete or incom-plete combustion, sweet or sulphur present hydrocarbons and this poses a continuous problem in determining the actual impact of gas flaring and its emissions on human and its role in environmental degradation both at a local and global level. An attempt has also being made to cover up-to-date trends in gas flaring and current developments in some of the most flared countries.
This study empirically investigates the causal relationship between mineral exploration and environmental pollution in Nigeria with specific focus on natural gas and crude oil in Niger Delta region. The model of Granger causality tests was used. Quarterly data covering 2008 and 2009 were used in accordance with the Akaike (1976) minimum lag length for time-series analysis. The ADF unit root tests show that the null hypothesis of unit root is rejected and, the KPSS stationarity test result accepts the null hypothesis of "stationarity" implying that the variables are fit for the purpose of Granger causality analysis. The test for cointegration show that the variables are cointegrated at the trace level; this imply that gas flaring, environmental pollution and foreign direct investment are statistically linked. The regression on the ordinary least square illustrates that the impact of oil and natural gas exploration on the Nigerian environment is persistent in the long-run. The Granger-causality test result shows that there is one-way causality flowing from the flaring of gas by the foreign firms to the environmental pollution in Nigeria. The study finds a long-run uni-directional causal relationship flowing from mineral exploration to air, soil and water pollution.
Oil is indeed the ‘devil’s excreta’. Consequently, gas flaring in Nigeria began with production of crude oil in 1958 resulting in serious trans-boundary environmental, energy, economic and health implications. This has led to the adoption of zero-gas flaring policy in 2003 in line with the domestication of related international initiatives and treaties in Nigeria. NNPC and international oil corporations (IOCs) from the United States of America, Britain, France and the Netherlands in oil production flared 514,779,616 standard cubic feet (scf) of associated gas out of 619,032,858 scf of total associated gas flared in 2011. Available records indicate that Nigeria’s oil joint venture partners prioritised profits through increase in oil production without pegging oil production to the capacity of gas utilisation facilities required to meet policy deadline. This study focused on the assessment of the impact of oil joint venture partnerships on the enforcement of zero-gas flaring policy in Nigeria. The paper concludes that equity arrangements of the oil joint operation agreements hindered the implementation of zero-gas flaring policy in Nigeria.
This Note examines the use of litigation to stop gas flaring in Nigeria’s Niger Delta, and proposes an alternative solution to the ongoing gas flaring in the Niger Delta region. In exploring an alternative solution, this Note (1) details the history of gas flaring in Nigeria; (2) discusses Nigeria’s gas-flaring legislation and its implementation; (3) analyzes the impact that landmark gas flaring cases have had on the stoppage of gas flaring; and (4) details how litigation has been used as a tool to combat gas flaring, juxtaposing the concept of the rule of law. This Note concludes by suggesting that other solutions should be explored in combating the gas flaring problem in Nigeria’s Niger Delta.
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