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... Research has shown that front crawl (front crawl) swimming is highly reliant on the exertion of high impulses against the water during the propulsive phase (Sharp et al., 1981, Costill et al., 1986, Costill et al., 1980 with upper body strength being important. ...
... SL and SR are the two biomechanical parameters that are investigated in the majority of studies and have been linked to improvements in swimming performance. Many studies have highlighted the importance of SL in improving swimming performance (Girold et al., 2006, Smith et al., 2002, Figueiredo et al., 2011, Chatard and Mujika, 1999, Costill et al., 1980, Craig et al., 1985, Hay et al., 1983 and therefore maintaining mechanical propulsive efficiency throughout the race. SR has been determined as a key factor in 50 m performance compared to other swimming distances (Girold et al., 2007) and known to influence swimming velocity (Wakayoshi et al., 1995, Figueiredo et al., 2011, Craig et al., 1985. ...
... Swimming velocity is the product of SL (metres per stroke cycle) and SR (strokes per minute) (Craig and Pendergast, 1979) and therefore both these factors are important determinants of swimming velocity. Many studies have highlighted the importance of SL in improving swimming performance (Girold et al., 2006, Smith et al., 2002, Figueiredo et al., 2011, Chatard and Mujika, 1999, Costill et al., 1980, Craig et al., 1985, Hay et al., 1983 and therefore maintaining mechanical propulsive efficiency throughout a race. SR has been determined as a key factor in 50 m performance compared to other swimming distances (Girold et al., 2007) and is known to influence swimming velocity (Wakayoshi et al., 1995, Figueiredo et al., 2011, Craig et al., 1985. ...
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Swimming performance requires a whole body coordinated movement to elicit high propulsive forces with the majority of forces produced from the upper body musculature. The current academic literature highlights a range of dry-land resistance exercises that show moderate to strong correlations to swimming performance; however, association does not imply causation. Specificity states that adaptations are specific to the nature of the training stress applied and therefore it is important to highlight the dry-land resistance exercises improving swimming performance. The aim of this research study is to examine the specificity of dry-land resistance exercises to swimming performance. A systematic review of the impact of resistance training on front crawl swimming performance highlighted that low volume, high force, traditional resistance training programmes, showed positive improvement in swimming performance. Neuromuscular adaptations contribute to resistance training exercises improving swimming performance according to several research studies. A review of the specificity between front crawl swimming and dry-land resistance exercises using electromyography (EMG) data highlighted a series of similar prime movers (i.e. latissimus dorsi, pectoralis major, triceps brachii and deltoids) between a range of dry-land resistance exercises. A qualitative study of elite swimming strength and conditioning coaches identified the dry-land resistance exercises most commonly used and deemed most relevant by practitioners and coaches. The bench press and pull up were the two upper body dry-land resistance exercises that coaches ranked highest in terms of improving swimming performance. This prompted an investigation of the specificity of these dry-land resistance exercises to front crawl swimming using EMG data analysis. Following a series of pilot tests, 14 male national and international swimmers were recorded using 2D kinematic analysis to identify event cycles and EMG to investigate muscle activations. The specificity of front crawl swimming to bench press and pull up exercises were examined using temporal coordination , temporal muscle activation overlaps, Functional Data Analysis (FDA) Pearson pointwise correlations, Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM) t-tests and Root Mean Square Difference (RMSD). The findings of this research show that while the key prime movers between the bench press and pull up exercises and front crawl swimming are similar, there is limited specificity. The results would also suggest that these exercises are applicable for the general preparation period but not for the specific competition period. The large variability within the data set makes findings difficult to interpret. Future research needs to focus on individual analysis of specificity, as the large variability does not make group analysis techniques representative of the high level of individual variability found within the data set. Greater specificity is required through the development of a coherent biomechanical model of specificity that describes joint angles, angular velocity, torque and muscle activations.
... Several conditioning training methods using swim bench, weight training, or in-water resistance have been described to improve swimmers' physical abilities (8,18,48). At high levels of practice and ability, program efficiency mainly depends on the training session intensity (4,37) and the specificity of the coming event (33,46). ...
... Generally, gains in sprint performance are consistent within 1.3-4.4% (8,43,48). For example, Strass et al. (48) showed that press and draw exercises with barbells over a 6-week period at a rate of 4 sessions per week and an intensity of 90-100% in relation to 1 maximal repetition led to significant 4.4 and 2.1% increases in performance over 25 and 50 m, respectively. ...
... The gain in performance for S was also correlated with the increase in stroke length. Several studies have demonstrated the importance of stroke length in swimming (5,8). In a 50-m sprint, stroke length is a key factor even if it is less than that observed for other swimming distances. ...
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This study was undertaken to compare the effects of dry-land strength training vs. an electrical stimulation program on swimmers. Twenty-four national-level swimmers were randomly assigned to 3 groups: the dry-land strength training program (S), the electrical stimulation training program (ES), and the control (C) group. The training program lasted 4 weeks. The subjects were evaluated before the training, at the end of the training program, and 4 weeks later. The outcome values ascertained were peak torque during arm extension at different velocities (from -60 to 180°·s(-1)) using an isokinetic dynamometer and performance, stroke rate, and stroke length during a 50-m front crawl. A significant increase in swimming velocity and peak torque was observed for both S and ES at the end of the training and 4 weeks later. Stroke length increased in the S group but not in the ES group. However, no significant differences in swimming velocity between S and ES groups were observed. No significant changes occurred in the C group. Programs combining swimming training with dry-land strength or electrical stimulation programs led to a similar gain in sprint performance and were more efficient than swimming alone.
... Stroke length and stroke rate are the two biomechanical parameters that are investigated in the majority of studies, and have been linked to improvements in swimming performance. Many studies have highlighted the importance of stroke length in improving swimming performance [2,20,[64][65][66][67][68] and therefore maintaining mechanical propulsive efficiency throughout the race. Stroke rate has been determined as a key factor in 50 m performance compared with other swimming distances [18], and has been known to influence swimming velocity [3,64,67]. ...
... A decrease in velocity has been shown to be directly associated with a decrease in stroke length [67,75]. Stroke length can therefore be shown to be an important factor in freestyle swimming [65,66]. Girold et al. [32] and Strass [31] found an increase in stroke length, and this transferred to an increase in swimming performance. ...
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Background The majority of propulsive forces in swimming are produced from the upper body, with strong correlations between upper body strength and sprint performance. There are significant gaps in the literature relating to the impact of resistance training on swimming performance, specifically the transfer to swimming performance. Objective The aims of this systematic literature review are to (1) explore the transfer of resistance-training modalities to swimming performance, and (2) examine the effects of resistance training on technical aspects of swimming. Methods Four online databases were searched with the following inclusion criteria: (1) journal articles with outcome measures related to swimming performance, and (2) competitive swimmers participating in a structured resistance-training programme. Exclusion criteria were (1) participants with a mean age <16 years; (2) untrained, novice, masters and paraplegic swimmers; (3) triathletes and waterpolo players; (4) swimmers with injuries or illness; and (5) studies of starts and turns specifically. Data were extracted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, and the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was applied. ResultsFor optimal transfer, specific, low-volume, high-velocity/force resistance-training programmes are optimal. Stroke length is best achieved through resistance training with low repetitions at a high velocity/force. Resisted swims are the most appropriate training modality for improving stroke rate. Conclusion Future research is needed with respect to the effects of long-term resistance-training interventions on both technical parameters of swimming and overall swimming performance. The results of such work will be highly informative for the scientific community, coaches and athletes.
... Vergleicht man Schwimmer von damals und heute, wird klar, dass diese Verbesserungen nicht nur auf eine veränderte Schwimmtechnik oder verbesserte Schwimmanzüge zurückzuführen sind. Neben der Bedeutung anthropometrischer Charakteristiken auf die Schwimmleistung (7,10,16,23,24) zeigen zahlreiche Studien, wie wichtig die physische Leistungsfähigkeit im Schwimmsport ist (4,5,7,20,22,25). Hier versuchten die Autoren vor allem eine Assoziation zwischen Kraft-und Leistungsparametern und der Schwimmzeit herzustellen. ...
... Hier versuchten die Autoren vor allem eine Assoziation zwischen Kraft-und Leistungsparametern und der Schwimmzeit herzustellen. Meist wurden sportartspezifische Messungen an einer isokinetischen Schwimmbank oder selbstgebauten Testgeräten durchgeführt (5,22,26). Nur selten bezieht man sich auf motorische Fähigkeiten wie etwa die Bein-oder Rumpfkraft, die Handgriffkraft, Sprungkraft oder die anaerobe Leistungsfähigkeit (7,11,18). Bei den wenigen Studien mit Jugendlichen zeigen die Ergebnisse von Geladas et al. (7) einen Zusammenhang (r=-0,58 bis r=-0,73) zwischen Sprung-und Handgriffkraft und der 100 m Freistilzeit bei 12-14-jährigen. ...
Article
1. Purpose of the study: To develop a battery of tests for swimming and to determine if the results of this battery are related to performance in different freestyle events. 2. Methods: 15 male (age 17,1±1,8 years; stature 180±8 cm; body weight 69,5±10,0 kg) and 15 female (age 17,0±1,9 years; stature 168±6 cm; body weight 59,8±6,8 kg) junior swimmers took part in the study. The test battery included tests for balance, flexibility, cyclic speed, leg and core strength, jump power, bench press and bench pull. A laboratory swim specific test was also administered. The test results were correlated with swim times over 50, 100 and 400 m freestyle. 3. Results: Except for balance and flexibility all test variables showed correlations with swim times (r=-0,526 to r=-0,829). In the boys' group, the test battery explained 68,7%, 72,9% and 62,5% of the variance for swim times over 50, 100 and 400 m freestyle respectively. For the girls, the test battery explained 51,3% und 56,2% of the variance for swim times over 50 and 100 m freestyle respectively. The multiple regression analysis produced no result for the 400 m event in girls. 4. Discussion: The relationship between the parameters in this test battery and swim performance decreases with increasing distance. In freestyle swimming, boys rely more on strength than girls do. Besides the swim specific test, a swimming test battery should include tests for bench pull, bench press and core strength.
... Acredita--se que o TF contribua gerando uma sobrecarga complementar aos músculos usados no nado (7), visando aumentar os níveis da força e a potência de nado. No entanto, apesar de muito utilizado, a literatura ainda é carente de pesquisas que relatem os efeitos do TF na composição corporal de nadadores competitvos, sobretudo quando há ênfase no desenvolvimento da potência, capacidade altamente correlacionada com o desempenho nesta modalidade (6,8,9). Este foi, portanto, o primeiro objetivo do presente estudo. ...
... Sendo assim, nos parece existir uma relação "ótima" de composição corporal para otimização de rendimento, em consonância ao apontado por Lowensteyn, Signorile e Giltz (4), sendo, portanto, necessário cautela quanto 1) a necessidade de diminuição expressiva de adiposidade, uma vez que níveis muito baixos de gordura subcutânea possam afetar negativamente o desempenho por contribui para uma menor flutuabilidade e posição do corpo em uma posição hidrodinamicamente menos favorável (4), assim como 2) estratégia de treinamento de força para aumento os níveis da força voluntária máxima para melhora de desempenho na natação (6,8,9), uma vez que para atletas de similar qualidade técnica podem apresentar ganho de desempenho menos expressivo justamente pelo possível aumento da massa magra, e conseqüente aumento do arrasto. ...
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The main aim of this study was to verify the effect of strength training (ST) on body composition of competitive swimmers. Sixteen athletes (21.93 years ± 2.17) were assigned to control (CG, n=8) and experimental (EG, n=8) groups. During 12 weeks both groups carried out the same swim training (05 sessions.week-1,01 hour.session-1). In land, EG was also submitted to ST (02 sessions.week-1, 01 hour.session-1) aiming power development. Body density was calculated by Guedes’ (1985) equation, which consider the tricipital (TRI), abdominal (ABD) and suprailiac skinfolds (SI). Body fat percentage (%F) was estimated by Siri’s equation, from which was determined the fat mass (FM). Lean body mass (LBM) was obtained deducting the body fat mass from body total mass (BM).In water, the average velocity was evaluated in 25 (Vel25) and 50m (Vel50). After training both groups showed non-significant decrease in %F (-15.8% in CG and -15.2% in EG). Despite of differences found between groups in both evaluation moments, no significant variation was detected in BM and LBM. ABD skinfold decreased in CG (-39.2%, p<0.04) as also in EG (51.1%, p<0.01), while SI increased significantly in EG (31.5%), showing intergroup difference in pre-training evaluation. Both groups showed significant increases in Vel25 and Vel50, even though it had been greater in the CG. Additionally, it was found a significant correlation between the variations of the FM and Vel25 in the CG. It can be concluded that ST proposed in the present study did not influence the body composition significantly, and that swim training might be the responsible for the %F decrease and swimming velocity augmentation.
... Nessa perspectiva, treinamento de força tem sido incorporado em programas de treinamento físico, adotando-se duas abordagens: dentro da água, ou específico, e fora da água, ou não-específico (Barbosa et al, 2007). Estudos (Costill et al., 1980) sugerem que os protocolos de treinamentos devam ser aplicados de forma específica. A este cenário, estudos consolidam os métodos específicos eficazes para aumento do desempenho de nadadores, quando comparados aos métodos não-específicos (Girold et al., ...
... A capacidade muscular para gerar força e velocidade é considerada um fator determinante para o desempenho de nadadores (Costill et al. 1980; Marinho; Gomes, 1999). Nessa perspectiva, programas de treinamento têm sido adotados tanto fora ( Junior, 2006; Tanaka et al., 1993; Davis, 1955; Jensen, 1963) quanto dentro d'água (Toussaint; Vervoorn, 1990; Girold et al., 2007; Girold et al., 2006). ...
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Resumo l O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o papel do parachute no desempenho de atletas de natação velocistas. Quinze nadadores foram randomizados em dois grupos (TSP: treinado sem parachute, n = 6; TCP: treinados com parachute, n = 9). O volume de treinamento foi equivalente para ambos os grupos. Foram encontradas diferenças significativas (p < 0,001) no número de braçadas e na força muscular de membros superiores e no desempenho no teste de 25 m somente no grupo TCP. Dessa forma, o emprego do parachute em programas de treinamento constitui uma boa ferramenta para desenvolvimento de força e velocidade de nadadores. Palavras-chave l Treinamento de força. Performance. Natação Title l Performance on tests of speed swimmers trained sprinters with parachute Abstract l The objective of this study was to evaluate the role of the parachute in the performance of swimmers sprinters. Fifteen swimmers were randomized into two groups (TSP: no parachute trained, n = 6; TCP: trained to parachute, n = 9). The volume of training was equivalent for both groups. There were significant differences (p <0.001) in the number of strokes and muscle strength of upper and performance in 25 m only in the TCP. Thus, the use of parachute training programs is a good tool for developing strength and speed of swimmers.
... A potência muscular é considerada como um fator determinante no desempenho de nadadores. Muitos estudos expõem a alta correlação existente entre potência e velocidade (COSTILL, SHARP & TROUP, 1980;MARINHO, 2002;MARINHO & GOMES, 1999;SHARP, TROUP & COSTILL, 1982;SWAINE, 2000), inferindo que altos níveis de potência se transferem positivamente para a velocidade de deslocamento. Dentre as formas de desenvolvimento das condições ótimas de potência encontra-se o treinamento de força. ...
... Os resultados encontrados neste estudo diferem de alguns trabalhos realizados anteriormente (COSTILL, SHARP & TROUP, 1980;DAVIS, 1955;MIYASHITA & KANEHISA, 1983;SHARP, TROUP & COSTILL, 1982), onde foi encontrada transferência positiva do treino de força para o desempenho dentro dela. Apesar das diferentes metodologias aplicadas, algumas informações destes estudos são insuficientes para serem conclusivas. ...
Article
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The aim of this study was to verify the effects of strength training on swimming performance. Sixteen male swimmers (21.93 years ± 2.17) were randomly assigned to control (CG / n = 8) and experimental (EG / n = 8) groups. The water session was the same for both groups. The EG was also submitted to power strength training. Data were collected in the third (Pre) and seventeenth (Post) week. Mean speeds were collected in 25 m (T25) and 50 m (T50). It was also used the one maximum repetition test (1RM) and maximum repetitions with 70% of 1RM (RSM) during thirty seconds in the bench press (BP), high pulley (HPU) and leg press 45º (LPI). Changes between Pre and Post were detected by analysis of variance for repeated measures (ANOVA) followed by Scheffé post-hoc test (p < 0.05). T25 improved significantly for both groups (5.21% - CG and 3.74% - EG). T50 also increased for both groups (5.69% - GC and 5.33% - EG). Significant differences between groups were detected in Pre for T50 and Post for T50 and T25. EG 1RM test showed improvements (p < 0.05) of 16.46% in BP, 17.34% in HPU and 25.31% in LPI. CG showed significant differences only in LPI (14.01%). No significant differences were found in RSM for both groups. Despite of strength improvement in EG, CG presented better performance. In this study, the strength training methodology did not influence positively swimming performance.
... Speed, strength, and muscle power have been indispensable for swimmers in short events (50, 100, and 200 meters) (26,47,59). Besides improving water motor tasks (43), power training also provides determinant adaptations for competitive swimming (16,20,45). The benefit of improving strength and speed include improved synchronization and motor recruitment (48) Int J Exerc Sci 16 (6): 2023 International Journal of Exercise Science http://www.intjexersci.com ...
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Literature diverges about the performance improvement after dry-land training. Thus, the objective of the present study was to compare the effect of two models of dry-land training. Twenty-nine swimmers were divided into three groups, combined strength and power training (PTG), only strength training (STG), and a control group (CG). Measurements were taken for six weeks, before dry-land exposure (M1), after four weeks of specific training with exposure to dry-land training by two groups (M2), and after two weeks of taper without exposure to dry-land training (M3). Strength in specific exercises, jumping tests, and 50, 100, and 200m freestyle performance were evaluated on M1 and M3, while hematological and strength parameters in tethered swimming were measured in M1, M2, and M3. PTG showed time-effect improvement for 200, 100, and 50m performance (p<0.014), CG for 200 and 100m (p<0.047), and STG only for 100m (p:0.01). No differences were found in Δ performance between groups. PTG showed improvement in the peak force of tethered swimming on M2 (p:0.019), followed by a decrease on M3 (p:0.003). PTG and STG also showed an increase in creatinine, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and creatine kinase (CK) after M2 (p<0.038). Finally, it was concluded that both dry-land training sessions could change hematological parameters and improve physical attributes on dry-land and tethered swimming tests without improving performance.
... Stroke length maintains swimming propulsive forces in the horizontal direction, improves swimming efficiency, and determines swimming velocity [13,[44][45][46][47][48][49][50]. Although some studies suggest that low repetition and high force strength training induced an increase in stroke length [51,52], others showed no significant increase [10,53], so further investigation is warranted. ...
Chapter
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This chapter covers the impact of strength training for swimming performance (free swimming, starts, and turns); its effects on swimming biomechanics; dry-land and in-water strength training methods; and the periodization of strength training for swimming performance.
... In this hypothesis, the maximum aerobic power and anaerobic threshold indices should, on the contrary, be strongly correlated. For anaerobic exercises, no matter of the size of the muscular mass, the limiting factors should be essentially local (enzymatic equipment, types of muscle fibres), if we exclude the motor control (Costill, Sharp, & Troup, 1980). The maximum local and general anaerobic power should therefore be a priori highly correlated if the muscle groups involved are identical (Bangsbo et al., 2000). ...
... Flexibility is very important for good and efficient strokes (Schramm, 1987) with big amplitude. It could be found that important factors also are the coordinative and technical abilities (Sharp et al., 1982) and the complex speed abilities, which are energy generator the isokinetic pulling force of the arms (Costill et al., 1980), the power of the start (Thayer & Hay, 1984;Rudolph, 1997) and the clean speed shortly after the start (Wirtz et al., 1996). Good coordination between strokes and kick affects swimming performance, too. ...
... Flexibility is very important for good and efficient strokes (Schramm, 1987) with big amplitude. It could be found that important factors also are the coordinative and technical abilities (Sharp et al., 1982) and the complex speed abilities, which are energy generator the isokinetic pulling force of the arms (Costill et al., 1980), the power of the start (Thayer & Hay, 1984;Rudolph, 1997) and the clean speed shortly after the start (Wirtz et al., 1996). Good coordination between strokes and kick affects swimming performance, too. ...
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In aim of correlation between antropometric characteristics, motor abilities and results of swimming 50m in all swimming techniques, a group of 22 swimmers (girls) of Serbian national team, aged 14-15, underwent some anthropometric measurements as well as some motor abilities. Observed longitudinal dimensions were: body height, body mass, arm span and torax circumference and observed motor abilities were: body strength (arms, legs, stomach) and flexibility (trunk and arms). Regression analisys showed that arm span corellated with 50m butterfly and free style score as well as strenght of body and legs corellated with 50m backstroke and free style score. Other measures didn΄t corelatted significantly on this sample. Study results confirms importance of arm span and some segments of body strenhgt of swimmers (girls) for successful swimm on 50m in butterfly, backstroke and freestyle techniques in the age 14-15 years.
... Most of the studies of swimming efficiency in man have involved the use of expensive specialised equipment (Di Prampero et al, 1974;Kemper et al, 1976). These studies have provided considerable information concerning the physiology and biomechanics of swimming but there does not seem to have been much spin-off for the club coach in terms of methods of assessing swimming efficiency and, therefore, methods of evaluating the effects of different training programmes (Costill et al, 1980). The present paper outlines the development of a technique for monitoring the effects of training on swimming efficiency for use with welltrained swimmers. ...
... In fact, young competitive swimmers could enhance significantly sprint performance during eight consecutive weeks of high aerobic training volume. Early studies that examined the impact of strength training on swim performance used untrained subjects, but many of these experiments did not include a control group or provide information on the type of exercise regimen used as the training stimulus ( Costill et al., 1980;Davis, 1955;Nunney, 1960;Tanaka and Swensen, 1998). Tanaka et al. (1993) studied the effects of combined swim and traditional strength training on swimming performance using competitive collegiate swimmers. ...
Article
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The aim of the current study was twofold: (i) to examine the effects of eight weeks of combined dry land strength and aerobic swimming training for increasing upper and lower body strength, power and swimming performance in young competitive swimmers and, (ii) to assess the effects of a detraining period (strength training cessation) on strength and swimming performance. The participants were divided into two groups: an experimental group (eight boys and four girls) and a control group (six boys and five girls). Apart from normal practice sessions (six training units per week of 1 h and 30 min per day), the experimental group underwent eight weeks (two sessions per week) of strength training. The principal strength exercises were the bench press, the leg extension, and two power exercises such as countermovement jump and medicine ball throwing. Immediately following this strength training program, all the swimmers undertook a 6 week detraining period, maintaining the normal swimming program, without any strength training. Swimming (25 m and 50 m performances, and hydrodynamic drag values), and strength (bench press and leg extension) and power (throwing medicine ball and countermovement jump) performances were tested in three moments: (i) before the experimental period, (ii) after eight weeks of combined strength and swimming training, and (iii) after the six weeks of detraining period. Both experimental and control groups were evaluated. A combined strength and aerobic swimming training allow dry land strength developments in young swimmers. The main data can not clearly state that strength training allowed an enhancement in swimming performance, although a tendency to improve sprint performance due to strength training was noticed. The detraining period showed that, although strength parameters remained stable, swimming performance still improved
... This lack of significant associations is at odds with previous studies with swimmers (Smith et al., 2002). The lack of associations between strength and swimming performance may be due to: the fact that the association between strength and performance becomes more evident at high swimming velocities , namely in shorter duration events than those that we have used (Christensen and Smith, 1987; Costill et al., 1980; 1983; Geladas et al., 2005; Hawley et al., 1992; Klentrou and Montpetit, 1991; Roberts et al., 1991; Toussaint and Vervoorn, 1990); the fact that there is a tenuous transfer of dry land strength to swimming, especially when the load and movement velocity is held constant (Olbrecht et al., 1985; Sharp et al., 1982). Watanabe and Takai (2005) tried to analyze the factors that contribute to swimming performance and to determine the extent to which these factors change with respect to age group swimmers' development. ...
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The aims of the present study were: to identify the factors which are able to explain the performance in the 200 meters individual medley and 400 meters front crawl events in young swimmers, to model the performance in those events using non-linear mathematic methods through artificial neural networks (multi-layer perceptrons) and to assess the neural network models precision to predict the performance. A sample of 138 young swimmers (65 males and 73 females) of national level was submitted to a test battery comprising four different domains: kinanthropometric evaluation, dry land functional evaluation (strength and flexibility), swimming functional evaluation (hydrodynamics, hydrostatic and bioenergetics characteristics) and swimming technique evaluation. To establish a profile of the young swimmer non-linear combinations between preponderant variables for each gender and swim performance in the 200 meters medley and 400 meters font crawl events were developed. For this purpose a feed forward neural network was used (Multilayer Perceptron) with three neurons in a single hidden layer. The prognosis precision of the model (error lower than 0.8% between true and estimated performances) is supported by recent evidence. Therefore, we consider that the neural network tool can be a good approach in the resolution of complex problems such as performance modeling and the talent identification in swimming and, possibly, in a wide variety of sports
... Dans notre travail, l'augmentation de la puissance maximale anaérobie s'explique principalement par une augmentation significative de cette même puissance chez les sprinters tandis que chez les demi-fondeurs l'augmentation n'est pas significative. Ces résultats sont en accord avec ceux de Costill et al. [5] et ceux de Hawley et Williams [12], qui montraient que la force maximale et la puissance maximale anaérobie étaient corrélées avec la vitesse de nage de 50 à 400 m, avec un coefficient de corrélation plus élevé pour les courtes distances (r = 0,87) par rapport aux longues distances (r = 0,63). Selon Sawka et al. [22], la spécialité du nageur semble influer sur la valeur de l'effort. ...
... Dans notre travail, l'augmentation de la puissance maximale anaérobie s'explique principalement par une augmentation significative de cette même puissance chez les sprinters tandis que chez les demi-fondeurs l'augmentation n'est pas significative. Ces résultats sont en accord avec ceux de Costill et al. [5] et ceux de Hawley et Williams [12], qui montraient que la force maximale et la puissance maximale anaérobie étaient corrélées avec la vitesse de nage de 50 à 400 m, avec un coefficient de corrélation plus élevé pour les courtes distances (r = 0,87) par rapport aux longues distances (r = 0,63). Selon Sawka et al. [22], la spécialité du nageur semble influer sur la valeur de l'effort. ...
Article
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Aims – Investigate the influence of exercise training on the aerobic and anaerobic capacities of young swimmers.Methods – Ten male swimmers aged 15.2 ± 3.8 years participated: five sprint specialists and five middle-distance specialists. Each subject performed, an arm ergocycle, two laboratory tests, a maximal incremental exercise test and a force–velocity test, once in February (T1) and then again in June (T2).Results – For all subjects combined (n=10), the results showed a significant increase in maximal anaerobic power (p < 0.01) between T1 and T2. Aerobic capacity did not change significantly between the two tests in either group.Conclusion – This study demonstrates the interest of evaluating aerobic and anaerobic capacity in young swimmers during arm exercise. The change in results over the 5-month period between the two tests indicates the importance of scheduling exercise tests during the course of athletic training programs.
... In fact, young competitive swimmers could enhance significantly sprint performance during eight consecutive weeks of high aerobic training volume. Early studies that examined the impact of strength training on swim performance used untrained subjects, but many of these experiments did not include a control group or provide information on the type of exercise regimen used as the training stimulus (Costill et al., 1980;Davis, 1955;Nunney, 1960;Tanaka and Swensen, 1998). Tanaka et al. (1993) studied the effects of combined swim and traditional strength training on swimming performance using competitive collegiate swimmers. ...
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Performance assessment has become an invaluable component of monitoring player development and within talent identification programs in soccer, yet limited performance data are available for female soccer players across a wide age range. The aim of this study was to describe the physical performance characteristics of female soccer players ranging in age from 12 to 21 years. High-level female soccer players (n=414) were evaluated on linear sprinting (36.6 m with 9.1 m splits), countermovement jump (CMJ), and two agility tests. Separate one-way ANOVAs were used to compare performance characteristics between (1) each year of chronological age and (2) three age groups: 12–13 years, n=78, 14–17 years, n=223, and 18–21 years, n=113. Mean linear sprint speed over 9.1 m was similar across all chronological ages, however sprint speed over the final 9.1 m, CMJ height and agility scores improved until approximately 15–16 years. Outcomes from the group data indicated better performance on all tests for the 14–17-year-old group compared with the 12–13-year-old group. Additionally, sprint speed on the second and fourth 9.1 m splits and 36.6 m sprint speed as well as performance on the Illinois agility test was better in the 18–21-year-old group compared with the 14–17-year-old group. The findings from this study indicate that marked improvements of high intensity short duration work occur up until 15–16 years. Smaller gains in performance were observed beyond 16 years of age as evidenced by better performance on 36.6 m sprint speed, several sprint splits and the Illinois agility test in the college aged players (i.e., 18–21-year-old group).
... As with run and cycle endurance performance, dynamic strength is also an important determinate of swim performance. Many studies have reported that upper-body strength and power correlate highly with swim times over distances ranging from 23 m to 400 m, with an average r value of .87 for the shorter distance and .63 for the longer distance (Costill et al. 1980, Davis 1959, Hawley and Williams 1990, Miyashita and Kanehisa 1979, and Sharp et al. 1982, Toussaint and Vervoorn 1990. Even though the relationship between strength/power and swim performance weakens as distance increases, it remains significant, which implies that weight training, through its ability to increase strength and anaerobic power, may improve endurance swim performance. ...
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In accordance with the principles of training specificity, resistance and endurance training induce distinct muscular adaptations. Endurance training, for example, decreases the activity of the glycolytic enzymes, but increases intramuscular substrate stores, oxidative enzyme activities, and capillary, as well as mitochondrial, density. In contrast, resistance or strength training reduces mitochondrial density, while marginally impacting capillary density, metabolic enzyme activities and intramuscular substrate stores (except muscle glycogen). The training modalities do induce one common muscular adaptation: they transform type IIb myofibres into IIa myofibres. This transformation is coupled with opposite changes in fibre size (resistance training increases, and endurance training decreases, fibre size), and, in general, myofibre contractile properties. As a result of these distinct muscular adaptations, endurance training facilitates aerobic processes, whereas resistance training increases muscular strength and anaerobic power. Exercise performance data do not fit this paradigm, however, as they indicate that resistance training or the addition of resistance training to an ongoing endurance exercise regimen, including running or cycling, increases both short and long term endurance capacity in sedentary and trained individuals. Resistance training also appears to improve lactate threshold in untrained individuals during cycling. These improvements may be linked to the capacity of resistance training to alter myofibre size and contractile properties, adaptations that may increase muscular force production. In contrast to running and cycling, traditional dry land resistance training or combined swim and resistance training does not appear to enhance swimming performance in untrained individuals or competitive swimmers, despite substantially increasing upper body strength. Combined swim and swim-specific 'in-water' resistance training programmes, however, increase a competitive swimmer's velocity over distances up to 200 m. Traditional resistance training may be a valuable adjunct to the exercise programmes followed by endurance runners or cyclists, but not swimmers; these latter athletes need more specific forms of resistance training to realise performance improvement.
... In the literature, strength programs have focused primarily on the glenohumeral muscles and on maximal strength to improve sport performance. [13][14][15][16][17] One group 18 examined the effect of a functional strength program, with selected exercises for the rotator cuff and serratus anterior, on the incidence of shoulder pain. For the serratus anterior only, an endurance program (3 sets until exhaustion) was followed; for the other muscles, 3 sets of 10 repetitions were completed. ...
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ConTEXT: Swimming requires well-balanced scapular-muscle performance. An additional strength-training program for the shoulders is pursued by swimmers, but whether these muscle-training programs need to be generic or specific for endurance or strength is unknown. To evaluate isokinetic scapular-muscle performance in a population of adolescent swimmers and to compare the results of training programs designed for strength or muscle endurance. Controlled laboratory study. University human research laboratory. Eighteen adolescent swimmers. Each participant pursued a 12-week scapular-training program designed to improve either muscle strength or muscle endurance. Bilateral peak force, fatigue index, and protraction/retraction strength ratios before and after the scapular-training program. Scapular protraction/retraction ratios were slightly higher than 1 (dominant side  =  1.08, nondominant side  =  1.25, P  =  .006). Side-to-side differences in retraction strength were apparent both before and after the training program (P  =  .03 and P  = .05, respectively). After the training program, maximal protraction (P < .05) and retraction (P < .01) strength improved on the nondominant side. Peak force and fatigue index were not different between the training groups. The fatigue indexes for protraction on both sides (P < .05) and retraction on the nondominant side (P  =  .009) were higher after the training program. We describe the scapular-muscle characteristics of a group of adolescent swimmers. Both muscle-strength and muscle-endurance programs improved absolute muscle strength. Neither of the strength programs had a positive effect on scapular-muscle endurance. Our results may be valuable for coaches and physiotherapists when they are designing exercise programs for swimmers.
... The relationship between upper body strength and swimming performance over short distances has been verified previously (Hawley, Williams, Victory, & Handcock, 1992;Morrison, Peyrebrune, & Folland, 2005;Sharp, Troup, & Costill, 1982;Smith, Norris, & Hogg, 2000), and several methods have been used for their improvement out of the water (dry-land methods) as well as in the water (in-water methods) (Girold, Calmels, Maurin, Milhau, & Chatard, 2006;Girold, Maurin, Dugué, Chatard, & Millet, 2007). However, the effectiveness of the different training methods depends on the degree of their specificity regarding the competition movement (Canavan, Garrett, & Armstrong, 1996;Costill, Sharp, & Troup, 1980;Huijing, Hollander, & De Groot, 1983;Maglischo, 2003). With dry-land methods, it is difficult to simulate the movement pattern that occurs in swimming and thus the training effect may only partially be transferred to the competitive swimming performance (Toussaint & Beek, 1992;Toussaint & Vervoon, 1990). ...
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The aim of this study was to examine the acute effect of front crawl sprint resisted swimming with different added resistances on the kinematic characteristics of the stroke and the orientation of the hand. Ten female swimmers swam four maximal trials (25 m) with small, moderate, large, and no added resistance respectively. Four camcorders were used to record the underwater motion of the right hand and digitizing was undertaken using the Ariel Performance Analysis System. Stroke rate, the stroke length, and mean swimming velocity were significantly decreased, whereas the total duration of the stroke and the relative duration of the pull and push phases were significantly increased during resisted swimming. The increase in the total duration of the stroke was accompanied by an increase in absolute pull length, while no alterations were observed in relative pull length or medial-lateral displacements of the hand. Moreover, the mean resultant velocity of the hand, as well as the pitch and the sweepback angles of the hand were not modified. In conclusion, resisted swimming appears to be a specific form of training, at least regarding its acute effect, although long-term effects should be investigated further.
... "a força não faz parte de uma modalidade esportiva de forma abstrata, mas sempre em combinação com outros fatores determinantes do desempenho". A força, no caso específico da natação, tem sido relacionada como importante no desempenho de velocidades mais altas (COSTILL, et al., 1980;RAMIREZ e BRITO, 2000). Wilke e Madsen (1990) (TOUSSAINT et al.,1992;SMITH et al., 2002). ...
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Orientador: Sergio Gregório da Silva Dissertaçao (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor de Ciencias Biológicas, Programa de Pós-Graduaçao em Educaçao Física. Defesa: Curitiba, 2006. Inclui bibliografia e anexos Área de concentraçao: Exercício e esporte
... Στο ελεύθερο στυλ κολύμβησης η συμμετοχή των χεριών είναι ιδιαίτερα σημαντική για την προώθηση του σώματος (Toussaint & Beek, 1992) και το επίπεδο της δύναμής τους αποτελεί καθοριστικό παράγοντα για την επίτευξη υψηλών επιδόσεων (Birrer & Levine, 1987;Costill, Sharp, & Troup, 1980). Για τη βελτίωση της δύναμης των χεριών τους και της ταχύτητάς τους οι κολυμβητές χρησιμοποιούν διάφορες μορφές προπόνησης, μια από τις οποίες είναι η κολύμβηση με έλξη αντίστασης (Mavridis, Kabitsis, Gourgoulis, & Toubekis, 2006), όπου αυξάνεται η αντίσταση του νερού που πρέπει να υπερνικηθεί σε κάθε κύκλο χεριάς, που αποτελείται από μία δεξιά και μία αριστερή χεριά (Maglischo, 2003). ...
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The aim of the research was to investigate possible modifications on the arm coordination in female front crawl swimmers, during swimming with added resistance. Ten female swimmers swam at a maximal intensity 25m without and with added resistance, which was applied by a bowl with a diameter of 35cm and capacity of 6.5 lt. Four S-VHS cameras were used to record the underwater motion of both arms and the digitizing of selected points onto the subject’s body was undertaken using the Ariel Performance Analysis System. The mean swimming velocity, the stroke length, the stroke rate, the index of coordination (IdC) and the absolute and relative duration of the separate phases of the stroke were calculated. For the statistical treatment of the data the t-test for dependent samples was used. When swimming with added resistance the mean swimming velocity (t9 = 34.85, p< .05), the stroke length (t9 = 14.92, p< .05) and the stroke rate (t9 = 7.94, p< .05) were significantly decreased, while the index of coordination significantly increased (t9 = 8.04, p< .05), because of the increase of the relative duration of the whole propulsive phase (t9= 13.20, p< .05) and the decrease of the relative duration of the non propulsive phase (t9= 13.20, p< .05). These results revealed that in front crawl swimming with added resistance the pattern of arm-coordination is modified, as the time interval between the propulsive phases from the two arms is decreased and the time of the application of propulsive forces is increased.
... Εκτός από τους προπονητές , πολλοί ερευνητές και συγγραφείς πρότειναν τη χρήση των παραπάνω προπονητικών µέσων για την καλύτερη εκγύµναση των κολυµβητών/-τριών (Αυλωνίτου, 2000; Colwin, 1993; Counsilman, 1979; Hannula, 1995; Maglischo, 2003; Smith, 2002). Αρκετοί µελετητές βρήκαν θετική συσχέτιση µεταξύ της κολυµβητικής επίδοσης και της µυϊκής δύναµης ή ισχύος που µετριέται σε προπονητικά µέσα όπως ο πάγκος προσοµοιωµένης κολύµβησης και η προσδεδεµένη ή µερικώς προσδεδεµένη κολύµβηση (Costill et al., 1980; Costill et al., 1983; Crowe et al., 1999; Hawley & Williams, 1991; Hopper et al., 1980; Sharp et al., 1982 ). Ωστόσο, υπάρχουν και έρευνες στις οποίες δε βρέθηκε συνεισφορά της µυϊκής δύναµης και ισχύος στην κολυµβητική απόδοση (Dopsaj et al., 1999; Johnson et al., 1993; Tanaka et al., 1993). ...
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The purpose of the present study was to compare the blood lactate concentrations after three maximal tests of equal duration: a) 100-m swimming, b) partially tethered swimming and c) biokinetic swim-bench. Furthermore, we investigated the correlation of the performance parameters that characterize the above tests with the blood lactate concentration after them. Eleven male and seven female competitive swimmers partici pated in this study. Capillary blood samples were obtained 3, 5, 7 and 9 min after the end of each test to define the highest lactate concentration. Analysis of the results showed significantly lower lactate concentration after the swim-bench test (12.8 mmol/L in male and 9.1 mmol/L in female swimmers) in comparison with the 100-m swim (14.8 and 13.5 mmol/L, respectively) or the partially tethered swimming test (15.3 and 13.4 mmol/L, respectively). The swimming velocity of females in the 100-m test and the power output of males in the swim-bench test were positively correlated with the lactate concentration after each of these tests (r = .773, p < .05, and r = .595, p < .05, respectively). In conclusion, there was a difference among the three tests with regard to maximal blood lactate concentration. However, the lactate concentrations were high enough to render both the partially tethered swimming and the training in the biokinetic swim-bench appropriate for the development of anaerobic lactic capacity. Furthermore, there was limited correlation between performance and lactate concentration.
... Most of the studies of swimming efficiency in man have involved the use of expensive specialised equipment (Di Prampero et al, 1974; Kemper et al, 1976). These studies have provided considerable information concerning the physiology and biomechanics of swimming but there does not seem to have been much spin-off for the club coach in terms of methods of assessing swimming efficiency and, therefore, methods of evaluating the effects of different training programmes (Costill et al, 1980). ...
... Because the arms produce the major part of propulsion in front crawl swimming (21) and their strength is an important factor for the achievement of high performances (2,5), swimmers use various types of training to increase their strength (9,12). One of them is swimming with hand paddles because the paddles result in an increase of the propulsive area of the hands and consequently increase the amount of water that must be overcome in each stroke cycle (9,21,22,23). ...
Article
The purpose of the research was to determine the influence of hand paddles on the arm coordination in female front crawl swimmers. Ten female swimmers swam at a maximal intensity 25 m without, with small hand paddles (116 cm), and with large hand paddles (286 cm). Four S-VHS cameras were used to record the underwater motion of both arms, and the digitizing of selected points onto the subject's body was undertaken using the Ariel Performance Analysis System. The mean swimming velocity, the stroke length, the stroke rate, the relative duration of the separate phases of the stroke, and the index of coordination were then calculated. The index of coordination was defined as the time interval between the propulsive phases of the 2 arms expressed as a percentage of the mean duration of the stroke cycle. The results showed that when the hand paddles were worn, the mean swimming velocity (p < 0.05) and the stroke length (p < 0.05) were significantly increased, whereas the stroke rate was significantly decreased (p < 0.05). When large paddles were worn, the relative duration of the whole propulsive phase was significantly decreased (p < 0.05), and the relative duration of the nonpropulsive phase was significantly increased (p < 0.05). However, the index of coordination was remained unchanged under the 3 measurement conditions (p = 0.895). It was concluded that in front crawl hand-paddled swimming, significant increases of the swimming velocity was not caused by modifications in the pattern of arm coordination. Thus, hand-paddled swimming should not be used as a tool to alter the time sequence of the application of propulsive forces generated from the 2 arms.
... This is particularly relevant because resistance training has become an integral part of the overall training regimen for competitive swimmers. The primary purpose of adding resistance training to a swimming training program is to improve muscle strength and power, which have been shown to directly correlate with swimming performance (8,23). ...
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There is little known about the responses of muscle protein metabolism in women to exercise. Furthermore, the effect of adding resistance training to an endurance training regimen on net protein anabolism has not been established in either men or women. The purpose of this study was to quantify the acute effects of combined swimming and resistance training on protein metabolism in female swimmers by the direct measurement of muscle protein synthesis and whole body protein degradation. Seven collegiate female swimmers were each studied on four separate occasions with a primed constant infusion of ring-[13C6]phenylalanine (Phe) to measure the fractional synthetic rate (FSR) of the posterior deltoid and whole body protein breakdown. Measurements were made over a 5-h period at rest and after each of three randomly ordered workouts: 1) 4,600 m of intense interval swimming (SW); 2) a whole body resistance-training workout with no swimming on that day (RW); and 3) swimming and resistance training combined (SR). Whole body protein breakdown was similar for all treatments (0.75 +/- 0.04, 0.69 +/- 0.03, 0.69 +/- 0.02, and 0.71 +/- 0.04 mumol.min-1.kg-1 for rest, RW, SW, and SR, respectively). The FSR of the posterior deltoid was significantly greater (P < 0.05) after SR (0.082 +/- 0.015%/h) than at rest (0.045 +/- 0.006%/h). There was no significant difference in the FSR after RW (0.048 +/- 0.004%/h) or SW (0.064 +/- 0.008%/h) from rest or from SR. These data indicate that the combination of swimming and resistance exercise stimulates net muscle protein synthesis above resting levels in female swimmers.
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Strength in water has been evaluated in several ways. The most common method is tethered swimming, a valid and reliable source of information for freestyle sprint swimmers. Yeater et al., (1981) concluded that tethered swimming method can provide prediction of performance as well as diagnose of technical problems. The aim of the research is to investigate the relationship between the 100 m freestyle swimming and the variables that determine force application during freestyle sprint swimming. In this study 23 active swimmers of national level participated (age = 15,04±1,6 years, body height =169,7±8,7 cm and body mass=62,4±9,7kg ).Firstly, force of the right handgrip was recorded with a portable dynamometer. After a warm up, participants was asked to swim with maximum intensity fully tethered with freestyle their best time of 100m freestyle swimming. For the determination of the relationship between the independent and the dependent variable, stepwise multivariate regression analysis will be applied. Two prediction models occurred from the analysis. The variables that best describe the criterion variable are circumference of biceps in contraction and mean force. The finding of this research confirms that tethered swimming is a useful tool for the coaches and swimmers in order to reach best results. © 2019, DPTZK (Physical Education Pedagogues Association). All rights reserved.
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summary: Endurance can be defined as the ability to maintain or to repeat a given force or power output. The sport performance-endurance relationship is a multi-factorial concept. However, evidence indicates that maximum strength is a major component. Conceptually, endurance is a continuum. The literature indicates that (a) maximum strength is moderately to strongly related to endurance capabilities and associated factors, a relationship that is likely stronger for high intensity exercise endurance (HIEE) activities than for low intensity exercise endurance (LIEE); (b) strength training can increase both HIEE and LIEE, the effect being greater for HIEE; (c) the volume of strength training plays a role in endurance adaptation; and (d) mechanical specificity and training program variables also play a role in the degree of adaptation. (C) 2006 National Strength and Conditioning Association
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The 1970’s, and a major international judo tournament is in the offing. I am selected to represent Britain as the Lightweight representative. However, there is a problem: I weigh only 58Kg, several Kg less than my prospective opponents from overseas. Extra mass, and especially extra muscle, would tremendously improve my prospects, but how to achieve such a result in a relatively short time? One of our team officials makes a suggestion., “What you need is some steroids....”
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Strength characteristics were studied in 12 members of the University men's swimming team, aged 19 to 23 years, and in 22 students, not engaged in competitive sports (control group). In each subject, isometric and isokinetic (at 1 rad/s) torques were measured for 8 muscle groups of upper and lower extremities by using a Merac isokinetic dynamometer. The sums of torques of 8 muscle groups in swimmers did not differ significantly from those in controls. Hovewer, mean values of absolute isometric strength of individual muscle groups (elbow flexors, shoulder extensors, knee flexors and hip flexors) were significantly higher in swimmers than in controls and the same was true for isokinetic torques in relation to joint angle and range of movement in swimming strokes at certain angle values.
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The purpose of the present study was to determine the change in total excess volume of CO2 output (CO2 excess) due to bicarbonate buffering of lactic acid produced during exercise and change in swimming performance following resistance training for 8 weeks in competitive swimmers. Ten healthy university competitive swimmers were assigned to either a resistance training and swimming training group (COMBINE : N=5) or a swimming training only group (SWIM : N=5). Muscle mass was measured using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). CO2 excess and blood lactate concentration were measured during incremental exercise on a cycle ergometer and swimming performance was measured during competition. COMBINE showed a significantly higher percentage change in muscle mass (11.1±4.5%) than SWIM (3.5±2.5%). The percentage change in CO2 excess, CO2 excess per body weight (CO2 excess/BW) and CO2 excess/BW per blood lactate accumulation (CO2 excess/BW/ΔLa) during exercise was significantly higher in COMBINE (107.3±60.1, 102.6±56.8, 59.1±37.7%, respectively) than in SWIM (42.5±10.0, 42.9±10.4, 13.4±22.4%, respectively). The percentage change in swimming performance was significantly higher in COMBINE (2.2±1.8%) than in SWIM (-2.0±3.6%). A negative correlation between percentage change of muscle mass and percentage change of CO2 excess/BW/ΔLa (SWIM : r=-0.993, P<0.01, COMBINE : r=-0.744, P>0.05) was found. It was suggested that combined swim and resistance training resulted in greater increases in the bicarbonate buffering system (CO2 excess/BW/ΔLa). However, increases in muscle mass may have subsequently caused a relative decrease in the contribution of the bicarbonate buffering system.
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The purpose of the present study was to subject two groups (G1: 21 high-level swimmers aged 18±1.5 and G2: 17 prepubescent swimmers aged 12 ± 0.5) of male swimmers to a test in tethered swimming conditions in order to assess their swim peak force (SPF). Swimming velocity (V50) was calculated from a 50m freestyle sprint. Prediction equations were developed using a stepwise multiple regression analysis for the purpose of predicting V50 and SPF from a combination of anthropometric variables. According to the differences observed between performance levels, V50 and SPF values were significantly different between each group (p<0.01) and the maximal propulsive force was significantly correlated to the 50 meter velocity for each group (p<0.05). The combination of anthropometric characteristics relative to body shape (ratio between biacromial and biiliac diameters) and body structure (fat-free body mass) predicted sprint velocity in G1. Fat-free body mass were also correlated to swim peak force for G2. These results indicate that the specific force and consequently technical ability are much more important to assess than the anthropometric characteristics in order to select the young swimmers and to evaluate and design training programs for competitive swimmers.
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Endurance can be defined as the ability to maintain or to repeat a given force or power output. The sport performance-endurance relationship is a multi-factorial concept. However, evidence indicates that maximum strength is a major component. Conceptually, endurance is a continuum. The literature indicates that (a) maximum strength is moderately to strongly related to endurance capabilities and associated factors, a relationship that is likely stronger for high intensity exercise endurance (HIEE) activities than for low intensity exercise endurance (LIEE); (b) strength training can increase both HIEE and LIEE, the effect being greater for HIEE; (c) the volume of strength training plays a role in endurance adaptation; and (d) mechanical specificity and training program variables also play a role in the degree of adaptation.
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The relationship between lower extremity isokinetic strength, flexibility, and flutter kicking speed was investigated in 12 female collegiate swimmers. Isokinetic peak torques were determined at 3 selected velocities: 2.88, 6.28, and 7.85 rad [middle dot] sec-1. Flexibility measurements included ankle plantar flexion and dorsiflexion as well as hamstring and lower back flexibility (sit and reach test). Flutter kicking times for 22.86 m (T1) and 45.72 m (T2) were obtained in a 22.86-m pool using a kickboard. Peak torque during knee extension at 6.28 rad [middle dot] sec-1 correlated significantly with T1 (r = 0.82) and T2 (r = 0.71). There appeared to be no relationship between ankle flexibility and flutter kicking speed in this group of subjects. The sit and reach data correlated significantly (r = 0.70) only with T2. Underwater film analysis on 6 subjects showed that mean (+/-SD) angular velocity at the knee during the downbeat phase of the kick was 6.47 (+/-1.13) rad [middle dot] sec-1. These results suggest that variables such as peak torque in the lower extremities play a significant role in flutter kicking performance. In addition, velocity-specific isokinetic testing of the knees should be done in excess of 6.00 rad [middle dot] sec-1 in order for the dynamometer to mimic limb angular velocities recorded during actual flutter kicking performance. (C) 1995 National Strength and Conditioning Association
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the relationship between handgrip isometric strength and swim- ming performance was assessed in the four competitive swimming strokes in swim- mers of different age groups and of both sexes. 78 national-level Portuguese swim- mers (39 males, 39 females) were selected for this study. grip strength, previously used as a marker of overall strength to predict future swimming performance, was measured using a hand dynamometer. the best competitive time at 100 and 200 m in all four swimming strokes were converted into 2010 fina points. non-parametric tests were used to evaluate differences between groups. Pearson product-moment correlations were computed to verify the association between variables. Handgrip maximum isometric strength was significantly correlated with swimming perfor- mance, particularly among female swimmers. among female age group swimmers, the relationship between handgrip and 100-m freestyle was significant. Handgrip isometric strength seems to be related to swimming performance, especially to 100- m freestyle and in female swimmers. for all other distances and strokes, technique and training probably are more influential than semi-hereditary strength markers such as grip strength
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The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between non-invasive laboratory measures of 'muscle power' and swim performance over sprint (50 m) and middle-distance (400 m) events. Twenty-two swimmers performed an upper and lower body Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAT) and a maximal sustained power output test (MPO) for the upper body. Peak power (PP) and mean power (MP) were determined for the WAT, while peak sustained workload (WLpeak) was determined for the MPO. Timed swims over 50 m and 400 m were undertaken by all swimmers during which the number of arm strokes per length was recorded. Highly significant relationships were found between sprint-swim speed (S50) and mean power of the arms (MP(arms)) (r = 0.63, P less than 0.01), between S50 and mean power of the legs (MP(legs)) (r = 0.76, P less than 0.001) and between S50 and the distance covered with each arm stroke (DS) (r = 0.91, P less than 0.001). Multiple regression analyses revealed that WAT power indices for the legs did not significantly increase explained variance in S50 above that of the arms. The relationship between WL(peak) and S400 was highly significant (r = 0.70, P less than 0.001) and indicates the importance of arm power in the longer distance swim events.
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To determine the value of dry-land resistance training on front crawl swimming performance, two groups of 12 intercollegiate male swimmers were equated based upon preswimming performance, swim power values, and stroke specialties. Throughout the 14 wk of their competitive swimming season, both swim training group (SWIM, N = 12) and combined swim and resistance training group (COMBO, N = 12) swam together 6 d a week. In addition, the COMBO engaged in a 8-wk resistance training program 3 d a week. The resistance training was intended to simulate the muscle and swimming actions employed during front crawl swimming. Both COMBO and SWIM had significant (P < 0.05) but similar power gains as measured on the biokinetic swim bench and during a tethered swim over the 14-wk period. No change in distance per stroke was observed throughout the course of this investigation. No significant differences were found between the groups in any of the swim power and swimming performance tests. In this investigation, dry-land resistance training did not improve swimming performance despite the fact that the COMBO was able to increase the resistance used during strength training by 25-35%. The lack of a positive transfer between dry-land strength gains and swimming propulsive force may be due to the specificity of training.
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The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of a 3-wk period of electrostimulation training on the strength of the latissimus dorsi m. and the swimming performances of 14 competitive swimmers divided into 7 electrostimulated (EG) and 7 control swimmers (CG). The peak torques registered during the flexion-extension of the arm was determined with the help of an isokinetic dynamometer at different velocities (from -60 degrees.s(-1) to 360 degrees.s(-1)). Performances were measured over a 25-m pull buoy and a 50-m freestyle swim. For EG, a significant increase of the peak torques was measured in isometric, eccentric, and concentric conditions (P < 0.5). The swimming times declined significantly (P < 0.01) by 0.19 +/- 0.14 s, for the 25-m pull-buoy, and by 0.38 +/- 0.24 s, for the 50-m freestyle. For CG, no significant difference was found for any of the tests. For the whole group, the variations of the peak torques, measured in eccentric condition (-60 degrees.s(-1)) were related to the variations of the performances (r = 0.77; P < 0.01). These results showed that an electrostimulation program of the latissimus dorsi increased the strength and swimming performances of a group of competitive swimmers.
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