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Benefits and barriers to the consumption of a vegetarian diet in Australia
... Psychological research suggests that negative views of activists can be related to a reduced willingness to adopt the behaviors promoted by activists in different domains of activism (Bashir et al., 2013). Specifically, in the domain of prospective vegetarianism and the willingness to reduce one's meat intake, one of the perceived barriers could be a negative social image of vegetarians and vegans (Lea & Worsley, 2003;Rosenfeld, 2018). For instance, Lea and Worsley (2003) established that 10% of the participants associated a negative social image with the vegetarian diet which they recognized as a barrier to choosing this diet, and this percentage was higher (25%) among men. ...
... Specifically, in the domain of prospective vegetarianism and the willingness to reduce one's meat intake, one of the perceived barriers could be a negative social image of vegetarians and vegans (Lea & Worsley, 2003;Rosenfeld, 2018). For instance, Lea and Worsley (2003) established that 10% of the participants associated a negative social image with the vegetarian diet which they recognized as a barrier to choosing this diet, and this percentage was higher (25%) among men. Furthermore, research suggests that both vegetarians and vegans can be evaluated more negatively than several common prejudiced target groups and several other nutritional outgroups (MacInnis & Hodson, 2015). ...
... If people are generally concerned about becoming pale, weak, and non-energetic if they do not consume meat, it is not sufficient to emphasize why reducing meat consumption is good, it should also be addressed that this would not have negative impacts on one's health. Second, the pro-communal qualities of vegetarians and vegans should be emphasized, to counter the possible negative social image, especially among men (Lea & Worsley, 2003;Rosenfeld, 2018). Their commitment to moral values they share with others, as their commitment to the wellbeing of the larger community, should be emphasized instead of more narrow concerns that the majority does not necessarily recognize. ...
Stereotypes about vegetarians and vegans influence behaviour toward these groups and the consumption of animal products. This affects the health and well-being of humans, other animals, and the environment. We studied these stereotypes in a meat-eating culture based on content analysis of open-ended responses in contrast to the more frequently used ad-hoc scales. We also compared the positivity and contents of stereotypes between men and women and between vegetarians/vegans and meat-eaters. We found that stereotypes about vegetarians are ambivalent, while stereotypes about vegans are more clearly negative, both to a greater extent among meat-eaters and among men. The open-ended responses were most frequently related to health, then to moral values, empathy, commitment, and unfavourable social traits. References to masculinity/femininity were not prominent in the spontaneous responses, and neither was the domain of competence. While meat-eaters mainly relate vegetarianism and veganism to health, vegetarians/vegans relate these choices to empathy and moral values. We discuss the implications of the findings for cross-cultural research and shaping public communications.
... Although beneficial in many ways, embracing and maintaining a vegetarian diet is not an easy task. Some of the barriers discovered were enjoying eating meat, unwillingness to alter eating habits (Lea & Worsley, 2003), beliefs about vegetarian diet to be more difficult, less enjoyable and more expensive (Bryant, 2019), family and friends being meat consumers, the need for more information about vegetarian/flexitarian diets, and the belief that humans are meant to eat meat (Ver Schage, 2016). In contrast, what seems to help to maintain a vegetarian diet are personal factors like internal beliefs, skills, habits and physical feedback, social networks including organized vegetarian groups as well as animal rights, environmental, or health groups supporting vegetarianism, vegetarian friends, and environmental resources, such as the availability of new vegetarian foods in supermarkets and restaurants (Jabs, 1998). ...
... Food choice, Information, and Your Attitudes: FIA (Lea & Worsley, 2003) consists of 24 items about the perceived benefits of vegetarian diets and 25 items to assess personal barriers to vegetarian diets. The items are scored on a 5-point Likert scale to assess agreement/disagreement on benefits (e.g. ...
... Here again, we note that not being able to control one's eating behavior and health might affect the decision of adopting or maintaining a vegetarian diet. There are indeed many barriers that might shape people's diet choices, such as enjoying eating meat, unwillingness to alter eating habits (Lea & Worsley, 2003), beliefs about vegetarian diet to be more difficult, less enjoyable, and more expensive (Bryant, 2019), family and friends being meat consumers, the need for more information about vegetarian/flexitarian diets, and the belief that humans are meant to eat meat (Ver Schage, 2016). ...
Vegetarianism-still a controversial topic in scientific papers-is described either as a healthy choice, or as a risky one. This study aimed to examine potential predictors of perceived benefits and barriers to the consumption of a vegetarian diet. The participants (N=209, Mage = 34.6) filled out several questionnaires measuring eating disorders, physical health, mental health, locus of control, and perceived benefits and barriers to the consumption of a vegetarian diet. Results of the prediction analysis revealed that eating disorders were a significant predictor (p < .05) for both perceived benefits and barriers of consuming a vegetarian diet. Internal locus of control seems to play a major part (p < .05) when considering the benefits of consuming a vegetarian diet whereas the external locus of control impacts perceived barriers of consuming a vegetarian diet. Physical and mental health played a significant role (p < .05) only when considering barriers to the consumption of a vegetarian diet. Future studies should be conducted to verify these findings. Cuvinte-cheie: vegetarianism, sănătate, beneficii, bariere, locul controlului.
... The phenomenon is driven by increasing health concerns about eating too much meat as well as the environmental impact of meat production. As a result, studies (e.g., de Boer & Aiking, 2017;Lea and Worsley, 2003;Lea et al., 2006a;2006b) have cited an increasing social pressure to reduce meat consumption, resulting in more plant-based diets. Moreover, this has fuelled a new generation of social startup groups, businesses and brands such as 'Green Monday', 'Beyond Meat' and 'Impossible Foods' that aim to tackle climate change and global food insecurity through initiatives that offer sustainable, innovative and responsible food choices (Lanting, 2019). ...
... For instance, despite beef's price premium to many other proteins, it remains a very popular meat choice with Australians, who are the sixth largest per capita consumers of beef in the world (MLA, 2018). However, statistics also shows that the number of people who avoid meat in preference of a plant-based diet have been steadily increasing in recent years (Bogueva et al., 2017;Lea & Worsley, 2003;Lea et al., 2006a;2006b Furthermore, the specific factors motivating the growth of vegetarianism and vegan diets in Australia is still not well understood (e.g. Malek, Umberger & Gooddard, 2019;Bogueva et al. 2017;Bouvard et al., 2015;Lea & Worsley, 2003;Lea et al., 2006a;2006b). ...
... However, statistics also shows that the number of people who avoid meat in preference of a plant-based diet have been steadily increasing in recent years (Bogueva et al., 2017;Lea & Worsley, 2003;Lea et al., 2006a;2006b Furthermore, the specific factors motivating the growth of vegetarianism and vegan diets in Australia is still not well understood (e.g. Malek, Umberger & Gooddard, 2019;Bogueva et al. 2017;Bouvard et al., 2015;Lea & Worsley, 2003;Lea et al., 2006a;2006b). Therefore, the key objective of this research is to explore the consumers' attitude and intention toward reducing meat consumption in Australia. ...
The purpose of this paper is to explore the consumers' attitude and intention toward reducing meat consumption. In exploring such, the influence of social norm, perceived benefits, perceived barrier and environmental concern are examined. A self-administered online survey was employed for data collection. A sample of 298 Australians was analysed through structural equation modelling with SPSS AMOS 25. Social norm, perceived benefits and barriers as well as environmental concerns had significant impact on the consumers’ attitude toward reducing meat consumption. The findings of this paper validate and extend the theoretical framework on dietary behaviour change in particular one that involves reducing the consumption of meat. The findings provide valuable insights to food producers and the food industry, as well as health professionals as it highlights the linkages between meat consumption reduction and a broad array of motivations such as health and care for the environment. The study provides insights into the motivations of individuals to limit their meat consumption. More importantly, it also systematically examines the perceived benefits and barriers of meat consumption thus shedding insights on the opportunities for dietary behaviour change and public health.
... A felmérések alapján a legnagyobb hátráltató tényező a növényi alapú életmódra történő áttéréskor a húsevés élvezete és az arról való nehezebb lemondás (GRAÇA et al., 2015;LEA -WORSLEY, 2001;LEA -WORSLEY, 2003a;LEA et al., 2006b). Az egészséggel és a kényelemmel kapcsolatos szempontok kevésbé jelentősek a húsevés kedveltségéhez mérten (GRAÇA et al., 2015;LEA -WORSLEY, 2001;LEA -WORSLEY, 2003b;LEA et al., 2006a;LEA et al., 2006b;POHJOLAINEN et al., 2015). ...
... Források HÚSEVÉS ÉLVEZETE ÉS SZÜKSÉGESSÉGE Húsevés túlzott szeretete és az arról való lemondás nehézsége Kenyon -Barker (1998); Lea -Worsley (2003); Lea -Worsley (2003a); Graça et al. (2015); Pohjolainen et al. (2015) LÉTFONTOSSÁGÚ TÁPLÁLKOZÁSI ÖSSZETEVŐK HIÁNYA Alacsony fehérjebevitel veszélye Dwyer (1988); Lea -Worsley (2001); Lea et al. (2006b); Kökény (2009);Szabó et al. (2016) B12-és D-vitamin, valamint riboflavin, vas, kalcium és cink bevételének alacsony szintje Dwyer (1988); Balk et al. (2005); Kökény (2009) KÉNYELMI-ÉS IDŐ TÉNYEZŐ Az ételek elkészítése túlzottan időigényes Lea et al. (2006b); Pohjolainen et al. (2015) A család nem követi ezt az étkezési formát Lea et al. (2006b) Étterembe való látogatáskor kicsi a választék Lea -Worsley (2001); Lea et al. (2006a); Lea et al. (2006b); Vanhonacker et al. (2013) Könnyen unalmassá és íztelenné tud válni Lea -Worsley (2001); Povey et al. (2001) INFORMÁCIÓSZERZÉS NEHÉZSÉGE Kevés a releváns és elérhető információ Lea -Worsley (2001); Lea -Worsley (2003a); Lea et al. (2006a) SZOCIÁLIS KORLÁTOK, NEGATÍV MEGKÜLÖNBÖZTETÉS Táplálkozási zavarrá alakulhat Dwyer (1988); Povey et al. (2001); Glasauer -Leitzmann (2005) Negatív képzettársítások, sztereotípiák Szabó et al. (2016) A családi szokások konzerváló hatása Kenyon -Barker (1998); Taren -Wiseman (2003) Utánzáson alapuló motiváció Kökény (2005) PÉNZÜGYI KORLÁTOK Túl drága a mindennapi étkezés és az alapanyagok beszerzése Kenyon -Barker (1998); Povey et al. (2001); Taren -Wiseman (2003); Lea et al. (2006b) Forrás: Saját szerkesztés, 2019 ...
... Források HÚSEVÉS ÉLVEZETE ÉS SZÜKSÉGESSÉGE Húsevés túlzott szeretete és az arról való lemondás nehézsége Kenyon -Barker (1998); Lea -Worsley (2003); Lea -Worsley (2003a); Graça et al. (2015); Pohjolainen et al. (2015) LÉTFONTOSSÁGÚ TÁPLÁLKOZÁSI ÖSSZETEVŐK HIÁNYA Alacsony fehérjebevitel veszélye Dwyer (1988); Lea -Worsley (2001); Lea et al. (2006b); Kökény (2009);Szabó et al. (2016) B12-és D-vitamin, valamint riboflavin, vas, kalcium és cink bevételének alacsony szintje Dwyer (1988); Balk et al. (2005); Kökény (2009) KÉNYELMI-ÉS IDŐ TÉNYEZŐ Az ételek elkészítése túlzottan időigényes Lea et al. (2006b); Pohjolainen et al. (2015) A család nem követi ezt az étkezési formát Lea et al. (2006b) Étterembe való látogatáskor kicsi a választék Lea -Worsley (2001); Lea et al. (2006a); Lea et al. (2006b); Vanhonacker et al. (2013) Könnyen unalmassá és íztelenné tud válni Lea -Worsley (2001); Povey et al. (2001) INFORMÁCIÓSZERZÉS NEHÉZSÉGE Kevés a releváns és elérhető információ Lea -Worsley (2001); Lea -Worsley (2003a); Lea et al. (2006a) SZOCIÁLIS KORLÁTOK, NEGATÍV MEGKÜLÖNBÖZTETÉS Táplálkozási zavarrá alakulhat Dwyer (1988); Povey et al. (2001); Glasauer -Leitzmann (2005) Negatív képzettársítások, sztereotípiák Szabó et al. (2016) A családi szokások konzerváló hatása Kenyon -Barker (1998); Taren -Wiseman (2003) Utánzáson alapuló motiváció Kökény (2005) PÉNZÜGYI KORLÁTOK Túl drága a mindennapi étkezés és az alapanyagok beszerzése Kenyon -Barker (1998); Povey et al. (2001); Taren -Wiseman (2003); Lea et al. (2006b) Forrás: Saját szerkesztés, 2019 ...
A civilizációs betegségek erőteljes terjedésével az emberek egészségi állapota is nagy mértékben romlott az elmúlt évtizedek során. Az egészségtelen életmód követése és a nem kiegyensúlyozott táplálkozás tekinthetők a legtöbb probléma fő okozójának. Az élelmiszeripar legfőbb küldetése, hogy olyan táplálkozási módokat fejlesszen ki, illetve olyan új típusú élelmiszereket állítson elő, amelyek az egészségre gyakorolt kedvező hatásuk miatt képesek lassítani vagy megelőzni az emberiséget egyre nagyobb mértékben sújtó civilizációs betegségek továbbterjedését. A növényi alapú táplálkozás eredete régmúltra vezethető vissza, azonban számos lehetőségének köszönhetően a modernkori táplálkozás egyik legfőbb zászlóshajójaként tekinthetünk rá. Azonban azt is meg kell említeni, hogy a számos előnye mellett sok olyan jellemzőjét is differenciálhatjuk, amelyek meggátolhatják az egyént abban, hogy belekezdjen majd utána fenn is tudja tartani a növényi alapú táplálkozást. Kutatásunk célkitűzése, hogy hazai és nemzetközi szakirodalmi források alapján azonosítsuk a növényi alapú táplálkozás jellemzőit és differenciáljuk a vegetáriánus étrendre történő áttérésnek, illetve az új étrend fenntartásának a hátráltató tényezőit. A vegetáriánus táplálkozás legjelentősebb gátló tényezője a húsevés élvezete és az arról való nehezebb lemondás. Ezt követik az egészséggel kapcsolatos szempontok pl. különféle összetevők hiánya az élelmiszerekből. A kényelmi és időtényező is lényeges hátráltató tényező, illetve a növényi alapú táplálkozással kapcsolatos információforrások irreleváns jellege is okozhat problémákat. Továbbá a szociális korlátok és az ezzel járó negatív megkülönböztetés is felmerülhet hátráltató tényezőként, csakúgy, mint a pénzügyi korlátok.
... Kutatások bizonyítják, hogy a vegetáriánus táplálkozás legfontosabb előnyei a pozitív egészségre ható tényezők esetében azonosíthatók (LEA -WORSLEY, 2003a;LEA -WORSLEY, 2003b;LEA et al., 2006a;GRAÇA et al., 2015;MULLEE et al., 2017). Az USA-ban végzett reprezentatív felmérésből kiderült, hogy a vegetáriánus és vegán táplálkozási módok előfordulási gyakorisága, mintázatai és egyéb kapcsolódó tényezői jelentősebbek az amerikai lakosok körében abban az esetben, ha az egészségük védelme miatt térnek át ezekre (CRAMER et al., 2017). ...
... Források AZ EGÉSZSÉGET POZITÍVAN BEFOLYÁSOLÓ TÉNYEZŐK Csökken a testzsír és így az elhízás aránya Cummings et al. (2002); CJDPR (2003); Berkow -Barnard (2006); Friedewald et al. (2011);Szabó et al. (2016) Elősegíti a telített zsírok és állati fehérjék alacsonyabb szintű bevitelét Lea -Worsley (2003a); Lea et al. (2006a); Kökény (2009) Magasabb szérum albumin szint elérése Benzie -Wachtel-Galor (2009) Fontos táplálkozási összetevők nagyobb mennyiségben vannak jelen Dwyer (1988); Pomerleau et al. (2002); CJDPR (2003); Antal, (2005) Csökkennek a betegségek kialakulásának rizikófaktorai Dwyer (1988); Knutsen (1994) A JÓL(L)ÉTRE ÉS ELÉGEDETTSÉGRE VONATKOZÓ ELŐNYÖK Pozitív hatással van az egyéni szokásokra és a szűk szociális, illetve családi kötelékekből adódó szokásokra Lea -Worsley (2003); Kökény (2005) Pozitív hatással van a jól(l)ét fejlődésére és a béke, megelégedettség elérésére Lea -Worsley (2002); Kökény (2005); Lea et al. (2006b) Elősegítheti a társadalmi diszfunkció csökkenését Judge -Wilson (2015) A meditációs folyamatok, a jóga hatékonyabban segíthetik a spirituális fejlődést, a stressz oldást és a lelki önmegvalósítást PADADC (2003) Javítja az életminőséget Meyer et al. (2006); Kökény (2009) ETIKUS ÉS KÖRNYEZETI ELŐNYÖK Gazdasági erőforrások hatékonyabb kihasználását eredményezheti Oláh et al. (1985); Sabaté (2001) Globális felmelegedés és környezetszennyezés csökkentő hatása Leitzmann (2003); Kökény (2009) Kedvezőbb eredmények a környezeti hatásokat mérő indikátorokkal kapcsolatban Könczey -Nagy (1997) Elősegíti az életvédelmet, amely leginkább az állatok, mint egyedek és fajok védelme érdekében kiemelt jelentőségű Kenyon -Barker (1998); PADADC (2003); Janssen et al. (2016) Nagyobb adakozási hajlandóság az állatvédelmi szervezeteknek Backer -Hudders (2015) Forrás: Saját szerkesztés, 2019 ...
... A vegetáriánus táplálkozási módok egészséggel kapcsolatos előnye a telített zsírok és az állati eredetű fehérjék alacsonyabb szintű bevitele (KÖKÉNY, 2009;LEA -WORSLEY, 2003a;LEA et al., 2006a). ...
Absztrakt Az elmúlt évtizedekben a civilizációs betegségek rohamos terjedésével párhuzamosan az emberek egészségi állapota is nagy mértékben romlott, amely leginkább az egészségtelen életmóddal és a kiegyensúlyozatlan táplálkozással hozható összefüggésbe. Az élelmiszeriparnak így új kihívásoknak kellett megfelelnie és olyan táplálkozási módokat kifejleszteni, illetve új típusú élelmiszereket előállítania, amelyek az egészségre gyakorolt kedvező hatásuknak köszönhetően képesek lassítani a civilizációs betegségek tovább terjedését. A növényi alapú étrend az előző összefüggéseknek tökéletesen megfelel. A vegetáriánus táplálkozást folytatók pontos arányát nehéz megbecsülni, azonban kétségtelen, hogy egyre fontosabb az egészséges táplálkozást választók körében ez az étkezési mód. Kutatásunk célkitűzése, hogy hazai és nemzetközi szakirodalmi források alapján azonosítsuk a növényi alapú táplálkozás jellemzőit és differenciáljuk a vegetáriánus étrendre történő áttérésnek, illetve az új étrend fenntartásának a támogató tényezőit. Az eredményeink alapján megállapítható, hogy a növényi alapú táplálkozás legfőbb előnyének az egészségre ható számos tényezője minősül. Ezt követik a jól(l)étre és elégedettségre vonatkozó előnyök, majd az etikus és környezeti előnyök.
... Furthermore, attitudes alone tend to be a poor predictor of marketplace choice (Kraus, 1995); taste, price, and health considerations (or, personal and immediate concerns) shape consumer decision-making far more than the relatively abstract, indirect, or societal consequences of animal welfare or environment (Bailey et al., 2014;Lea & Worsley, 2003;Ruby & Heine, 2012). This is further shown to be evident from the respective proportions of omnivores and meat abstainers globally: the latter seldom exceed 10 percent of a given population (Loughnan, Bastian, & Haslam, 2014). ...
... However, Piazza et al. (2015) argue for the inclusion of a fourth category: 'nice'. There is ample evidence that taste is a better predictor of behavioural intention than are ethical concerns, and the enjoyment derived from meat consumption is a key barrier to reducing or eliminating consumption (Lea & Worsley, 2003;Ruby & Heine, 2012). This may have originated from an evolved preference for foods high in fat, protein, and calories, and is therefore linked closely with the 'natural' and 'necessary' arguments. ...
... Such findings are expected, given that attitudes are poor predictors of behaviour (Kraus, 1995) and that behaviours require changes by the individual (by contrast, attitudes are the product of social and expected norms). In addition, immediate concerns such as taste and price are more formative in consumer behaviour (e.g., Lea & Worsley, 2003), compared to the relatively effortless changes involved with attitude alteration. ...
Meat production, and the current rate of consumption, is one of the leading causes of tropical deforestation, freshwater degradation, ocean dead zones, and wild species extinction. The livestock sector is also a major driver of global climate change, such that meeting the 2°C climate objective will be impossible to achieve without a global shift towards a plant-based diet. Despite its gravity, the environmental impact of the meat industry is severely underrepresented in policy and communication, which has resulted in a widespread public awareness gap.
The present research sought to assess whether closing this awareness gap had the potential to induce attitudinal and behavioural dietary change. In a controlled experiment, an online survey presenting an environmentally-framed essay about animal agriculture was administered to North American participants. Participants answered a series of questions assessing their response to the information.
The results indicate that the environment frame, as applied to animal agriculture, was both new and valuable to most participants, with many expressing increased concern. Over half of the participants also experienced a change in dietary choice in a simulated choice task after reading the essay. These findings suggest that closing the public awareness gap, by using the environment frame to disseminate information, is an effective means of promoting dietary change.
... The survey was developed by the authors based on the context of the study, COM-B model (17) and other questionnaires found in the literature. (15,19,20) In brief, the survey included four sections and thirteen questions addressing the following: sociodemographic (e.g. age, gender, and function/role), types of diets (e.g. ...
... In Australia, age differences were more important than sex differences when the perceived barriers and benefits of adopting a vegetarian diet were investigated. (19) In the university cafeteria in Geneva, a label guaranteed the presence of protein sources on the vegetarian menu: eggs, legumes, tofu, dairy products, soy-based drinks and dairy products, soy drinks, and yogurt, among others. Education activities could be a good strategy to address misperceptions or lack of knowledge about the composition of a balanced vegetarian menu and also to reinforce the knowledge of how it benefits health and the environment. ...
This cross-sectional study examined the barriers and facilitators that influence vegetarian menu choices in a university cafeteria in Geneva, Switzerland. As a first step, an online survey developed by the authors based on the Capability, Opportunity, and Motivation Behaviour (COM-B) model was e-mailed to all university students and staff. In the second step, focus groups (FG) were held to complete the survey responses and identify what needed to be changed to promote the choice of the vegetarian menu in the cafeteria. Data from 304 participants collected through the survey was analysed. The main mentioned barriers were lack of vegetarian options, tastelessness and insufficient satiation. The facilitators that emerged from the survey were the price of the vegetarian menu for students and health and environmental benefits. Thirteen people participated in four FG sessions, which were analysed using thematic analysis. Five themes were identified: spontaneous menu selection, predefined menu selection, influence of opportunity on menu selection, influence of environmental sensitivity on menu selection, and threat to identity in menu selection. The choice of a vegetarian menu in a university cafeteria was mainly influenced by the attractiveness and taste of the plate. Future strategies to reduce food-related greenhouse gas emissions should (a) ensure the quality and attractiveness of the vegetarian menu, especially to appeal to the more resistant, such as men and omnivores, and (b) inform consumers about the guarantee of balanced nutrient intake of the vegetarian menu offered in the cafeteria, and about health and environmental benefits.
... Surveys of Australian consumers once showed that consumers preferred meat over nonanimal alternatives due to the inconvenience of vegetarian options, concerns about lack of iron, poor amino acid balance, and most importantly, the appreciation of the taste of meat (Lea & Worsley, 2003;Malek et al., 2019;Worsley & Skrzypiec, 1998). However, the development of ready-to-eat "meat analogs" has made plant-based meals more convenient, accessible, and popular in recent decades (Ismail et al., 2020). ...
... However, HMEC may well lead to a partial disruption of isopeptide bonds in the melting zone of the extruder. The breakdown of those isopeptide bonds would promote both the unfolding of molecules into outstretched, laminarly orientated chains as well as the exposure of the molecules' reactive site so that the formation of noncovalent linkages was facilitated (Chen et al., 2011;Lea & Worsley, 2003). Therefore, texturization of extrudates may also be affected by the breakdown of covalent bonds. ...
High‐moisture extrusion cooking (HMEC) is an efficient method for converting proteins and polysaccharides into fibrous structure that is used in the industrial production of meat analogs. The purpose of this review is to systematically evaluate current knowledge regarding the modification of protein structure including denaturation and reassembly upon extrusion processing and to correlate this understanding to the structure of the final products. Although there is no consensus on the relative importance of a certain type of bond on extrudates’ structure, literature suggests that, regardless of moisture level, these linkages and interactions give rise to distinctive hierarchical order. Both noncovalent and disulfide bonds contribute to the extrudates’ fibrous structure. At high water levels, hydrogen and disulfide bonds play a dominant role in extrudates’ texture. The process parameters including cooking temperature, screw speed, and moisture content have significant albeit different levels of impact on the texturization process. Their correlation with the ingredients’ physiochemical properties provides a greater insight into the process–structure–function relationship of meat analogs. The tendency of protein and polysaccharide blends to phase separate rather than produce a homogeneous mix is a particularly important aspect that leads to the formation of fibrous layers when extruded. This review shows that systematic studies are required to measure and explain synergistic and competitive interactions between proteins and other ingredients such as carbohydrates with a focus on their incompatibility. The wide range of plant protein source can be utilized in the HMEC process to produce texturized products, including meat analogs.
... And why do omnivores prefer eating meat? It was discovered that loving the taste of meat is the main motivation for both men and women (78%) (Lea & Worsley 2003, Corliss et al. 2002. ...
... The prime motivation for meat eating in Hungary, similar to worldwide studies (Lea & Worsley 2003), is to enjoy the taste of the meat. The price is not the decisive factor when choosing food (plant-based or meat), at least not at today's meat prices. ...
In Hungary, very little data is available on vegetarianism,
even though the phenomenon affects many sectors of the economy.
Initially, we intended to examine the impact of vegetarianism on the
agricultural sector when we realized that there was no adequate data
available. Therefore, to collect adequate data on this issue, we compiled a
questionnaire on September 9, 2021. We weighted our data based on the
distribution of gender/age and gender/education level of the country. In our
experiment, involving 1642 Hungarian participants over age 7, 86% of the
respondents were regular meat consumers, 9 % flexitarians, 2 %
pescatarians, 2 % vegetarians, and 1% vegans. The proportion of people
consuming reduced amounts of meat was the highest between ages 46-
60. The proportion of the most radical vegetarian forms is the highest in
the 19–25 age group. The proportion of vegetarians in the Hungarian
population increases with the education level, as it is the highest among
Ph.D. graduates. In the case of the older generation, health motivation,
while in the case of the younger generation, environmental and animal
welfare motivation is crucial in choosing the form of nutrition. The love of
meat's taste and the idea that it is impossible to live a healthy life without
it are the two most important reasons Hungarians consume meat. Current
costs do not influence the choice of meat versus plant nutrition, but
Hungarian society would be sensitive to significant increases in meat
prices. Omnivores would largely give up eating meat due to health
problems, but they are open to laboratory-produced meat. If artificial meat
were offered in supermarkets at affordable prices with the right taste and
texture, 43% of respondents would stop eating meat.
... 26 Yet it is still challenging for mainstream consumers to adopt these foods based on alternative proteins in their diet, owing to many barriers, such as sensory preferences, low skill and knowledge regarding preparation of plant-based dishes, and lack of information about benefits and convenience. [27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34] As the array of foods of plant origin, from fresh vegetables to modern innovative products, plays a minor role in meals, especially in the Northern and Western-Central Europe, 2,35 it is likely that consumers living in these areas perceive plant-based dishes as time consuming and difficult to prepare. In particular, consumers have limited knowledge of how to cook tasty plant-based dishes from scratch and how to combine plant-based foods in a meat-free meal, 21,27,28 as this comes with cooking experience. ...
... [27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34] As the array of foods of plant origin, from fresh vegetables to modern innovative products, plays a minor role in meals, especially in the Northern and Western-Central Europe, 2,35 it is likely that consumers living in these areas perceive plant-based dishes as time consuming and difficult to prepare. In particular, consumers have limited knowledge of how to cook tasty plant-based dishes from scratch and how to combine plant-based foods in a meat-free meal, 21,27,28 as this comes with cooking experience. Furthermore, people are increasingly lacking the time to cook and, therefore, they are looking for convenient foods and meals. ...
BACKGROUND
The objective of this study was to evaluate the importance attributed by consumers in Denmark (DK), Germany (DE) and Spain (ES) and across dietary lifestyles to the characteristics of different types of foods based on alternative proteins. Data were collected through a web‐based survey (15 November to 16 December 2019). A total of 872 completed questionnaires from DK (n = 258), DE (n = 296) and ES (n = 318) were obtained.
RESULTS
Four segments according to frequency of animal‐ and plant‐based food consumption were identified: (i) no animal, high plant; (ii) low animal, high plant; (iii) moderate animal and plant; and (iv) high animal, moderate plant. Across all segments, foods based on legumes/pulses as well as plant‐based spreads and products that do not resemble meat in taste and texture were of interest. Segment 4 was more in favour of ‘health’ as an important factor in new food products, whereas segment 1 was more likely to consider ‘animal friendly’, ‘minimally processed’, ‘environmentally friendly’ and ‘produced with minimum CO2 emissions’ as key aspects. Furthermore, familiarity was of minor importance across the segments. This could indicate an opening for new, innovative plant‐based alternatives that have their own identity.
CONCLUSION
An overall interest exists towards innovative food products based on plant protein, specifically legumes/pulses, among consumers in the three countries and across different dietary lifestyles. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.
... Several studies have shown that there is a predisposition among women to become vegetarians as opposed to men (Smart, 1995;Worsley & Skrzypiec, 1998;Beardsworth & Bryman, 1999;Stahler, 2005, etc.). Compared to men, who mostly consider that by our human nature we are made to eat meat, women are especially tempted to become vegetarian (Lea & Worsley, 2003). ...
... This was also previously reported in several studies by findings of an association between using a vegetarian diet and improving health (e.g. Key, Davey & Appleby, 1999;Lea & Worsley, 2003;Phillips, 2005). Other studies (e.g. ...
Introduction: Vegetarianism still gets little attention in scientific papers. Although it is not surprising that attitudes toward vegetarians and meat-eaters differ considerably, certain levels of these differences have been poorly studied. Objectives: This study aimed to explore the implications of vegetarianism and meat-eaters' behaviours on individuals' health-related attitudes, by exploring how deeply these differences run. Methods: An exploratory study was conducted to examine more in-depth the implications of vegetarianism and meat-eaters behaviours on individuals' health-related attitudes (n=180, mean age=33.96). We constructed vignettes to describe the eating habits of omnivores and vegetarians targets. Each vignette varied only in the description of eating behaviors. The participants were randomly assigned to three conditions: vegetarianism (n=60), meat-eater (n=60), and control (n=60). We used a self-report questionnaire to collect health-related attitudes and demographic data. Results: The results of the Chi-square crosstabs analysis revealed that attitudes related to health state, health difficulties and health procedures were significantly associated with vegetarians and meat-eaters. Also, type of diet and gender differences emerged as being significantly related to vegetarians and meat-eaters. The causality of possible health issues and future health prognostics were not significant when comparing vegetarian and meat-eater target participants. Vegetarians tend to be considered healthier than meat-eaters, but still, omnivore participants thought that they have to consult a doctor. According to participants in this study, meat-eaters might encounter more mental health difficulties as opposed to vegetarians and should keep a diet. There were more positive attitudes and beliefs regarding the participants own type of diet. Moreover, when compared to men, women rated omnivores as having better health prognostics. Conclusions: These results might shape prospective eating behaviors. Future experimental and longitudinal studies should be conducted to verify these findings and provide effective eating programs.
... Several studies show that there is a predisposition among women to become vegetarians as opposed to men [26]- [29]. Compared to men who mainly believe that by our human nature we are made to eat meat, women are especially tempted to become vegetarians, and they also take more into account the hostility of family or partner as significant barriers to adopting a vegetarian diet [30]. Generally, friends and family have a neutral or even favorable attitude towards men's vegetarian diet, while family members of vegetarian women, especially men, are significantly more hostile to such a diet [31]. ...
... Relatives were perceived as more skeptical about their practices than others, and especially women had this view. Compared to men who mainly believe that by our human nature we are made to eat meat, women are especially tempted to become vegetarians, and they also take more into account the hostility of family or partner as significant barriers to adopting a vegetarian diet [30]. Generally, friends and family have a neutral or even favorable attitude towards men's vegetarian diet, while family members of vegetarian women, especially men, are significantly more hostile to such a diet [31]. ...
The process of becoming a vegetarian involves changes in several life aspects, including health. Despite its relevance, however, little research has been carried out to analyze vegetarians' self-perceived health, and even less empirical attention has received in the Romanian population. This study aimed to assess health-related beliefs and practices among vegetarian adults in a Romanian sample. We have undertaken 20 semi-structured interviews (10 males, 10 females) based on a snowball sample with a mean age of 31 years. The interview guide was divided into three sections: causes of adopting the diet, general aspects (beliefs, practices, tensions, and conflicts) and consequences of adopting the diet (significant changes, positive aspects, and difficulties, physical and mental health). Additional anamnestic data were reported by means of a questionnaire. Data analyses were performed using Tropes text analysis software (v. 8.2) and SPSS software (v. 24.0.) Findings showed that most of the participants considered a vegetarian diet as a natural and healthy choice as opposed to meat-eating, which is not healthy, and its consumption should be moderated among omnivores. A higher proportion of participants (65%) had an average body mass index (BMI), and several women even assumed having certain affections that no longer occur after following a vegetarian diet. Moreover, participants admitted having better moods and mental health status, given their self-contentment with the dietary choice. Relatives were perceived as more skeptical about their practices than others, and especially women had this view. This study provides a valuable insight into health-related beliefs and practices and how a vegetarian diet might interact.
... Several studies show that there is a predisposition among women to become vegetarians as opposed to men [26]- [29]. Compared to men who mainly believe that by our human nature we are made to eat meat, women are especially tempted to become vegetarians, and they also take more into account the hostility of family or partner as significant barriers to adopting a vegetarian diet [30]. Generally, friends and family have a neutral or even favorable attitude towards men's vegetarian diet, while family members of vegetarian women, especially men, are significantly more hostile to such a diet [31]. ...
... Relatives were perceived as more skeptical about their practices than others, and especially women had this view. Compared to men who mainly believe that by our human nature we are made to eat meat, women are especially tempted to become vegetarians, and they also take more into account the hostility of family or partner as significant barriers to adopting a vegetarian diet [30]. Generally, friends and family have a neutral or even favorable attitude towards men's vegetarian diet, while family members of vegetarian women, especially men, are significantly more hostile to such a diet [31]. ...
... The barriers for non-vegetarians in selecting vegetarian foods may be due to their subjective experience of meat tasting more delicious. This was supported by Lea and Worsley (2003), who found that individual healthy dietary choices and persistent eating patterns might not be achieved spontaneously and instantly (34). In their study of 601 randomly selected South Australians, a main barrier for the subjects to consume vegetarian diets were their enjoyment of eating meats and they were reluctant to change to vegetarian eating habits. ...
... The barriers for non-vegetarians in selecting vegetarian foods may be due to their subjective experience of meat tasting more delicious. This was supported by Lea and Worsley (2003), who found that individual healthy dietary choices and persistent eating patterns might not be achieved spontaneously and instantly (34). In their study of 601 randomly selected South Australians, a main barrier for the subjects to consume vegetarian diets were their enjoyment of eating meats and they were reluctant to change to vegetarian eating habits. ...
Introduction Vegetarian diets have been found of health benefits and health indicators without early detection of deviation
to rule out potential health problems will lead to actual health problems and non-communicable diseases. This study was to
compare participants’ indicators with different dietary pattern attending a vegetarian festival in Hong Kong.
Method A cross-sectional design was adopted for this study which took place during the 1st Hong Kong Vegetarian Festival held
in October 2013. Survey method and physical measurement were used to collect data.
Results The results showed that the Vegetarian group has significantly less number of non-communicable diseases than the
Non-vegetarian groups’ (likelihood Ratio χ2=4.294, df=1, P=0.038). A t-test indicated that Body Mass Index (t=-2.706, P=0.007)
and Total Cholesterol (t=0.076, P=0.008) of the two groups differed significantly.
Discussion The results support that eating vegetarian diets properly with balanced nutrients tend to reduce bio-medical risks
from nutritional intervention. Health risks screening of focusing indicators allows user-friendly learning of self-health state to
alert individuals for a proper dietary pattern to prevent actual health problem accordingly.
Conclusion Vegetarian diets may be beneficial as a supplementary intervention for seekers of health pursue. Education of nutrition
pattern and health indicators assessment plays a pivotal role to promote health in the community as well as the hospital
setting.
... The barriers for non-vegetarians in selecting vegetarian foods may be due to their subjective experience of meat tasting more delicious. This was supported by Lea and Worsley (2003), who found that individual healthy dietary choices and persistent eating patterns might not be achieved spontaneously and instantly (34). In their study of 601 randomly selected South Australians, a main barrier for the subjects to consume vegetarian diets were their enjoyment of eating meats and they were reluctant to change to vegetarian eating habits. ...
... The barriers for non-vegetarians in selecting vegetarian foods may be due to their subjective experience of meat tasting more delicious. This was supported by Lea and Worsley (2003), who found that individual healthy dietary choices and persistent eating patterns might not be achieved spontaneously and instantly (34). In their study of 601 randomly selected South Australians, a main barrier for the subjects to consume vegetarian diets were their enjoyment of eating meats and they were reluctant to change to vegetarian eating habits. ...
Introduction Vegetarian diets have been found of health benefits and health indicators without early detection of deviation
to rule out potential health problems, will lead to actual health problems and non-communicable diseases. This study was to
compare participants’ indicators with different dietary pattern attending a vegetarian festival in Hong Kong.
Method A cross-sectional design was adopted for this study which took place during the 1st Hong Kong Vegetarian Festival held
in October 2013. Survey method and physical measurement was used to collect data.
Results The results showed that the Vegetarian group has significantly less number of non-communicable diseases than the
Non-vegetarian groups’ (likelihood Ratio χ²=4.294, df=1, P=0.038). A t-test indicated that Body Mass Index (t=-2.706, P=0.007)
and Total Cholesterol (t=0.076, P=0.008) of the two groups differed significantly.
Discussion The results support that eating vegetarian diets properly with balanced nutrients tend to reduce bio-medical risks
from nutritional intervention. Health risks screening of focusing indicators allows user-friendly learning of self-health state to
alert individuals for proper dietary pattern to prevent actual health problem accordingly.
Conclusion Vegetarian diets may be beneficial as supplementary intervention for seekers of health pursue. Education of nutrition
pattern and health indicators assessment plays a pivotal role to promote health in the community as well as the hospital
setting.
... Particularly underestimating the cognitive capacities and agency of other animals-the "dementalization" of nonhuman beings-has been proven to be a common feature of strategic ignorance [12][13][14]. Furthermore, studies have suggested that hedonistic enjoyment of meat and the reluctance to change one's eating habits are two further powerful factors behind the meat paradox [15]. More specifically, underscoring hedonistic values ("meat tastes good") and custom ("meat is traditional") are utilized so as to lessen awareness of the paradox [16]. ...
... In short, if one pays little or no attention to the living, cognitively able, conscious animal, it becomes unlikely one could empathize with pigs or cows. Also, hedonism and habit have been linked to the marginalization of empathy [8,15,16]: if one underscores the taste of a steak or the custom of eating meat, it may become uncomfortable to fully empathize with pigs and cows. Since it can be argued that empathy is a necessary part of a fully developed moral agency also in relation to how we value and treat nonhuman animals [17], diminishing it in the context of making dietary choices can be detrimental from an animal ethics point of view. ...
Western cultures have witnessed an intriguing phenomenon in recent years: People are both more concerned for animal wellbeing and consume more animal products than ever before. This contradiction has been explored in psychology under the term "meat paradox". However, what has been omitted from the explorations is the age-old philosophical notion of "akrasia", within which one both knows "the good" and acts against it. The paper seeks to address this omission by comparing psychological research on the meat paradox with philosophy of akrasia. Applying Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, and Spinoza, I investigate the underlying factors of and solutions to what is here called "omnivore's akrasia". Whilst contemporary research on the meat paradox focuses on various descriptive cognitive errors (such as cognitive dissonance), philosophy of akrasia has tended to focus more prescriptively on moral reason and virtue. After discussing "nudging" as an implication of the descriptive approach, the paper supports the prescriptive perspective and "the cultivation argument". The claim is that contemporary research on the contradictions concerning attitudes toward other animals would greatly benefit from paying more attention to the value-laden mental factors underlying moral agency.
... Whether pertaining to the well-being of animals, reduction of chronic disease risk, or environmental sustainability of food systems, there are many compelling reasons that motivate people to go vegetarian (Hoffman, Stallings, Bessinger, & Brooks, 2013;Janssen, Busch, Rödiger, & Hamm, 2016;Rosenfeld, 2018;(Rosenfeld and Burrow, 2017b); Ruby, 2012;Timko, Hormes, & Chubski, 2012). At the same time, dedicated meat-eaters endorse a number of reasons for continuing to eat meat (de Boer, Schösler, & Aiking, 2017;Lea & Worsley, 2003), and former vegetarians cite overlapping motivations for abandoning their plant-based ways and welcoming meat back into their diets (Barr & Chapman, 2002;Menzies & Sheeshka, 2012). Animal, health, and environmental advocacy campaigns are underway to encourage consumers to reduce the amount of meat in their diets, yet resistance to meat reduction continues to be a challenge (Graça, Calheiros, & Oliveira, 2015). ...
... Critical to advancing this second aim beyond existing knowledge was to use a multivariate approach that considered other common barriers that inhibit meat-eaters from going vegetarian. Accordingly, we drew upon influential conceptual models of food choice (Furst, Connors, Sobal, Bisogni, & Falk, 2000;Sobal & Bisogni, 2009;Steptoe, Pollard, & Wardle, 1995), along with empirical research on what barriers people report preventing them from going vegetarian (Corrin & Papadopoulos, 2017;de Boer, Schösler, & Aiking, 2017;Ensaff et al., 2015;Kildal & Syse, 2017;Lea, Crawford, & Worsley, 2006;Lea & Worsley, 2003;Mullee et al., 2017;Pohjolainen, Vinnari, & Jokinen, 2015) and on what reasons former vegetarians report for returning to eating meat (Barr & Chapman, 2002;Menzies & Sheeshka, 2012), in order to identify five core barriers which we investigated in tandem with anticipated stigma. These barriers included perceptions that following a vegetarian diet would be (1) inadequately nutritious, (2) too financially expensive, (3) unfamiliar, (4) inconvenient, and (5) inadequately tasty. ...
Meat-eaters report that a number of barriers inhibit them from going vegetarian-for example, perceiving vegetarian diets to be inadequately nutritious, too expensive, unfamiliar, inconvenient, inadequately tasty, and socially stigmatizing. However, research identifying which barriers uniquely predict meat-eaters' openness to going vegetarian is lacking from the current literature. In the present research, accordingly, we conducted a highly powered, preregistered study (N = 579) to identify which barriers uniquely predict openness to going vegetarian. We focused specifically on anticipated vegetarian stigma, given recent qualitative evidence highlighting this attitude as an influential barrier. That is, do meat-eaters resist going vegetarian because they fear that following a vegetarian diet would make them feel stigmatized? Being of younger age, more politically conservative, White, and residing in a rural community predicted greater anticipated vegetarian stigma among meat-eaters. Frequentist and Bayesian analyses converged, however, to suggest that anticipated vegetarian stigma was not a significant predictor of openness to going vegetarian. The strongest predictors of openness were perceived tastiness and perceived healthfulness of vegetarian dieting. These factors-but not anticipated stigma-furthermore explained why men (compared to women) and political conservatives (compared to liberals) were particularly resistant to going vegetarian.
... In view of this contradiction, the current research aims to shed light into these conflicting, but equally plausible perspectives, by investigating the role of a so far neglected factor in the study of consumer adoption of plant-based diets: the role of food processing. In fact, although numerous barriers have been identified to the market adoption of plant-based alternatives, (Bryant, 2019;Elzerman et al., 2013;Hoek et al., 2011a;Lea and Worsley, 2003), research focusing on the relationship between plant-based alternatives and food processing, from a consumer perspective, has been overlooked. The present research aims to fill this knowledge gap by answering the following research question: "How do consumers perceive (and intend to purchase) animal origin products and their plant-based alternatives imitating an minimally processed vs ultra-processed food?". ...
... A more plant-based diet could be achieved by reducing meat consumption or replacing meat with plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) [11]. However, one of the main barriers to the latter is that people enjoy eating meat [12]. Accordingly, frequent meat eaters rate PBMAs anything but positively and are less likely to opt for plant-based substitutes [11] (see also [13] for a negative correlation between red meat consumption and PBMAs). ...
Understanding digital menu choices in limited-option environments, such as university cafés, is crucial for promoting healthier and more sustainable food choices. We are, therefore, looking at two possible interventions or nudges—recommendation and position—and how they interact with, for example, price. In the first smartphone-based study (N = 517), participants were presented with two menu options, while the factors “recommendation”, “position”, and “price” were manipulated. We only found effects in relation to the choice of the more popular menu option. Specifically, when the popular meal was the expensive option, the recommendation had a negative effect on choice, but not when the popular meal was the cheaper option. The aim of the second smartphone-based study (N = 916) was to shed more light on the role of popularity or personal preference in relation to recommendations. We manipulated the differences in personal preference (small or large) using a ranking task presented before the menu choice. In Study 2, the interaction effect between recommendation and price for the more popular menu option could not be replicated. Instead, we found that the greater the difference in preference, the less pronounced the price effect was. Overall, some effects of the recommendations have been identified, but further research is needed to clarify the exact circumstances under which they arise.
... An Australian survey revealed that the main perceived obstacles to adopting a vegetarian diet were the enjoyment of eating meat and a reluctance to change established eating habits. 18 Consequently, there could be a greater interest in plantbased diets that include some meat, rather than a strictly vegan diet. In line with this idea, a more effective strategy for preventing and managing CVD might be to suggest a plant-based diet that allows for manageable adjustments for non-vegetarians, rather than enforcing a vegetarian diet. ...
Numerous studies have reported that adopting a plant-based diet can significantly reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Not only does a vegetarian diet help mitigate the risk of these diseases, but it also contributes to enhancing environmental sustainability. However, it is not necessary to universally recommend a vegetarian diet as a preventive measure against CVDs. More research is needed to determine whether completely excluding animal products is necessary, or if adhering to a predominantly plant-based diet is sufficient. In this opinion paper, the potential adverse health effects of a vegetarian diet and the barriers associated with adopting it will be discussed, in order to provide a rationale for the disadvantages of using a vegetarian diet for CVD risk reduction.
... Cheah et al.'s research framework identifies perceived benefits and barriers to reducing meat consumption as an example of a sustainable eating behaviour (Cheah et al., 2020). For example, barriers to eating a vegetarian diet include unpleasant taste (Lea and Worsley, 2003) and lack of knowledge regarding food (Salonen and Helne, 2012). Although sustainable eating may include a variety of eating habits, definitions of sustainable eating behaviours among the target population are important for designing interventions, particularly among young adults, among whom sustainable eating is becoming more mainstream (Kamenidou et al., 2019). ...
Purpose
University students are a unique population with great potential to adopt eating habits that promote positive human and planetary health outcomes. The purpose of this study is to illustrate the current perceptions of sustainable eating behaviours among the students and to examine the determinants of sustainable eating behaviours.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were collected from December 2020 to May 2021 through focus group discussions among university students in Ontario, facilitated through synchronous online sessions. There were 21 student participants during the course of five focus group sessions (4–5 participants per session) from various departments within the university. The discussions were transcribed and analyzed for main themes and concepts using open coding; deductive coding based on the framework by Deliens et al. as well as the literature; and inductive coding for emerging themes.
Findings
The students had different perceptions about what constituted sustainable eating behaviours, some of which were not based on fact. A variety of individual, environmental (macro, micro and social) and university characteristics were mentioned as factors influencing sustainable food choices, with “food literacy” and “campus food” being the top two factors.
Originality/value
This study presents a novel and holistic overview of how sustainable eating behaviours and sustainable foods are perceived among university students and identifies the perceived determinants of adopting sustainable eating behaviours. This study helps with identifying opportunities to promote sustainable eating behaviours among university students and the design/implementation of informed interventions and policies aimed at improving eating behaviours.
... Bénabou and Tirole (2011), for instance, argue that certain moral behavior by others is categorically rejected and suppressed because it otherwise makes it difficult to find excuses for one's own less moral behavior. This 'do-gooder derogation' also occurs in judgments of dietary decisions (Lea and Worsley, 2003;Minson and Monin, 2012;Cramwinckel et al., 2013;Markowski and Roxburgh, 2019;Vandermoere et al., 2019). Cramwinckel et al. (2013) report that such devaluation occurs primarily when the decision maker's moral motivation is obvious to observers, which can help to explain why observability in our experiment has an adverse effect only when combined with the information nudge. ...
... Finally, consumers who follow a strict vegetarian diet are mainly motivated by animal welfare concerns. Therefore, companies of products with alternative sources of protein need to take advantage of the above-mentioned factors to educate consumers, increase awareness and change their eating habits, through information campaigns [28,30]. ...
The food industry is under pressure to improve food production and reduce its impact on the environment. Furthermore, consumers today are increasingly shifting to more sustainable diets. In this context, plant-based protein sources appear as a promising solution. This study investigates the perceptions of company representatives operating in Greece who produce or intend to produce, food products containing plant-based proteins. Based on 360 responses, this quantitative analysis a) identifies the main drivers and barriers for consumer acceptance of these products, b) ascertains the most popular choice (word and phrase) on their labels, and c) explores variations in key marketing factors such as organoleptic characteristics, price, and promotion of plant protein-based products versus those with animal protein sources. According to the findings, “human health” is the prevailing incentive to shift to the consumption of plant-based protein food products. Additionally, “reluctance” is the predominant barrier for consumers to change their eating habits. Regarding the use of words and phrases on labels, the word “plant-protein” and the phrase “high in vegetable protein” were found to be the most popular. Furthermore, there is an agreement that both the organoleptic characteristics and the promotional strategies of plant-based protein products and animal-based protein products, are or should be similar. Interestingly, the majority of respondents noted that the price of plant protein products is or will be higher compared to animal protein products. This study provides meaningful insights into the food and beverage industry and companies that either have or will have products with plant-based sources of protein. Keywords: alternative proteins, alternative products, plant-based proteins, plant-based substitutes, food industry, business perceptions
... Aber auch das Ernährungswahlverhalten selbst ist, wie jedes menschliche Verhalten, durch bestimmte Bedingungen und Barrieren geprägt (McKenzie-Mohr, 2000). Entscheidungen für oder gegen bestimmte Nahrungsmittel werden von vielen Faktoren beeinflusst (Lea & Worsley, 2003). Diese stehen miteinander im Wechsel (Steptoe et al., 1995). ...
Die Förderung nachhaltiger Konsumweisen ist eine politische Zielsetzung, die seit fast 30 Jahren in nahezu allen politisch-programmatischen Dokumenten zur nachhaltigen Entwicklung verankert ist. Seit einiger Zeit wird diesbezüglich – beeinflusst durch die Rezeption von Praxistheorien (Bourdieu 1972, 1980, 1997; Giddens 1979, 1984) – das in der sozial ökologischen Forschung dominante Leitbild von verantwortlichen, souveränen Konsumierenden kritisiert und es wird – vor allem aus soziologischer Perspektive – hinterfragt, welche transformative Kraft Konsumierende mit Blick auf den politisch angestrebten gesellschaftlichen Wandel entfalten können. Zwei Aspekte erscheinen problematisch: zum einen die Engführung des Konsumbegriffes und zum anderen die gesellschaftliche Konstruktion der Nachfrage im Hinblick auf Konsumroutinen. In diesem Zusammenhang erweist sich eine praxeologisch informierte Analyse von Konsumstrategien als weiterführend. Denn der Strategiebegriff liefert einen Rahmen, um Konsumentscheidungen in ihrer Komplexität theoretisch fassen zu können, gleichzeitig jedoch auch Wahrnehmungen diskursiver Problematisierungen im Spannungsfeld von Bedürfnisbefriedigung und Nachhaltigkeit, wie sie in biographischen Daten zum Vorschein kommen dürften, zu berücksichtigen. Der Beitrag diskutiert den Zusammenhang zwischen Konsumierenden- Souveränität, Konsumentscheidungen und Konsumroutinen auf methodologischer und methodischer Ebene. Dabei wird aufgezeigt, wie sich ein nutzentheoretisches Entscheidungskalkül und praxeologische Forschungsheuristiken miteinander verknüpfen lassen und wie sich der kontextuelle Gebrauch der diskursiven Praktiken Nachhaltigkeit und Bedürfnisbefriedigung in seinen Auswirkungen auf Konsummöglichkeiten und Konsumorientierungen mit Hilfe der Analyse von Konsumstrategien aus dem biographischen Material rekonstruieren lässt.
... Whilst general management recommendations for T2D include increased physical activity, cessation of smoking, and oral glucoselowering medications, Diabetes Australia recognizes dietary interventions for sustained weight loss as the most effective approach to delay or halt the onset or progression of IGT and T2D [8,12]. Plant-based diets (PBD) are gaining traction across the globe out of concern for health, animal welfare and environmental sustainability [13,14]. Current Western dietary patterns are often energy dense, nutrient poor and low in fruit and vegetable consumption which are contributing to the rising rates of chronic illnesses like T2D, cardiovascular disease and cancer. ...
This study aimed to compare the prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and diabetes mellitus (DM) among Australian women following plant-based diets (PBD) compared to regular meat eaters. A cross sectional analysis of the mid-aged cohort (1946–1951) of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health was conducted on completers of Survey 7 in 2013 with complete FFQ data available (n = 9102). Dietary patterns were categorized as PBD (vegan, lacto-ovo vegetarian, pesco-vegetarian, semi-vegetarian) and regular meat eaters. Meat eaters were further categorized into high and low consumption and outcomes included self-reported prevalence of IGT and DM. Participants were identified as regular meat eaters (n = 8937) and PBD (n = 175). Prevalence of IGT was lower in PBD (0–1.2%) compared to regular meat eaters (9.1%). Consolidation of PBD to a single group (vegetarians) indicated a lower prevalence of DM in vegetarians compared to regular meat eaters (3.9% vs. 9.1%). Women consuming meat daily/multiple times per day had significantly higher odds of IGT (OR 1.5, 95%CI 1.1 to 2.1, p = 0.02). Individuals consuming processed meat daily/multiple times per day had significantly higher odds of DM compared to those consuming less than daily (Odds ratio (OR) 1.7, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.3 to 2.3, p < 0.0001). After adjustment for covariates, statistical significance was lost largely due to the addition of BMI to the model. Prevalence of IGT and DM were lower in women following PBD and higher in high consumers of meat and processed meat. The relationship between meat consumption and IGT/diabetes status appears to be mediated, at least in part, by an increase in body mass index (BMI). Future studies are warranted to investigate the mechanisms and other lifestyle factors underpinning the association between high meat consumption and increased risk of IGT and DM.
... Therefore, taste is considered a sufficient reason to justify eating animals. In line with this assumption, Lea and Worsley (2003) identified taste as a crucial inhibiting factor for changing towards a vegetarian diet. Rothgerber (2015) confirmed the change impeding effect of the gustatory sensation derived from meat. ...
Background: Some meat eaters are faced with a dilemma: they like to eat meat, but they are also concerned about animal welfare, the environmental impact of meat production, and health risks associated with meat consumption. Aim We investigated the interrelationship between ‘meat attachment’ (people's affective connection towards meat) and the ‘4Ns’ (four defence arguments omnivores use to justify their meat consumption: eating meat is normal, necessary, nice, and natural), two constructs often used by researchers to measure omnivores justifications for meat consumption. Second, we compared the predictive power of both constructs on omnivores’ (willingness to reduce) meat consumption in a regression model that also included age, gender, educational level, financial status, and participants’ beliefs concerning environmental, ethical and health issues of eating meat. Methods: In total 203 Belgian omnivores (47.4% men) completed an online questionnaire in February 2020. Their ages ranged from 18 to 55 (M = 23.57, SD = 4.64). Results: Results indicate that the correlations between the different dimensions of ‘meat attachment’ and the 4Ns are significantly positive ( p < 0.001). A comparison of the predictive power of both constructs on omnivores’ (willingness to reduce) meat consumption showed that the ‘meat attachment’ construct performs statistically better than the 4Ns construct. In addition, omnivores’ beliefs concerning the ethical implications of eating meat are also an important predictor in their meat consumption, whereas environmental and health related aspects are not. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that national health campaigns warning about the health risks of excessive meat consumption might be less effective than health campaigns focussing on the ethical issues associated with meat eating.
... Further, US News and World Report (2019) suggests that plant-based diets are good for the environment, the heart, weight and overall health, and authoritative sources in nutrition agree on the health benefits of eating fruit and vegetables, nuts, whole grains and other plant-based foods (e.g. Hu, 2003;Lea and Worsley, 2003). This trend toward healthier diets in everyday life is paralleled by greater interest in international and domestic travel as well as gastronomic or food tourism experiences (UNWTO, 2019;Williams et al., 2019). ...
Purpose
The research objectives were to: (1) examine the relationship among motivations, satisfaction and loyalty with plant-based food dining at destinations; (2) determine if and how the attractiveness of eating plant-based foods moderates satisfaction and loyalty; and (3) investigate potential differences in visitor background information and consumption characteristics.
Design/methodology/approach
A survey was conducted at tourist attractions in southern Taiwan and 274 valid questionnaires were obtained. The relationships among motivations, satisfaction and loyalty were investigated when eating plant-based foods during travel. The moderating effects of food attractiveness on motivations and satisfaction/loyalty were measured.
Findings
The results indicated a positive relationship between motivations and satisfaction/loyalty in plant-based food dining. Motivations for plant-based food dining were comprised of four domains (physical, cultural, interpersonal and prestige) and satisfaction and loyalty had three (overall satisfaction, intention to revisit and intention to recommend).
Research limitations/implications
The major implications were that motivations had a significant effect on satisfaction and loyalty; food attractiveness did not moderate the effect of motivations on satisfaction/loyalty; and background characteristics influenced satisfaction and loyalty.
Practical implications
Marketers and strategic planners for plant-based restaurants or those with plant-based meal options must make a greater effort to understand the distinctive demographic and dietary characteristics of the people who comprise the core of this market.
Originality/value
This research adds to the very limited literature on plant-based and vegetarian dining in tourism destinations. Furthermore, it tests, partially validates and expands a model by Kim et al. (2009) for consuming local food while traveling. The findings also complement the considerable evidence linking motivations to satisfaction and loyalty when dining.
... Preferences for meat may play a substantial role in determining food selection and consumption, with the most common reason given for eating meat in a large Belgian survey being taste [3]. This reflects reported barriers to reducing meat consumption including enjoying meat and family food preferences [4]. Moreover, those with stronger preferences for meat may be most resistant to changing their behaviour [5]. ...
Objective
Reducing meat consumption would have substantial benefits both in terms of health and environmental impact, but meat options may be more attractive to customers than meat-free options. This study tested this by presenting UK adults (n = 540) with a series of pictures showing two meal options and asking them to select which they would prefer to eat right now. They completed this task for every possible pair from a pool of six comparator meat-based options and six target options (66 pairs). Participants all saw identical comparator options, and were randomised to see the same pictures of target options but with descriptions that suggested they were either meat-based or vegetarian.
Results
Selections were used to rank the options for each individual from 1 (most-selected) to 12 (least-selected). Vegetarian target options were ranked worse [by 1.23 places (95% CI: 1.02, 1.44)] than meat target options. Higher self-reported consumption of meat predicted worse mean rankings of target options when these were vegetarian, but not when target options were meat-based. This suggests meat options are preferred to equivalent vegetarian options and may be more likely to be selected. This has implications for interventions aiming to reduce meat consumption to make diets healthier and more sustainable.
... Berndsen and van der Pligt (2004) and Riley (2004) found that a large segment of the population-one that by far exceeds the number of vegetarians-considers meat consumption to be problematic. According to Lea and Worsley (2003), most consumers recognize the health benefits of eliminating meat from their diets but still enjoy eating meat and continue to do so. Audebert et al. (2006, p. 239) reported a similar finding: "Red meat hedonism was the best predictor for most of the likings for red and white meat images." ...
Purpose
Per capita meat consumption in Switzerland has been rather consistent for decades, although the percentage of vegetarians has risen to 14 per cent according to a recent survey. This study tries to resolve this apparent contradiction
Design/methodology/approach
The study is based on household consumption data from Switzerland and focuses on the distribution of consumption rather than on average amounts, using descriptive statistics and a mixed-effects model which explains the coefficient of variation between single consumer consumption amounts.
Findings
Vegetarianism and veganism are not only overestimated through surveys but also associated with a segment of the population that is consuming increasing amounts of meat. This dual development leads to a stable per capita meat consumption.
Originality/value
Our results indicate that greater scientific attention should be paid to this segment of heavy meat eaters.
... In addition to its nutritional value, meat is also delicious to most people. For example, in an Australian sample, the strongest barriers preventing people from becoming vegetarians were the enjoyment of eating meat and an unwillingness to change this dietary habit ( Lea and Worsley, 2003). Even so, vegetarian people, of course, do not eat meat. ...
Drawing upon self-categorization theory, the present research investigated the attitudes of omnivores and vegetarians toward five dietary groups, including omnivores, conscientious omnivores, semi-vegetarians, vegetarians, and vegans. When they had high (vs. low) meat rationalization, omnivore participants had fewer negative attitudes toward and more positive evaluations of the omnivore groups but more negative attitudes toward and fewer positive evaluations of the vegetarian groups. Vegetarian participants had the most negative attitudes toward the omnivore group, followed by the conscientious omnivore group, the semi-vegetarian group, the vegetarian group, and the vegan group; the vegetarian participants with high meat rationalization (vs. those with low meat rationalization) had more positive evaluations of the omnivore groups. Such findings suggested that high levels of meat-eating rationalization predicted more favorable attitudes toward omnivores among both omnivore and vegetarian participants.
... One can understand the motivation to continue eating animal products; the literature has identified several considerable constraints to adopting a vegetarian or vegan diet. Studies have consistently found that the strongest of these is simply enjoyment of eating meat [34,45,46]. This was by far the number one reason for not being vegetarian in a recent UK survey [47] and was the biggest constraint for online survey respondents who indicated that they do not want to go vegetarian or vegan [36]. ...
Animal agriculture is implicated as a major cause of greenhouse gas emissions, animal suffering and public health problems. This survey asked 1000 UK meat-eaters about their beliefs about vegetarian and vegan diets, and their intended consumption of meat and animal products one month in the future. One in six intended to reduce their meat consumption in the next month, and 14% intended to reduce their consumption of animal products. The majority agreed that vegetarian and vegan diets are ethical, good for the environment and healthy. The majority also agreed that both vegetarianism and veganism were socially acceptable. However, there were three consistent negative beliefs about vegetarian and vegan diets: that they are difficult, that they are not enjoyable and that they are expensive. Moreover, perceptions of vegan diets were significantly more negative than perceptions of vegetarian diets on most aspects. Significant differences in perceptions of each diet were observed between genders and by age. It is argued that most meat-eaters agree with the ethical and environmental arguments in favour of vegetarianism/veganism but do not follow these diets because of practical reasons relating to taste, price and convenience. New alternatives to animal products are discussed as a possible way to address these practical barriers. Finally, the case is made for more research on developing high-quality, low-cost and widely available animal product alternatives.
... While meat and dairy products confer some nutritional benefits (i.e., being a source of vitamins A, B1, and B12, niacin, iron, zinc, and proteins), they are not necessary for a nutritionally adequate intake of these nutrients or for survival (e.g., American Dietetic Association 2009). In fact, animal products are often consumed at such high levels for enjoyment-related reasons (Lea and Worsley 2003). For this reason, the ethical question stands: is it acceptable to use so many resources to feed so few in mostly affluent societies when numerous others, often in regions of deprivation, suffer from hunger and malnutrition? ...
... 13,14 This has resulted in a marked increase in the adoption of vegetarian and vegan diets in numerous countries. However, many omnivores still face significant barriers to reducing meat intake, 15,16 including a lack of knowledge and understanding of the availability, preparation and nutritional value of meat alternatives or meat substitutes. ...
Meat represents an important part of the diet for many adults, supplying essential amino acids and micronutrients. However, high red and processed meat (RPM) intake is implicated in the development of cardiovascular disease and dyslipidemia. This study aimed to reduce RPM consumption in healthy, non-obese omnivores (21–48 years), who ate RPM ≥4 times per week, and to investigate its effect on cardiovascular risk factors using a single-group longitudinal study design (comprising an initial 4-week baseline period, followed by a 12-week intervention). Participants (16M : 21F) were assessed before (BL) and after (T0) the pre-intervention period and before (T0), at week 6 (T6) and at the end of intervention (T12). In a subset (8M : 15F), haematological parameters were measured at BL, T6 and T12. Compared with BL, protein intake from RPM reduced by 67% at T6 and 47% at T12 (4-day dietary records). BMI, body fat mass, and blood pressure did not change over the intervention in the whole cohort, but mean total, LDL and HDL cholesterol were reduced in males at T12 (effect sizes −0.52, −0.41 and −0.15 mmol l⁻¹, respectively; each P < 0.01), with no change in total : HDL ratio observed. In the study sub-set, haemoglobin concentration, plus red and white cell count fell during the intervention (estimated effect size ηp² 0.300, 0.301 and 0.354, respectively; each P < 0.001). It was possible for omnivores to approximately halve their RPM intake, and in males this dietary change appeared to reduce blood lipid concentrations. However, acute dietary changes to RPM intake may have had an unfavourable impact on haematological parameters.
... For perceived benefits, there were only three within group items that significantly improved after the intervention and no items were significantly different between the two groups. Similar to other work (Lea & Worsley, 2003;Lea et al., 2006), there was already a high awareness of the benefits from eating a plant-based diet because of the high baseline values for the perceived benefits. Yet, as noted before, African American adults often fail to eat the recommended amount of daily fruits and vegetables more often than all other ethnic groups (Bowman & Vinyard, 2004;Satia et al., 2004). ...
Plant-based diets are associated with numerous health benefits, but there has been limited work that focuses on diverse populations. The purpose of this study was to determine if encouraging a sample of African American adults, located in the Southern United States, to dine out at local vegan soul food restaurants helped to decrease perceived barriers and increase perceived benefits and dietary acceptability of a plant-based diet more so than being asked to prepare all meals at home. Thirty African American participants (mean age = 42.8 ± 12.2 years and mean BMI = 36.9 ± 9.0 kg/m2) were asked to adhere to a vegan diet for 3 weeks and were randomly assigned to one of the two conditions: (1) a Standard group that was asked to prepare all meals at home, or (2) a Restaurant group that was asked to eat out a few times a week at local vegan soul food restaurants in addition to preparing meals at home. The results indicated that in just 3 weeks there were significant reductions in several perceived barriers and increases in some perceived benefits and aspects of dietary acceptability in both groups. Additionally, weight loss within each group was significant (Standard group: −1.6 [−4.4 to −0.9] kg, P < 0.001; Restaurant group: −1.9 [−3.1 to −0.1] kg, P < 0.01), but there were no significant between-group differences (P = 0.72). Future work should continue to focus on providing culturally-relevant vegan restaurant options, identify easy ways to shop for and prepare plant-based diets during an intervention, and examine potential health benefits that may result from eating more plant-based foods.
... Participants who followed a plant-based diet reported having experienced prejudiced encounters and violations of expected normal or ideal interaction patterns for avoiding eating animal products (Hirschler, 2011), and highlighted that other people were important in supporting (or hindering) their transition and learning processes (Kleine, 1993;Link & Jacobson, 2008). In fact, the current meat-eating habits and unwillingness to change of other household members were consistently identified as a barrier to change individual meat consumption (Hoek et al., 2017;Lea et al., 2006aLea et al., , 2006bLea & Worsley, 2003;Link & Jacobson, 2008;Mullee et al., 2017;O'Keefe et al., 2016;Šedová et al., 2016). Additionally, in one study, having family history of NCDs (e.g., cancer), which could be seen as a proxy for exposure to a set of risk factors and unhealthy behaviors in the family context, was associated with eating a less plant-based diet (Cai et al., 2012). ...
BACKGROUND. There is increasing consensus that transitioning towards reduced meat consumption and more plant-based diets is a key feature to address important health and sustainability challenges. However, relevant evidence that may inform these transitions remains fragmented with no overarching rationale or theoretical framework, which limits the ability to design and deliver coordinated efforts to address these challenges.
SCOPE AND APPROACH. Eleven databases were systematically searched using sets of keywords referring meat curtailment, meat substitution and plant-based diets, as well as consumer choice, appraisal or behavior (2602 articles selected for title and abstract screening; 161 full-texts assessed for eligibility; 110 articles selected for extraction and coding). Barriers and enablers were identified and integrated into an overarching framework (i.e., COM-B system), which conceptualizes behavior as being influenced by three broad components: capability, opportunity and motivation.
KEY FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION. This review mapped potential barriers and enablers in terms of capability, opportunity, and motivation to reduce meat consumption and follow more plant-based diets. These included lack of information for consumers and difficulty to acquire new cooking skills (barrier, capability), changes in service provision in collective meal contexts (enabler, opportunity), and positive taste expectations for plant-based meals (enabler, motivation). Evidence on variables referring to the motivation domain is clearly increasing, but there is a striking need for studies that include capability and opportunity variables as well. The results of this review are relevant to a variety of fields and audiences interested in promoting sustainable living and health improvements through dietary choice.
... A proportion of participants in this sample identified as vegetarian or vegan (16%; 78/486), and themes concerning ethical and environmental influences emerged throughout participant responses. This is consistent with population trends, which indicate that vegetarianism and veganism is on the rise [54]. Market research conducted in 2016 found that the number of Australian adults with vegetarian or almost vegetarian diets increased from 1.7 million to 2.1 million (11.2% of the total population) from 2012 to 2016 [55], and this number is anticipated to increase in alignment with global research findings. ...
While health benefits of legume consumption are well documented, intake is well below recommendations in many Western cultures, and little is known regarding culinary use and consumer understanding of these foods. This study aimed to investigate consumption, knowledge, attitudes, and culinary use of legumes in a convenience sample of Australians. An online computer-based survey was used to gather data and demographic characteristics. Respondents (505 individuals answered in full or in part) were regular consumers of legumes (177/376 consumed legumes 2–4 times weekly). Chickpeas, green peas, and kidney beans were most often consumed, and were made into most commonly Mexican, then Indian and Middle Eastern meals. Consumers correctly identified protein and dietary fibre (37%) as key nutritional attributes. For non-consumers (7%; 34/463), taste, a lack of knowledge of how to prepare and include legumes, and the time taken to prepare, along with family preferences, hindered consumption. Participants identified the food category as “beans” rather than “legumes”, and this may have implications for dietary guidance at an individual and policy level. Addressing barriers to consumption, perhaps through food innovation, emphasizing positive health attributes, and clarification within dietary guidelines, are important considerations for increasing consumption of legumes.
Consumer awareness of meat-associated health and environmental risks is increasing and motivates a shift towards consuming meat alternatives. This is also reflected in efforts invested in studying meat alternatives from the perspective of nutritional, environmental, and consumer sciences. Despite shared research interest, these studies cannot be readily compared and interpreted as there is no clear consensus on what meat alternatives are. Scholarly debates on acceptance, nutritional value, and environmental advantages of meat alternatives would benefit from a clear definition of meat alternatives. With the goal of defining meat alternatives, relevant scientific literature in the past ten years was systematically searched and screened guided by the scoping reviews PRISMA extension. The initial search resulted in >100.000 hits, which was reduced to 2.465 papers. Next, titles and abstracts were scrutinized using Rayyan.ai, resulting in 193 articles considered for the present review. Article screening and data extraction was performed using ATLAS.ti software. Three major themes emerged from the scoping review to define meat alternative products including: (1) producing and sourcing of ingredients; (2) product characteristics (i.e., sensory characteristics, nutritional value, and health profile, social and environmental sustainability profile); (3) consumer characteristics concerning the marketing and consumption context. Meat alternatives are multi-faceted, that is, certain products can be considered as meat alternatives in some context, but not in another context. For any product it is impossible to unequivocally state that it is a meat alternative. There is a lack of consensus from the diverse literature on what constitutes meat alternatives. However, products may be qualified as meat alternatives according to three key criteria as proposed in a taxonomy: (1) production and sourcing, (2) product characteristics, and/or (3) consumption. We recommend researchers (and other stakeholders) to do so as it allows for better informed future discussions of meat alternatives.
Meat production and consumption are sources of animal cruelty, responsible for several environmental problems and human health diseases, and contribute to social inequality. Vegetarianism and veganism (VEG) are two alternatives that align with calls for a transition to more ethical, sustainable, and healthier lifestyles. Following the PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a systematic literature review of 307 quantitative studies on VEG (from 1978 to 2023), collected from the Web of Science in the categories of psychology, behavioral science, social science, and consumer behavior. For a holistic view of the literature and to capture its multiple angles, we articulated our objectives by responding to the variables of “WHEN,” “WHERE,” “WHO,” “WHAT,” “WHY,” “WHICH,” and “HOW” (6W1H) regarding the VEG research. Our review highlighted that quantitative research on VEG has experienced exponential growth with an unbalanced geographical focus, accompanied by an increasing richness but also great complexity in the understating of the VEG phenomenon. The systematic literature review found different approaches from which the authors studied VEG while identifying methodological limitations. Additionally, our research provided a systematic view of factors studied on VEG and the variables associated with VEG-related behavior change. Accordingly, this study contributes to the literature in the field of VEG by mapping the most recent trends and gaps in research, clarifying existing findings, and suggesting directions for future research.
Ernährung soll nachhaltiger werden. Darüber besteht Einigkeit unter Wissenschaftler*innen. Die Forderungen finden Widerhall in der Ernährungsbranche und daher bieten entsprechende Angebote vermehrt Gelegenheiten für nachhaltigen Konsum; auch beim Verzehr von Speisen außer Haus. Dieser Beitrag spürt der Frage nach, ob es ausreicht, Gelegenheiten anbieterseitig zu schaffen. Außerdem wird gezeigt, welche Präferenzen ganz konkret Gäste von Betriebskantinen zeigen.
Background: In recent years, there has been a great interest in the dietary practices of vegetarians in addition to an increasing awareness of the potential benefits of vegetarian diets. However, there is insufficient data on the spread of vegetarianism in Arab countries. The study aims to investigate knowledge and attitude about vegetarianism and associated factors in Saudi population and to understand reasons for its growing prevalence.
Method: Participants in this cross-sectional study were aged 18–65. Participants were recruited primarily through social media. The electronic questionnaire compromised three sections: socio-demographic questions, reasons for following a vegetarian diet, and beliefs and knowledge about vegetarianism. Multivariate binary logistic regression was utilized to determine predictive factors for being a vegetarian.
Results: Responses were 3,035 of which 80.2% were female and 19.8% were male. Vegetarians represented 37.5% (15.7% semi-vegetarians, 8.1% pesco-vegetarians, 64.3% lacto-ovo-vegetarians, and 11.3% vegans) and the rest were non-vegetarians. The majority of the vegetarian participants (92.9%) have a low knowledge level. Health issues, followed by ethical, then environmental concerns were the most common motivators for adopting a vegetarian diet; these reasons were cited by 72.5%, 59.3%, and 47.9% of participants, respectively. Factors associated with increased vegetarianism were having exercises for half an hour to two hours, while factors associated with decreased vegetarianism were male gender, aged 51–64 years, being married, having a higher education, working in the health sector, being a housewife, and having an income between 5,000–10,000 SR/month.
Conclusion: Vegetarianism appears to be growing phenomenon among the Saudi population. Increased awareness of health issues and the desire to live a healthy lifestyle might be the strongest motive. This study offers an opportunity to better understand vegetarianism in Saudi Arabia along with the possibility of expanding vegetarian food choices to the general public.
We all feel that vegetarianism is spreading in Europe and beyond. Several countries have begun to research the causes and factors of the spread, but in many countries, such as Hungary, the available data are incomplete. Our research plan did not aim to clarify the basic data, but would have examined the question of what effect this spread may have on the structure of agricultural production and whether changes can be predicted. However, as we could not find adequate basic information, we decided to conduct a quick survey in which we can get an idea of the spread of vegetarianism in Hungary. A series of questions was sent to anonymous respondents who volunteered for the research. The questionnaires were compiled based on the results of foreign research in order to be comparable with these previous researches. At the time of publication, the number of participants in the research was 356. It was easiest to involve university graduates / university students in the research, so the results can be applied to Hungarian intellectuals the most. According to our research, vegetarianism strongly affects the younger generation, the proportion is high in cities and among those engaged in intellectual work, the worldview is more liberal in nature, its spread is supported in part or in whole by highly educated persons, only a few reject it. If the current trend continuing, and a significant proportion of the population will live in cities, and increasing the proportion of people with tertiary education to 40%, as set and targeted by the EU, will continue to contribute to the spread. The spread of the movement is also aided by its strong social acceptance, with very few rejecting it. We could state that based on the examined parameters, vegetarianism can be expected to grow slowly but surely.
Feeding is a basic need for all individuals relevant for their health and well-being. The adoption of vegetarian diets is justified not only in health and well-being arguments, namely considering some harmful effects of omnivorous diets on health, but also in arguments related to the environment and life ideology. The main objectives of this narrative review work focus on three interconnected and very actual topics: (1) to focus on the potential of plant-based diets in the prevention of chronic diseases and human well-being; (2) to frame plant-based diets as diets with recognized involvement in social, economic and environmental sustainability; and (3) to highlight the main alternative food products to foods of animal origin and the challenges facing the food industry. From the consulted literature, 68 scientific articles were analyzed, allowing to conclude that adopting a plant-based diet has played an important role in the prevention of chronic disease, well-being, and environmental sustainability.
La alimentación en Chile es un tema relevante debido a que, en la actualidad, estamos en el segundo lugar en cifras de obesidad después de EEUU entre los países de la OCDE. La evolución que ha tenido la situación nutricional en Chile permite señalar que pasamos de ser un país afectado por malnutrición por déficit en niños, a uno con elevadas cifras de exceso de peso y numerosas enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles relacionadas a esta condición.
El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar en la población chilena los determinantes del hábito de consumo alimentario saludable, e identificar qué determinantes sociales y socioeconómicas resultan más efectivas para explicar el caso chileno.
Metodología. La información se obtuvo mediante el consumo alimentario y las características sociodemográficas y económicas de los participantes en la Encuesta Nacional de Consumo Alimentario (ENCA), publicada el año 2014, y aplicada en el país entre los años 2010 y 2011. Con la información alimentaria se construye un índice de alimentación saludable (IAS), y en el análisis se aplicó tanto un modelo de logístico como otros de descomposición de varianza.
Resultados. La alimentación saludable es una característica protectora desigual en Chile. Los hombres (OR: 0.548), la clase media alta (OR: 0.6052), los habitantes de la región metropolitana (OR: 1 versus más cercano 1.23), y aquellos entre 20 a 49 años (OR: 0.397) y 50 a 64 años (OR: 0.688) son los que menos consumen este tipo de dieta. Además la alimentación saludable de los individuos es más explicada por una clasificación socioeconómica según el tipo de ocupación y nivel de educación del jefe de hogar que por el nivel y acceso económico del hogar (F (13,94: 0.6721<0.708)).
Conclusión. En Chile la desigualdad económica y social se relaciona con el tipo de cuidado en salud. Ante esto las características sociales y económicas del jefe de hogar son determinantes de una alimentación saludable. Así, la clase alta tiene una ingesta alimentaria más saludable que la clase baja, aunque la clase media no presenta una mejor alimentación que aquellos de clase baja o en situación de pobreza. Esto último afecta la movilidad social de la población nacional chilena, y hace necesario el estudio de la clase media.
As an emerging marketing tool that targets shoppers individually based on their purchase histories, personalized price promotion is likely to address the limitations of untargeted price reductions. However, there is no prior evidence to support the effectiveness of this approach in promoting low-calorie food choices, and which consumer-specific characteristics influence its performance. In this study, we analyze the effectiveness of personalized and non-personalized coupons for lower-calorie menus at a university canteen. In addition, we examine the interaction between psychological factors and promotional responses, as well as subsequent dietary outcomes. Overall, personalized price promotion performs better than the untargeted approach in encouraging shoppers to redeem the offered coupons and make menu choices with more healthy items and fewer calories. Factors such as calorie concerns, convenience orientation and the resistance to change eating habits have significant effects on coupon redemption. The role of coupon redemption in mediating the association between such psychological predictors and dietary changes proves the effectiveness of price reductions. This study highlights the potential of personalized price promotion as a healthy eating intervention and sets the groundwork for developing and evaluating this instrument.
Within recent years, demand as well as supply of products to replace meat, so called meat alternatives, have increased. For future products, new plant-based protein sources are of high interest. Protein from pea and especially from algae provide huge potential for human nutrition as well as for the environment. To provide insight on consumers' opinions on the development of new meat alternatives, this study investigated consumers' opinions of pea and algae burgers compared to the traditional beef burger in terms of taste, health, and environmental friendliness. It has also explored the influence of factors such as meat commitment, food neophobia, and the attitude towards vegetarians and vegans; it has then compared the findings between three European countries with different culinary backgrounds. The online survey was conducted with meat-eating participants from Germany (N=567), France (N=605), and the United Kingdom (N=562). Participants in all three countries expected pea and algae burgers to be less tasty, but healthier and more environmentally friendly compared to the beef burger. Expectations of taste, health, and environmental friendliness of pea and algae burgers were negatively influenced by higher levels of meat commitment, more negative attitudes towards vegetarian and vegan lifestyles, and higher food neophobia. Although the attitudes towards vegetarian lifestyles were generally negative, pea and algae emerged as promising protein sources because of their favorable health and environmental friendliness expectations. Nevertheless, negative taste expectations and attitudes towards meat-free diets remain a challenge for the adoption of more plant-based diets.
Background
A vegetarian diet (VD) may reduce future cardiovascular risk in patients with ischemic heart disease.
Methods and Results
A randomized crossover study was conducted in subjects with ischemic heart disease, assigned to 4‐week intervention periods of isocaloric VD and meat diet (MD) with individually designed diet plans, separated by a 4‐week washout period. The primary outcome was difference in oxidized low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL‐C) between diets. Secondary outcomes were differences in cardiometabolic risk factors, quality of life, gut microbiota, fecal short‐chain and branched‐chain fatty acids, and plasma metabolome. Of 150 eligible patients, 31 (21%) agreed to participate, and 27 (87%) participants completed the study. Mean oxidized LDL‐C (−2.73 U/L), total cholesterol (−5.03 mg/dL), LDL‐C (−3.87 mg/dL), and body weight (−0.67 kg) were significantly lower with the VD than with the MD. Differences between VD and MD were observed in the relative abundance of several microbe genera within the families Ruminococcaceae, Lachnospiraceae, and Akkermansiaceae. Plasma metabolites, including l ‐carnitine, acylcarnitine metabolites, and phospholipids, differed in subjects consuming VD and MD. The effect on oxidized LDL‐C in response to the VD was associated with a baseline gut microbiota composition dominated by several genera of Ruminococcaceae.
Conclusions
The VD in conjunction with optimal medical therapy reduced levels of oxidized LDL‐C, improved cardiometabolic risk factors, and altered the relative abundance of gut microbes and plasma metabolites in patients with ischemic heart disease. Our results suggest that composition of the gut microbiota at baseline may be related to the reduction of oxidized LDL‐C observed with the VD.
Registration
URL: https://www.clini caltr ials.gov ; Unique identifier: NCT02942628.
Cellular agriculture is an emerging branch of biotechnology that aims to address issues associated with the environmental impact, animal welfare and sustainability challenges of conventional animal farming for meat production. Cultured meat can be produced by applying current cell culture practices and biomanufacturing methods and utilizing mammalian cell lines and cell and gene therapy products to generate tissue or nutritional proteins for human consumption. However, significant improvements and modifications are needed for the process to be cost efficient and robust enough to be brought to production at scale for food supply. Here, we review the scientific and social challenges in transforming cultured meat into a viable commercial option, covering aspects from cell selection and medium optimization to biomaterials, tissue engineering, regulation and consumer acceptance.
This paper analyzes consumption of water by individuals agriculture and energy production by assessing the status of water resources. Furthermore it examines the relationship between water availability and biodiversity. The availability and quality of fresh water has become a major international problem. Limited water resources and inefficient water use combined with a rapidly growing population endanger the worlds finite fresh water supply. In many parts of the world per capita freshwater resources available for food production and for other human needs are declining and are becoming scarce in the arid regions. In fact agricultural productions account for approximately 87% of the worlds freshwater consumption. Moreover most of human activities adversely affect the quality of freshwater resources. Chemical and pathogen pollution of water supplies not only diminishes the quality of water but causes human health problems. Given these scenarios the freshwater problem can be prevented by 1) encouraging conservation and increasing efficiency of irrigation water by eliminating freshwater subsidies and encouraging developments in irrigation technologies; 2) giving farmers incentives to conserve water and soil resources; 3) controlling soil erosion; 4) protecting forests and other biological resources; and 4) preventing water pollution.
Abstract This study examines the link between social structural variables (gender, race, education, age, rural childhood), individual social psychology (altruism, self-interest, traditionality, and openness to change), and beliefs about the benefits of vegetarianism (for health, the environment, animals, and world hunger) and self-reported vegetarianism. Data from a random sample of 420 adult U.S. residents showed that 5.2 percent considered themselves vegetarian. The strongest predictor of vegetarianism as a dietary choice was the belief that vegetarianism is beneficial to the environment. None of the social structural variables had a direct influence on vegetarianism as a dietary choice. Of the four values studied, only altruism and traditional values influenced beliefs about the benefits of vegetarianism. Altruistic values increased, and traditional values decreased, beliefs that vegetarianism is beneficial to health, the environment, farm animals, and world hunger. Blacks were more likely than Whites to adhere to the beliefs that vegetarianism helps prevent cruelty to farm animals, is beneficial to personal health, and is beneficial to the environment. The race differences in beliefs persisted even with controls for values.
This integrative study investigated the generalization of the transtheoretical model across 12 problem behaviors. The cross-sectional comparisons involved relationships between two key constructs of the model, the stages of change and decisional balance. The behaviors studied were smoking cessation, quitting cocaine, weight control, high-fat diets, adolescent delinquent behaviors, safer sex, condom use, sunscreen use, radon gas exposure, exercise acquisition, mammography screening, and physicians' preventive practices with smokers. Clear commonalities were observed across the 12 areas, including both the internal structure of the measures and the pattern of changes in decisional balance across stages.
To determine the factors which are perceived to be important barriers to healthy eating among European adults.
A cross sectional study in which quota-controlled, nationally-representative samples of approximately 1000 adults from each country completed a face-to-face interview-assisted questionnaire.
The survey was conducted between October 1995 and February 1996 in the 15 member states of the European Union.
14,331 subjects (aged 15 y upwards) completed the questionnaire. Data were weighted by population size for each country and by sex, age and regional distribution within each member state.
The study demonstrates a great variability in the perceived barriers to healthy eating between different EU countries. Lack of time was the most frequently mentioned difficulty among EU subjects for not following nutritional advice (24% of total EU sample). This barrier was frequently reported by the younger and the higher education people. Other frequently reported barriers were giving up favourite foods (23%) and willpower (18%). Thus healthy diets do not appear to be viewed as an easy or attractive alternative to current diets. There was wide geographical variation in the number of subjects mentioning price as an important barrier to healthy eating (15% in overall EU sample) ranging from less than 10% in Germany and Italy to 23% in the UK and 24% in Luxembourg.
We combined data from 5 prospective studies to compare the death rates from common diseases of vegetarians with those of nonvegetarians with similar lifestyles. A summary of these results was reported previously; we report here more details of the findings. Data for 76172 men and women were available. Vegetarians were those who did not eat any meat or fish (n = 27808). Death rate ratios at ages 16-89 y were calculated by Poisson regression and all results were adjusted for age, sex, and smoking status. A random-effects model was used to calculate pooled estimates of effect for all studies combined. There were 8330 deaths after a mean of 10.6 y of follow-up. Mortality from ischemic heart disease was 24% lower in vegetarians than in nonvegetarians (death rate ratio: 0.76; 95% CI: 0.62, 0.94; P<0.01). The lower mortality from ischemic heart disease among vegetarians was greater at younger ages and was restricted to those who had followed their current diet for >5 y. Further categorization of diets showed that, in comparison with regular meat eaters, mortality from ischemic heart disease was 20% lower in occasional meat eaters, 34% lower in people who ate fish but not meat, 34% lower in lactoovovegetarians, and 26% lower in vegans. There were no significant differences between vegetarians and nonvegetarians in mortality from cerebrovascular disease, stomach cancer, colorectal cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, or all other causes combined.
To assess attitudes, predictors of intention, and identify perceived barriers to increasing fruit and vegetable (F&V) intakes.
UK nationwide postal survey utilizing the theory of planned behaviour.
Stratified (by social class and region) random sample of 2020 UK adults providing a modest response rate of 37% (n = 741).
Belief measures (e.g. health, cost, taste, etc.) were strongly associated with overall attitudes which were reported as being largely favourable towards fruit, vegetables and, to a lesser extent, vegetable dishes, and were strongly associated with reported intention to increase consumption. Subjects reported they could increase their consumption, but this was only weakly associated with intention to do so. Approximately 50% of respondents reported an intention to increase intakes. Social pressure was strongly associated with reported intention to increase; however, scores indicated low perceived social pressure to change. Evidence of unrealistic optimism concerning perceived intakes and the perceived high cost of fruit may also act as barriers.
Results from this study suggest a lack of perceived social pressure to increase F&V intakes and suggests that public health efforts require stronger and broader health messages that incorporate consumer awareness of low present consumption.
Information on the perceived difficulties in trying to eat a healthier diet is important in assisting those in nutrition education devise more effective programmes. The objective of this study was to determine the main perceived barriers that people have in trying to eat a healthy diet in the 15 member states of the European Union (EU). A cross-sectional study in which quota-controlled nationally representative samples of approximately 1000 adults (15 years upwards) from each member state completed a face-to-face interview-assisted questionnaire. The most frequently mentioned perceived barriers to healthy eating concerned time and taste factors. Time-related factors were more important for younger respondents and those with a higher level of education, who appear to regard taste as being compromised by healthy eating. Variation exists both between member states and between demographic groups in the frequency of barriers mentioned. A lack of knowledge about healthy eating was not selected by many as an important barrier. A major obstacle to nutrition education is the fact that 70% of EU subjects believe their diets are already healthy. It may be that nutrition educators should concentrate on showing consumers how to evaluate their own diet appropriately in terms of fat, fibre, and fruit and vegetables. Food-based guidelines may be useful in this endeavour.
The overall aim of this study was to examine a variety of belief and demographic factors that are associated with the perception that meat is intrinsically unhealthy.
State-wide survey (written questionnaire) that included questions on meat and nutrition beliefs, perceived barriers and benefits of vegetarian diets, personal values, number of vegetarian friends and family members, and use and trust of health/nutrition/food information sources.
South Australia.
Six hundred and one randomly selected South Australians and 106 non-randomly selected vegetarians and semi-vegetarians.
For all respondents considered as a group, the most important predictors of the belief that meat is intrinsically unhealthy were the perceived benefits of vegetarian diets (all positive predictors). These included: (1) the perceived links between vegetarianism, peace and increased contentment; (2) animal welfare and environmental benefits; and (3) health benefits. There were differences between different dietary groups however. For non-vegetarians, social concerns about vegetarianism (positive) were most important, followed by health and non-health benefits (positive) of vegetarianism. Red meat appreciation was the strongest (positive) predictor for vegetarians, with health benefits of vegetarianism (positive) and education (negative predictor) also important.
The implications of the findings for health and other issues are discussed. Judgements about the healthiness of meat are likely to be related to moral and environmental beliefs and, for non-vegetarians, to social concerns about vegetarianism, in addition to health beliefs. These need to be considered if any attempts are made to influence meat consumption.
The Sexual Politics of Meat is Carol Adams’ inspiring and controversial exploration of the interplay between contemporary society’s ingrained cultural misogyny and its obsession with meat and masculinity. First published in 1990, the book has continued to change the lives of tens of thousands of readers into the second decade of the 21st century.
Published in the year of the book’s 25th anniversary, the Bloomsbury Revelations edition includes a substantial new afterword, including more than 20 new images and discussions of recent events that prove beyond doubt the continuing relevance of Adams’ revolutionary book.
This survey focused on the use of the stages of change model of behavior change in reducing dietary fat intake while identifying attitudinal variables that might be relevant in the decision to change one's dietary habits. Knowledge of dietary fat and reported fat intake were also examined. Data were obtained using a cross-sectional survey of 1081 university employees. The Precontemplation stage comprised the largest group of respondents (33%) while the Contemplation stage was the smallest group, containing only 6% of respondents. Twelve percent of respondents were in the Preparation stage while the Action and Maintenance groups comprised 22% and 27% of the total population, respectively. Two one-way multivariate analyses of variance were used to compare male and female respondents across the five stages of change on knowledge, dietary fat intake, benefits, and barriers. Dietary fat intake and barriers to reducing fat intake decreased significantly across the stages of change while the benefits to change increased significantly across the stages. The results of our study confirm differences in stages of change in fat intake and indicate the need for taking these phases of change into account in nutrition advice.
We describe a rather common process that we call moralization, in which objects or activities that were previously morally neutral acquire a moral component. Moralization converts preferences into values, and in doing so influences cross-generational transmission (because values are passed more effectively in families than are preferences), increases the likelihood of internalization, invokes greater emotional response, and mobilizes the support of governmental and other cultural institutions. In recent decades, we claim, cigarette smoking in America has become moralized. We support our claims about some of the consequences of moralization with an analysis of differences between health and moral vegetarians. Compared with health vegetarians, moral vegetarians find meat more disgusting, offer more reasons in support of their meat avoidance, and avoid a wider range of animal foods. However, contrary to our prediction, liking for meat is about the same in moral and health vegetarians.
Following concerns in the literature about the conceptualization and operationalization of the perceived behavioral control (PBC) construct within the Theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985, 1991). 2 studies were conducted to examine whether questionnaire items explicitly assessing perceived difficulty and perceived control issues would attract a different pattern of responses. In applications of the theory of planned behavior to the reduction of red meat consumption and the reduction of potato chip (French fries) consumption, Principal Components Analysis showed that items reflecting perceived difficulty and items reflecting perceived control loaded onto different components. Furthermore, measures of perceived difficulty and not measures of perceived control contributed independent predictive effects in multiple regressions of respondents' behavioral intentions to make the dietary changes.
Any attempt to optimize a plant-based diet necessitates an identification of the features of the diet which confer benefit as well as any which may be associated with detrimental effects. The former task is more difficult than might be assumed as there is no doubt that some of the apparent health benefits observed amongst vegetarians are a consequence of environmental determinants of health which characterize groups of people who choose vegetarian diets, rather than dietary practices. This review will consider the major health benefits of plant-based diets, the specific foods or nutrients which confer the benefits as far as can be ascertained from present knowledge, potential nutrient deficiencies associated with a plant-based diet and nutritional strategies that can be employed to prevent any such deficiencies.
A lower risk of cancer at many different sites is seen in association with higher intakes of vegetables and fruit. There are many biologically plausible reasons for this potentially protective association. It is argued that increasing intake of plant foods to 400–800 g/day is a public health strategy of considerable importance for individuals and communities worldwide.
This research identifies benefits that target consumers from the national 5 A Day for Better Health media program find motivating, as well as barriers that these benefits must overcome. Conventional and “piggyback” focus groups were conducted with the target audience and with a comparison group (people who already eat five or more servings a day of fruits and vegetables). Consistent with prior research, target group participants saw little urgency to eating more fruits and vegetables and were not very involved with food planning. Benefits that seemed likely to encourage more consumption of fruits and vegetables were immediate benefits—such as feeling more energetic—rather than long-term benefits related to reducing health risks.Target consumers rejected as implausible or irrelevant other benefits that strategists had considered appropriate: feeling less stress and more in control and reducing one's risk of cancer. The target audience saw barriers of time and inconvenience in the “normal steps” in the comparison group's routine. Results have been used to develop communications. The findings suggest that nutrition educators should use messages with immediate consumer benefits and, consistent with prior research and theory, should offer “quick and easy” tips for consumers to attain the desired health-related behavior. The findings also underscore the importance of direct consumer research to ensure that program messages and strategies are relevant to the target audience.The study also illustrates the utility of piggyback groups to clarify differences and similarities between target and comparison segments and to assess how, if at all, comparison segments can effectively model desired consumer behavior.
This review provides a rigorous investigation of the question of whether the transtheoretical model (TTM) (or stages of change model) is applicable to eating behaviour change. The TTM is currently the most popular of a number of stage theories being used to examine health behaviour change. Stage theories specify an ordered set of 'stages of readiness to change' into which people can be classified and identify the factors that can facilitate movement from one stage to the next. If eating behaviour change follows a stage process, then nutritionists could identify the predominant stage or stages in a population and focus resources on those issues most likely to move people to the next stage (e.g. from no intention of changing, to thinking about changing). In addressing this question, the review draws on the defining characteristics of stage theories as clarified by Weinstein et al. (1998), provides an in-depth coverage of methodological considerations, and a detailed summary table of dietary studies applying the TTM. Specific recommendations are made for improving the accuracy of dietary stage classifications. Among the key conclusions are: (1) dietary studies using the TTM have been hampered by a focus on nutritional outcomes such as dietary fat reduction, rather than clearly understood food behaviours (e.g. five servings of fruit and vegetables per day); (2) accurate stage classification systems are possible for food-based goals, but major misclassification problems occur with nutrient-based goals; (3) observation of an association between stage and dietary intake is not sufficient to demonstrate the validity of the model for dietary behaviour; (4) there is a need for valid questionnaires to measure all aspects of the TTM, and more research on the whole model, particularly the 'processes of change', rather than on single constructs such as 'stage' (5) cross-sectional studies generally support the predicted patterns of between-stage differences in decisional balance, self-efficacy, and processes of change; (6) studies which test the key hypothesis that different factors are important in distinguishing different stages are rare, as are prospective studies and stage-matched interventions. Only such studies can conclusively determine whether the TTM is applicable to eating behaviour. Since the ultimate test of the TTM will be the effectiveness of stage-matched dietary interventions, the review ends by exploring the requirements for such studies.
How people intentionally change addictive behaviors with and without treatment is not well understood by behavioral scientists. This article summarizes research on self-initiated and professionally facilitated change of addictive behaviors using the key trans-theoretical constructs of stages and processes of change. Modification of addictive behaviors involves progression through five stages--pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance--and individuals typically recycle through these stages several times before termination of the addiction. Multiple studies provide strong support for these stages as well as for a finite and common set of change processes used to progress through the stages. Research to date supports a trans-theoretical model of change that systematically integrates the stages with processes of change from diverse theories of psychotherapy.
One hundred elderly men and women were interviewed, using a specially designed questionnaire to uncover possible alterations in food habits with regard to specific food items, and the reasons for these changes. Over half the sample had changed the type of bread used; the main reasons for change to brown or wholemeal were health and taste. Health was also the main reason given by the 26 per cent who had changed to a higher-fibre breakfast cereal. Thirty-eight had altered the type of milk consumed; 12 subjects were now using dried milk for reasons of health, including weight reduction. Forty-three percent had altered their usage of butter or margarine; butter was mainly selected for its taste, margarine mainly for health, but also taste and price. Other important reasons for change were the ease of obtaining convenience foods, the availability of familiar foods in one or two portion sizes, changes in family circumstances, and a desire for variety and ease of use, even if it involved an alteration in traditional cooking methods. Although it is often thought that the elderly are resistant to dietary change, there was no individual who had not made some alteration of food habits.
To assess perceived and actual barriers to dietary fat reduction.
A 20-week intervention study was carried out to investigate the problems encountered by persons attempting to reduce their fat intake.
Seventy subjects initially consuming moderately high-fat diets were recruited from the local area by newspaper advertisement. Sixty-one completed the study.
Subjects were randomized into either a control or an experimental group. Subjects in the experimental group (n = 45) received instruction on reducing their intake of fat using current dietary recommendations. All subjects initially completed a questionnaire to assess their beliefs and attitudes regarding selected dietary changes, and the experimental group also completed a similar questionnaire at intervals during the study. Weighed diet records were completed by all subjects throughout the study.
Repeated measures analysis of variance was used to examine changes in nutrient intake. Univariate analysis of variance was used to examine differences in barriers encountered by most and least successful fat reducers.
Perceived barriers reflected actual problems encountered. One of the most consistently reported problems was that of reduction in taste quality of the diet. Other problems included an increase in cost, decrease in convenience, lack of family support for certain changes, and an inability to judge the fat content of diets.
Strategies aimed at improving the taste of low-fat diets, increasing awareness of fat intake, and increasing family support may be most effective in promoting greater adherence to dietary guidelines intended to achieve reductions in fat consumption.
Le present article examine la facon dont la culture conditionne notre comportement alimentaire et, reciproquement, comment ce que nous choisissons de manger peut nous informer sur notre propre identite de membre de la societe occidentale ou simplement d'etre humain. La consommation de viande releve de bien plus que de la simple nutrition. Le gout, le plaisir, mais aussi les considerations de sante ont evolue avec les âges et ce qui pouvait etre jadis signe de vigueur et de prosperite devient aujourd'hui dietetiquement incorrect. La these centrale de l'A. est que la viande a longtemps represente un symbole de la puissance de l'homme sur le reste de la nature, et que cette vision des choses est en train de changer
The aim of the investigation was to study cohort differences at age 70 in probands born in 1901/02 and 1911/12 and to study longitudinal changes of dietary habits and intake of energy and nutrients between ages 70 and 76. The study is part of the gerontological and geriatric population studies in Gothenburg, Sweden.
The intake of both energy and nutrients was higher in the later cohort. One explanation for this lay in the choice of food items in that cohort. Intake of energy and almost all nutrients decreased in both men and women between ages 70 and 76. Energy intake reduced by 23% in men and 20% in women. The proportion of probands with nutrient intakes below RDA increased significantly at age 76.
The study revealed both cohort and longitudinal age changes in dietary habits. There is no reason to believe that elderly people are more conservative regarding their food choices than the rest of the population—at least not at the relatively young ages studied.
The topic of vegetarian nutrition can be approached from several angles, perhaps one of the most important being the impact that meat production is having on the under-developed world, where ancient rain forests are being cleared to provide land for cattle grazing. Debt-burdened countries are turning over agricultural land to raise cattle and grains for feeding the cattle. These practices have resulted in less available land for the production of food, global warming because of the practices used for deforestation, exhaustion of the world's water supply, and other adverse effects on the health of the world. The consumption of meat for food is taking a toll on the consumer and the health of the world's poorest people. It is also contributing to an expanding need for foreign aid and growing world hunger.
To develop a new dietary variety score (DVS) and link it to other measures of diet quality, including a modified diet quality index (DQI).
The subjects were 24 healthy young (ages 20 to 30 years) and 24 healthy older (ages 60 to 75 years) adults, including 24 men and 24 women. Their dietary intake assessments were based on one 24-hour food recall interview and 14 consecutive days of food records.
Energy and nutrient intakes were estimated using Nutritionist IV software. DVS was based on the cumulative number of different foods consumed over the 15-day period. DQI was a 5-point scale based on conformity with the key US dietary recommendations. Full score was awarded for diets deriving 30% or less of energy from fat, 10% or less of energy from saturated fat, more than 50% of energy from carbohydrate, and containing less than 300 mg cholesterol and 2,400 mg sodium per day. Analytic measures included analyses of variance, correlation analyses, and chi 2 tests.
Older subjects consumed more varied diets than did young subjects. Higher DVS values were linked positively to vitamin C intakes and negatively to the consumption of salt, sugar, and saturated fat. However, a high DVS was not linked to a high score on the DQI in this subject sample.
Few studies have addressed the issue of how many different foods constitute a varied diet. The present classification scheme offers a new way of assessing dietary variety at the individual or group level. Measures of dietary variety may represent an additional facet of diet quality and their relationship to selected health outcomes should be examined further.
To determine the main perceived benefits associated with healthy eating among European adults. Efforts to make a healthy diet more attractive have to be based on motives capable of stimulating alterations in nutritional behaviour.
A cross-sectional study in which quota-controlled, nationally-representative samples of approximately 1000 adults from each country completed a face-to-face interview-assisted questionnaire.
The survey was conducted between October 1995 and February 1996 in the 15 member states of the European Union.
A total of 14331 subjects (aged 15 y upwards) completed the questionnaire. Data were weighted by population size for each country and by sex, age and regional distribution within each member state.
The question 'which specific benefits, if any, would you personally believe can be achieved by healthy eating'? was answered from a collection of 9 given items with stay healthy by 67% of subjects, with prevent disease by 66%, with be fit by 53%, with control weight by 53% and with quality of life by 45%. The most important personal benefit was asked by the question 'which one benefit would be the most personally significant for you'? 31% of subjects stated stay healthy, 24% prevent disease, 10% control weight, 10% quality of life, 9% be fit. The frequency of answered statements differed considerably between the EU countries, however, no regional structure was detected. More women then men expected benefits from healthy eating. With increasing age more people tended to believe in the benefits stay healthy and prevent disease. Be fit was a more important benefit for younger people (aged 15-34 y). People with a higher level of education associated more benefits from healthy eating.
To examine the perceived need to alter eating habits among nationally-representative samples from each member state of the European Union (EU).
A cross-sectional study in which quota-controlled, nationally-representative samples of approximately 1000 adults from each country completed a face-to-face interview-assisted questionnaire.
The survey was conducted between October 1995 and February 1996 in the 15 member states of the European Union.
14,331 subjects (aged 15 y upwards) completed the questionnaire. Data were weighted by population size for each country and by sex, age and regional distribution within each member state.
71% of EU subjects agreed with the statement 'I do not need to make changes to the food I eat, as it is already healthy enough'. There was wide variation between the member states ranging from 47% in Finland to 87% in Italy indicating agreement. Overall there was little difference between the sexes except in Austria, Belgium, Germany, Greece and Ireland, but the proportions of subjects agreeing with the statement generally increased with advancing age and decreased with higher levels of education. The effects of demographics were not consistent across member states. A total of 49% of EU subjects agreed with the statement 'I usually do not think of the nutritional aspects of the food I eat'. Significantly more females than males disagreed with the statement in all countries except Portugal. In all member states there were widespread beliefs that people in general should decrease their consumption of savoury snacks and increase their consumption of fruit and vegetables.
The results of this study demonstrate that dietary advice may not be perceived as personally relevant among EU subjects. In addition important target groups for the promotion of healthy eating have been identified for example, males or subjects with low levels of education. Because of the variation in attitudes a single pan-EU healthy eating programme is unlikely to be effective for all countries or for different demographic groups.
In the past few decades, increasing concern about the role of diet in the aetiology of diseases such as heart disease and certain cancers, including colon cancer and the hormone-related cancers, has led to a number of studies assessing the role of various food components. Many of these studies, particularly those in the 1970s and 1980s looked at individual foods or nutrients without assessing their role in relation to other dietary components. Thus the role of red meat was often examined in isolation from energy, fat or fibre intake or from consumption of other food groups such as vegetables or fruit. Epidemiological studies of the dietary aetiology of colon cancer have been undertaken in a number of communities with varying meat and dietary intake profiles and with varying results. To provide background information for an assessment of the potential role of red meat consumption in the aetiology of colon cancer in the Australian context, an analysis of current consumption patterns of red meat in the population was undertaken. The results show that red meat consumption, which had been falling since the 1970s, continued to decline in Australia at a time when colon cancer rates were rising. Red meat intake in 1995/6 averaged 88 g a day for men and 45 g a day for women and was contributing less than one-fifth of the dietary fat and saturated fat in the Australian diet. Those with the highest intakes of red meat on the day of the survey had intakes of vegetables and fruits closer to those of non-red meat eaters, with the low-to-moderate red meat consumers having the lower intakes of fruits and vegetables.
Compared with non-vegetarians, Western vegetarians have a lower mean BMI (by about 1 kg/m2), a lower mean plasma total cholesterol concentration (by about 0.5 mmol/l), and a lower mortality from IHD (by about 25%). They may also have a lower risk for some other diseases such as constipation, diverticular disease, gallstones and appendicitis. No differences in mortality from common cancers have been established. There is no evidence of adverse effects on mortality. Much more information is needed, particularly on other causes of death, other morbidity including osteoporosis, and long-term health in vegans. The evidence available suggests that widespread adoption of a vegetarian diet could prevent approximately 40,000 deaths from IHD in Britain each year.
Up to 80% of breast, bowel and prostate cancers are attributed to dietary practices, and international comparisons show strong positive associations with meat consumption. Estimates of relative risk obtained from cohort investigations are in the same direction, although generally weak, and red and processed meats rather than white meat seem to be associated with elevated risk of colon cancer. In breast cancer, there are consistent associations with total meat intake and there is evidence of a dose response. Despite these associations with meat, existing studies suggest that vegetarians do not have reduced risk of breast, bowel or prostate cancer, but there are no quantitative estimates of amounts of meat consumed by meat eaters in these cohort studies. Possible mechanisms underlying epidemiological associations include the formation of heterocyclic amines in meat when it is cooked. These heterocyclic amines require acetylation by P450 enzymes, and individuals with the fast-acetylating genotype who eat high amounts of meat may be at increased risk of large-bowel cancer. NH3 and N-nitroso compounds (NOC) formed from residues by bacteria in the large bowel and probably also important. NH3 is a promotor of large-bowel tumours chemically induced by NOC, and some of the chromosomal mutations found in human colo-rectal cancer are consistent with effects of NOC and heterocyclic amines. However, the type, amount, and cooking method of meat or protein associated with increased risk are not certain. The effects of high levels of meat on NH3 and NOC output are not reduced by increasing the amount of fermentable carbohydrate in the diet, but interaction between meat, NSP and vegetable intakes on the risk of cancer has not been studied comprehensively. The interaction between dietary low-penetrance genetic polymorphic and somatic mutation factors has also been investigated to a limited extent. Current Department of Health (1998) recommendations are that meat consumption should not rise, and that consumers at the top end of the distribution should consider a reduction in intakes.
In a study of influences on meat consumption, over 700 South Australians answered questions on frequency of meat consumption, beliefs about meat and nutrition, perceived difficulties with and benefits of vegetarian diets, personal values, number of vegetarian significant others, use in and trust of health/nutrition/food information sources, and demography. Perceived difficulties with vegetarian diets, the number of vegetarian significant others and beliefs about meat were important predictors of meat consumption. There were differences between men and women and members of different age groups, which should be taken into account when attempts are made to influence meat consumption. For example, health promotion campaigns that focus on whether or not meat is necessary in the diet may influence meat consumption, but would be most successful if directed predominantly at older people and men. In contrast, the meat consumption of women and younger people was strongly associated with more specific concerns about lack of iron and protein in the vegetarian diet. Some of the difficulties people find with vegetarian diets will also apply to plant-based diets generally, and such diets are becoming more widely acknowledged as providing health benefits. Therefore, the findings have important implications for public health.
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