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Adsorption of gases in multimolecular layers
... Thus, a framework of nanotubes forms mesopores in the nanocomposite, and C-xerogel forms micropores. Table 3. Characteristics of the porous structure of some nanomaterials based on the results of low-temperature nitrogen adsorption a) S BET is the specific surface area calculated by the BET method [34], V pore is the total pore volume, V micro is the volume of micropores and S meso is the specific surface area of mesopores calculated by the t-method [35]. ...
... Nitrogen sorption isotherms were processed using the theory of nonlocal density functional (NLDFT) under the assumption of a slit shape of micropores with a width of up to 2 nm and a cylindrical shape of mesopores with a width of more than 2 nm [39][40][41]. Additionally, sorption isotherms were processed using the BET [34] and BJH [33] methods. The differential pore surface size distribution functions calculated by the NLDFT method are shown in Fig. 10 and the corresponding integral curves are in Fig. 11. ...
... b) Loss of C-xerogel mass in the sample in % when activated with potassium hydroxide; 0-the sample was not activated. c) Specific surface area calculated by the BET method [34]. d) Specific surface area calculated by the BJH method [33]. ...
The nanocomposite of resorcinol-formaldehyde xerogel (RF-xerogel) and carbon nanotubes after carbonation at 800 °С was obtained in the form of composite carbon nanopaper (CCNP) with a thickness of 100-300 microns, a density from 0.1 g/cm2 to 0.5 g/cm2 and an electronic conductivity of more than 10 S/cm. According to the low temperature nitrogen adsorption data, the microporous structure of the nanopaper is formed by carbonized RF-xerogel, and the mesoporous structure is formed by the nanotube framework. The specific surface area of the nanopaper calculated by the method of nonlocal density function theory (NLDFT) exceeds 600 m2/g. The main contribution to the specific surface area of CCNP is made by pores with a width of ~ 0.7 nm, therefore, electrodes for a supercapacitor made of such paper are quite effective only in aqueous solutions of H2SO4 and KOH with small sizes of solvated ions. A technique for nanopaper activation with potassium hydroxide has been developed for the use of CCNP with organic electrolytes. The maximum specific surface area (NLDFT method) of activated CCNP reaches 1182 m2/g with a loss of carbon xerogel mass of ~ 25%. At the same time, the pore surface area of more than 1 nm width increases from 350 m2/g in CCNP to 685 m2/g in activated CCNP. Nanopaper has mechanical strength, pretty cheap and convenient for use in supercapacitors.
... The continental shale has a complex mineral composition and the pores and the narrower throat connecting different pores. The research methods for fractal characteristics mainly focus on image analysis [46,51], constant velocity mercury injection [50], high-pressure mercury injection [27,44], gas adsorption [43,52,53], nuclear magnetic resonance, and so on [19]. Mature fractal mathematical models include the FHH (Frenkel-Halsey-Hill) model [54,55], BET model [43,52,56], Menger sponge model, NK model, capillary bundle model, and thermodynamic model [57]. ...
... The research methods for fractal characteristics mainly focus on image analysis [46,51], constant velocity mercury injection [50], high-pressure mercury injection [27,44], gas adsorption [43,52,53], nuclear magnetic resonance, and so on [19]. Mature fractal mathematical models include the FHH (Frenkel-Halsey-Hill) model [54,55], BET model [43,52,56], Menger sponge model, NK model, capillary bundle model, and thermodynamic model [57]. The applicable conditions of each model are different. ...
... where K N1 is the slope in the low-pressure phase, K N1 = D N1 − 3; D N1 is the fractal dimension in the low-pressure stage, D N1 = 3K N1 + 3. K N2 is the slope in the high-pressure phase, and K N2 = D N2 − 3; D N2 is the fractal dimension in the high-pressure stage, D N2 = K N2 + 3 [43,52]. ...
Thin sections, AIM-SEM, MICP, and nitrogen adsorption were performed on laminated and layered shales to characterize their complex pore and fracture structure. Combining the MICP model with the FHH model, this work proposes a new fractal method for lacustrine shales with complex lamina structure. The fractal characteristics presented four zones, representing the heterogeneity of fractures, macropores, mesopores, and micropores. The pores and fractures of shale have strong heterogeneity. Laminated shale has strong heterogeneity in mesopores and moderate heterogeneity in micropores. Layered shale has strong heterogeneity in fractures and moderate heterogeneity in micropores. The lamina structure and content of organic and mineral composition has a great influence on heterogeneity. The mineral laminae in laminated shale change frequently; lamellation fractures are mainly developed, and the structures are similar. Layered shales develop fractures between layers and structural fractures; the structural differences are significant. Macropores are mostly interparticle pores between quarts with similar structures. The wider lamina thickness of layered shale provides sufficient crystallization space for minerals, so the mesopores of layered shale are more homogeneous. Micropores are less developed, mainly consisting of intraparticle pores between clay minerals, which are complex but similar in structure in the two types of shale. The heterogeneity of mesopores and micropores is not conducive to hydrocarbon migration. Fractures and macropores need to be connected with meso–micropores to form a transport system. So, mesopores and micropores play decisive roles in hydrocarbon migration. Based on the above understanding, this paper points out that hydrocarbon in laminated shale with more carbonate minerals and a high thermal evolution degree has better availability.
... The aim of the measurements was to analyse the change in the molecular dynamics of the bound water in wheat grains as a function of hydration and also to determine an appropriate model to describe the sorption process in this biological sample. Many mathematical models have been proposed to describe sorption isotherms, such as the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) model (Brunauer et al., 1938), the Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (GAB) model or the Dent model (Dent, 1977). The Dent model has been used successfully to describe biological systems such as Antarctic lichens, algae (Harańczyk et al., 2008;Bacior et al., 2017), DNA or DPPC liophilizates (Harańczyk et al., 2010;, as well as soil samples (Arthur et al., 2015), but there is a problem with the correct fitting of data for more composed systems, such as seeds, where the Dent model correctly describes the sorption data but not in the whole range of the water activity (from 0 to 1). ...
... If the number of primary water binding sites occupied by i water molecules is S i and the contribution of empty primary water binding sites is equal to S 0 , then S 0 /S 1 = 1/b 1 . For the Dent's model the sorption isotherm approximates the population of subsequent layers of the secondary bound water fraction in different ways, S n+1 / S n | h= 1 , is different from the BET (Brunauer -Emmet -Teller) model, for which b = S n+1 /S n | h = 1 = 1 (Brunauer et al., 1938). For the Dent's model, this number varies to some extent between 0 and 1, thereby simulating the effect of clustering. ...
... Based on the results obtained from nitrogen adsorption experiments, we utilized the Brunauer-Emmet-Teller (BET) theory and BJH model to calculate parameters such as pore size distribution, specific surface area, and pore volume. To further analyze carbon dioxide adsorption, we employed density functional theory (DFT) to calculate micropore volume and micropore specific surface area [20][21][22][23][24]. ...
... CO2 adsorption can characterize the pore structure at 0.3~1.5 nm. Based on the BDDT classification scheme [21], the CO2 adsorption isotherms of the shale and kerogen samples from the Niutitang Formation and Longtan Formation all belong to type I (Figure 8). The CO2 adsorption capacity of the Longtan Formation shale is higher than that of the Niutitang Formation shale, indicating that the Longtan Formation shale has more micropores. ...
Marine shales from the Niutitang Formation and marine–continental transitional shales from the Longtan Formation are two sets of extremely important hydrocarbon source rocks in South China. In order to quantitatively compare the pore complexity characteristics between marine and marine–continental transitional shales, the shale and kerogen of the Niutitang Formation and the Longtan Formation are taken as our research subjects. Based on organic petrology, geochemistry, and low-temperature gas adsorption analyses, the fractal dimension of their pores is calculated by the Frenkel–Halsey–Hill (FHH) and Sierpinski models, and the influences of total organic carbon (TOC), vitrinite reflectance (Ro), and mineral composition on the pore fractals of the shale and kerogen are discussed. Our results show the following: (1) Marine shale predominantly has wedge-shaped and slit pores, while marine–continental transitional shale has inkpot-shaped and slit pores. (2) Cylindrical pores are common in organic matter of both shale types, with marine shale having a greater gas storage space (CRV) from organic matter pores, while marine–continental transitional shale relies more on inorganic pores, especially interlayer clay mineral pores, for gas storage due to their large specific surface area and high adsorption capacity (CRA). (3) The fractal characteristics of marine and marine–continental transitional shale pores are influenced differently. In marine shale, TOC positively correlates with fractal dimensions, while in marine–continental shale, Ro and clay minerals have a stronger influence. Ro is the primary factor affecting organic matter pore complexity. (4) Our two pore fractal models show that the complexity of the shale in the Longtan Formation surpasses that of the shale in the Niutitang Formation, and type I kerogen has more complex organic matter pores than type III, aiding in evaluating pore connectivity and flow effectiveness in shale reservoirs.
... One of the most important multilayer isotherms is the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller [54,55] isotherm which is an equation, applied in the gas-solid equilibrium systems. The adsorption on multilayer due to relative pressure ranges of 0.05-0.30 ...
... The adsorption on multilayer due to relative pressure ranges of 0.05-0.30 which corresponded to monolayer coverage of the adsorbate that occurred at 0.50 and 1.50 led to the derivation of Brunauer-Emmett-Teller [55]. It's an extinction model relating liquid-solid interfaces as is shown in Equation 9. ...
Here in, we review the adsorption isotherm models and the related statistical and error functions that give a mechanistic insight relating adsorption capacities with the adsorbate concentration and nature of the adsorbent surface. One, two and three-parameter isotherms are discussed in addition to isotherms that anticipate mono and multilayer adsorption surfaces. The isotherms such as Langmuir, Freundlich, Toth, Dubinin-Radushkevich, Sips, Temkin, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller, and Redlich-Peterson (R-P), and their combined forms have been addressed. Non-linear regression gives an accurate interpretation of the adsorption process with low error values compared to linear regression. The correlation coefficient as a tool to choose the best isotherm model is assessed with the Chi test which gives information about the fit with the best quality as well as the ANOVA that describes the significance of variance of the different error functions. Further, the different physiochemical parameters that affect the adsorption process are discussed.
... The application of the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) theory to nitrogen adsorption isotherms yields the specific surface area of porous materials [97]. The BET surface areas for the PEEK aerogels are shown in Figure 9a. ...
... Adsorption and desorption isotherms were collected using nitrogen as the adsorbent at −196 • C (77 K). Surface area was calculated using the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method [97], and pore size distribution was calculated using the Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) method [96]. ...
Poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) was found to form gels in the benign solvent 1,3-diphenylacetone (DPA). Gelation of PEEK in DPA was found to form an interconnected, strut-like morphology composed of polymer axialites. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a strut-like morphology for PEEK aerogels. PEEK/DPA gels were prepared by first dissolving PEEK in DPA at 320 °C. Upon cooling to 50 °C, PEEK crystallizes and forms a gel in DPA. The PEEK/DPA phase diagram indicated that phase separation occurs by solid–liquid phase separation, implying that DPA is a good solvent for PEEK. The Flory–Huggins interaction parameter, calculated as χ12 = 0.093 for the PEEK/DPA system, confirmed that DPA is a good solvent for PEEK. PEEK aerogels were prepared by solvent exchanging DPA to water then freeze-drying. PEEK aerogels were found to have densities between 0.09 and 0.25 g/cm3, porosities between 80 and 93%, and surface areas between 200 and 225 m2/g, depending on the initial gel concentration. Using nitrogen adsorption analyses, PEEK aerogels were found to be mesoporous adsorbents, with mesopore sizes of about 8 nm, which formed between stacks of platelike crystalline lamellae. Scanning electron microscopy and X-ray scattering were utilized to elucidate the hierarchical structure of the PEEK aerogels. Morphological analysis found that the PEEK/DPA gels were composed of a highly nucleated network of PEEK axialites (i.e., aggregates of stacked crystalline lamellae). The highly connected axialite network imparted robust mechanical properties on PEEK aerogels, which were found to densify less upon freeze-drying than globular PEEK aerogel counterparts gelled from dichloroacetic acid (DCA) or 4-chlorphenol (4CP). PEEK aerogels formed from DPA were also found to have a modulus–density scaling that was far more efficient in supporting loads than the poorly connected aerogels formed from PEEK/DCA or PEEK/4CP solutions. The strut-like morphology in these new PEEK aerogels also significantly improved the modulus to a degree that is comparable to high-performance crosslinked aerogels based on polyimide and polyurea of comparable densities.
... Experimental data were processed according to the standards outlined in SY/T 6154-1995 [46], including the acquisition of low-temperature nitrogen adsorption and desorption curves, as well as pore size distribution before and after extraction. In this study, the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) model was selected for the determination of specific surface area (SSA) [47], while the Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) model was employed for the calculation of pore volume and average pore size [47,48]. ...
... Experimental data were processed according to the standards outlined in SY/T 6154-1995 [46], including the acquisition of low-temperature nitrogen adsorption and desorption curves, as well as pore size distribution before and after extraction. In this study, the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) model was selected for the determination of specific surface area (SSA) [47], while the Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) model was employed for the calculation of pore volume and average pore size [47,48]. ...
This study investigated the influence of movable oil on the pore structure of various shale types, analyzing 19 shale samples from Well X in the Mahu Sag of the Junggar Basin. Initially, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis classified the shale samples. Subsequently, the geochemical properties and pore structures of the samples, both pre and post oil Soxhlet extraction, were comparatively analyzed through Total Organic Carbon (TOC) content measurement, Rock-Eval pyrolysis, and nitrogen adsorption experiments. Additionally, fractal theory quantitatively described the impact of movable oil on the pore structure of different shale types. Results indicated higher movable oil content in siliceous shale compared to calcareous shale. Oil extraction led to a significant increase in specific surface area and pore volume in all samples, particularly in siliceous shale. Calcareous shale predominantly displays H2–H3 type hysteresis loops, indicating a uniform pore structure with ink-bottle-shaped pores. Conversely, siliceous shale exhibited diverse hysteresis loops, reflecting its complex pore structure. The fractal dimension in calcareous shale correlated primarily with pore structure, exhibiting no significant correlation with TOC content before or after oil extraction. Conversely, the fractal dimension changes in siliceous shale samples do not have a clear correlation with either TOC content or pore structure, suggesting variations may result from both TOC and pore structure.
... The elements of type II isotherm were observed at the extremities of the experimental isotherm at low and high relative pressure p/p 0 . At low relative pressure, the inflexion B-point (or "knee") can be observed (Brunauer et al., 1938) at approximately 0.045 p/p 0 , which indicates the monolayer adsorption limit, with a total pore volume TPV@STP of 56.2 cm 3 /g corresponding to micropores smaller than 1.4 nm. The total micropore volume for pore diameters smaller than 2 nm (74.0 cm 3 /g TPV@STP) is mentioned in Figure 3A in the corresponding region. ...
Seed coating ensures the targeted delivery of various compounds from the early stages of development to increase crop quality and yield. Silicon and alginate are known to have plant biostimulant effects. Rice husk (RH) is a significant source of biosilica. In this study, we coated mung bean seeds with an alginate-glycerol-sorbitol (AGS) film with embedded biogenic nanosilica (SiNPs) from RH, with significant plant biostimulant activity. After dilute acid hydrolysis of ground RH in a temperature-controlled hermetic reactor, the resulting RH substrate was neutralized and calcined at 650°C. The structural and compositional characteristics of the native RH, the intermediate substrate, and SiNPs, as well as the release of soluble Si from SiNPs, were investigated. The film for seed coating was optimized using a mixture design with three factors. The physiological properties were assessed in the absence and the presence of 50 mM salt added from the beginning. The main parameters investigated were the growth, development, metabolic activity, reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism, and the Si content of seedlings. The results evidenced a homogeneous AGS film formation embedding 50-nm amorphous SiNPs having Si-O-Si and Si-OH bonds, 0.347 cm 3 /g CPV (cumulative pore volume), and 240 m 2 /g SSA (specific surface area). The coating film has remarkable properties of enhancing the metabolic, proton pump activities and ROS scavenging of mung seedlings under salt stress. The study shows that the RH biogenic SiNPs can be efficiently applied, together with the optimized, beneficial alginate-based film, as plant biostimulants that alleviate saline stress from the first stages of plant development.
... Furthermore, a BET analyzer instrument (BELSORP MINI II model) was employed to determine the surface area of micro and nano particles along with pore size distribution. This analytical method is established based on nitrogen gas adsorbed on pores that exist on the surface of particles [39]. In addition, the XRD analysis using a Philips PW1730 diffractometer was used to analyze the mineralogical properties of kaolin clay, HCS, quicklime, and final crystalline or amorphous phases, which emerged after treatment of selected specimens. ...
The hydrocarbonated shale (HCS) is a voluminous by-product in coal mines. It is useless and generates adverse impacts on environmental issues. This paper aims to utilize the waste hydrocarbonated shale (HCS) from the Tazareh Coal Mine in nano-scale particles to enhance the mechanical properties of low-strength kaolin clay (KC). The HCS is chemically rich in pozzolanic requirements. Its nanoparticles proportionally (5, 10, 15, and 20wt%) contributed to designing 10 mixes, which were cured until the ages of 3, 7, and 28 days. As an alkali activator, 3wt% of quicklime was added to mix designs. The nano HCS decreased the plasticity index (PI) and maximum dry density (MDD) of KC while it increased the optimum moisture content (OMC). The greatest decrease in PI values (threefold) and MDD occurred when 15wt% nano HCS and 3wt% quicklime were mixed with KC. The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) test results showed that mixing 15wt% nano HCS with KC, in the presence or absence of 3wt% quicklime, increased the UCS values by 4.8 and 3.6 times higher than the control sample after 28 days of curing, respectively. Also, the modules of elasticity (E50) increased by 5.4 times when similar additive proportions were added to the KC, leading to a more brittle behavior. New crystal phases, including dolomite, albite, and fayalite, enhanced the strength of KC after 28 days of curing. Developing the amorphous phases of polymeric bonds improved the strength of KC. The growth of stable minerals modified the textural fabrics of KC to a denser structure mainly by solid solution reactions.
... The nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherms of RPP and RPP/SnCl 2 -FeCl 2 are shown in Fig. 5. According to the IUPAC and BDDT (Brunauer, Deming, Deming, Teller) classifications [55,56], RPP and RPP/SnCl 2 -FeCl 2 show isotherms of type III with H3-type hysteresis loops. This type is conventionally associated with unevenly sized slotted pores, which are characteristic of solids composed of platelike aggregates of particles with slotted pores [57]. ...
This study investigates the utilization of biosorbents derived from both raw and modified pomegranate peel treated with SnCl2/FeCl2 for the adsorptive removal of crystal violet (CV) dye from synthetic wastewater. The obtained biosorbents were analyzed using various analytical methods, including Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), and point of zero charge analysis. The adsorption process was modeled using the central composite design model, and its suitability was assessed through ANOVA analysis. The results indicate that treated pomegranate peel (PP/SnCl2-FeCl2) exhibits a higher adsorption capacity for CV dye removal compared to raw pomegranate peel (RPP). The maximum adsorption capacities for CV by RPP and PP/SnCl2-FeCl2 were found to be 172.40 mg/g and 389.88 mg/g, respectively. This novel biosorbent, PP/SnCl2-FeCl2, showed a larger maximum adsorption capacity compared to similar studies, confirming its superior CV removal effectiveness. The adsorption process conforms to Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms, and the kinetics follow a pseudo-second-order model, as indicated by isotherm and kinetic analysis. Thermodynamic data suggest a spontaneous and endothermic process. Furthermore, the prepared biosorbents exhibit good reusability, maintaining efficacy for up to seven consecutive cycles.
... Although an approximately constant value of the maximum matric suction (e.g., * 1.0 GPa) was assumed in some previous studies on the SWRC [17,46,99], it should be noted that this parameter is intrinsically related to the endpoint of the SWRC when the soil is dry, while the value could be temperature dependent. Lu and Khorshidi [49] proposed a relationship for the maximum suction based on the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) model [9], given as follows: ...
This paper focuses on the impact of elevated temperatures on the adsorptive and capillarity water retention mechanisms of unsaturated soils under constrained (constant volume) conditions. This topic is critical for simulating the thermo-hydraulic behavior of soils in hydrogeological or geotechnical applications, including climate change effects on near surface soils, energy piles or soil borehole thermal energy storage systems in unsaturated soil layers, and buffers for geological nuclear waste repositories. A nonisothermal soil water retention curve (SWRC) that separately considers the temperature-dependency of the key parameters governing adsorptive and capillarity water retention mechanisms and soil physical parameters (e.g., surface tension, contact angle, adsorption capacity, cation exchange capacity, mean cavitation suction, air entry value and equilibrium film thickness) was developed to provide insights into the impact of temperature on water retention over the full suction range. The nonisothermal SWRC was validated using experimental data on high plasticity clays, with a good prediction of temperature effects on adsorption and capillarity water retention mechanisms in constrained unsaturated soils.
... Before the analysis the sample was outgassed at 150 °C for 20 h under a high vacuum (i.e. 10 -6 bar). Brünaüer-Emmett-Teller (S BET ) [34] and Corrugated Pore Structure Model (CPSM) [35,36], methods were applied to determine the pore specific surface area. Pore volume distribution of the material was estimated by applying both the Density Functional Theory (DFT) [37] and the Corrugated Pore Structure Model (CPSM) [35,36]. ...
Purpose
Crayfish treatment leads to the production of waste and byproducts up to 80% of the total initial seafood amount. The current common method to handle such waste is the landfilling practice which produces remarkable amounts of hazardous gasses and substances due to the anaerobic decomposition process. In this study, an integrated procedure is proposed for the valorization of wastes produced by a fish and crustaceous enterprise.
Methods
According to the circular economy and environmentally friendly practices spirit, integrated vertical production and waste valorization methods are adopted globally to reduce food waste. In this study, a process consisting of four sequential steps was proposed to valorize crayfish-treatment waste. Four final added-value materials were produced during this study. The first was chitosan which was identified via the NMR technique exhibiting 91% deacetylation degree. The other two were calcium hydroxide particles of size 6.32 μm and calcium carbonate particles of size 16.9 μm exhibiting meso-macro-pore structure with Sg = 46m²/g and Sg = 20m²/g respectively. Pore specific surface area values of these two products are similar to values reported in the literature for applications such as drug carriers etc. The last product was nitrogen/sulfur-doped carbon quantum dots which exhibited an identified via AFM technique mean size of 5.01 nm. This material was successfully tested for its advanced antioxidant capabilities via the DPPH assay and for its antimicrobial properties via MIC routine measurements with E. coli and L. monocytogenes.
Results
Experimental data indicated that the valorization process proposed in this study could lead to a yield of 10% w/w for chitosan after three stages treatment, to a yield of 35% w/w for Ca(OH)2 or CaCO3 after 1 stage treatment, and to a yield of 5% w/w N-S co-dopped Carbon QDs.
Conclusion
The globally big amount of waste-shells from Crayfish and other crustaceous could be integratedly exploited for added-value materials production yielding economic and environmental benefits.
... The morphology of the material was observed by Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM, make: NOVA NANOSEM 450, FEI). The automated gas adsorption station (Quantachrome autosorb-iQ series) was used to perform nitrogen adsorption-desorption at a temperature of 77 K. To estimate the surface area, the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) model [45] was used, and for analyzing the pore size distribution (PSD), the Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) model [46] was employed. A powder multifunctional x-ray diffraction system (XRD, make: Empyrean, Malvern Panalytical X-ray source: Cu-Kα (λ = 1.54 Å), step size = 0.02 • ) measurement was performed to observe the structural changes and the crystalline/amorphous nature of the sample. ...
Solid-state storage is a feasible solution to store hydrogen compared to commercially available techniques. The disadvantage of using metal and complex hydrides for storage is the elevated temperature operation (>400 °C) and slow reaction kinetics. Porous materials like carbon nanostructures, metal-organic frameworks, zeolites, and porous polymers possess high surface energy and hydrogen affinity. However, cryogenic temperature operation and low storage at ambient conditions are major limitations for practical storage applications. Modifying the material morphology and storage parameters to enhance hydrogen storage is under intense investigation. This study focuses on nanostructuring porous silicon (PS), evaluating its structural characteristics, and investigating its ability to store hydrogen at up to 80 bar. The challenges of large particle size and low-pressure hydrogen storage in the novel porous material is addressed with possible mechanisms. The discussion explored the potential of utilizing interconnected pores via nanoscale engineering and increased charging pressure to optimize hydrogen exposure. Nanostructuring the hand-grinded porous Si (HGPS) reduces crystallite size, boosts surface energy and enhances thermodynamics. At 80 bar and 120 °C, the ball-milled PS (BMPS) exhibits a hydrogen storage capacity of 10.7 wt%. The isosteric heat of adsorption is utilized to optimize storage conditions to achieve useable capacity. The hydrogen adsorption pressure is optimized between 40 and 60 bar, where the storage capacity ranges from 2 wt% and 6 wt% (meeting the hydrogen storage target set by the US Department of Energy). X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy investigates surface states and bonding involving silicon hydrides. The effect of nanostructuring on decomposition energy is observed by differential scanning calorimetry. The decreased crystallite size, examined through X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy, exposes nanopores accessible to hydrogen. The accessibility enhances storage capacity in free and surface-affixed states, rendering BMPS for reversible storage applications. The lower temperature requirement for hydrogen adsorption and release from storage material aligns with Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG 7) on affordable and clean energy.
... The specific surface area of the studied samples from all studied areas was determined using the N2 Quantachrome NOVA 2200E BET Surface Area Analyzer porosimeter and applying the adsorption theory was applied [28]. After drying the samples at 105°C, they were then degassed at 70°C overnight and then we measured the specific surface area, obtaining isotherms with a range of points for P/Po from 0.05-0.3. ...
Pelotherapy has been used as a treatment of different diseases from medical, pharmaceutical and cosmetics fields. Mineralogi-cal and chemical compositions and the possible toxicity of peloids were first investigated and then compared with the existing toxicity levels in order to determine whether they have applications for pelotherapeutic treatments. The 120 studied samples were collected from natural outcrops in two islands, Kefalonia (80 samples) and Corfu (40 samples) where, in addition to the chemical and mineralogical analysis, also pH, plasticity, specific surface area and thermal analysis were determined. Grain size analysis, TOC content and depositional conditions were taken under consideration. Toxic element contents, e.g., Ni, Mo, Ga, Te, and Sr, of the studied pel-oids were higher than permissible levels, whereas the mineralogi-cal composition mainly showed the presence of smectite, quartz, plagioclase, and some carbonates (calcite and dolomite). The temperature of the studied samples was between 23 and 26°C, pH between 8.3 and 9.6, the surface area between 6 and 26m 2 /gr. Thermal analysis showed gradually large weight loss from about 670°C due to calcination and decomposition of calcium carbonate CaCO 3. Combination of all the above results could be utilized in the direction of using these materials for pelotherapy, as they do not contain toxic elements, beyond the permissible levels.
... The specific surface area of the studied samples from all studied areas was determined using the N2 Quantachrome NOVA 2200E BET Surface Area Analyzer porosimeter and applying the adsorption theory was applied [28]. After drying the samples at 105°C, they were then degassed at 70°C overnight and then we measured the specific surface area, obtaining isotherms with a range of points for P/Po from 0.05-0.3. ...
Pelotherapy has been used as a treatment of different diseases from medical, pharmaceutical and cosmetics fields. Mineralogi-cal and chemical compositions and the possible toxicity of peloids were first investigated and then compared with the existing toxicity levels in order to determine whether they have applications for pelotherapeutic treatments. The 120 studied samples were collected from natural outcrops in two islands, Kefalonia (80 samples) and Corfu (40 samples) where, in addition to the chemical and mineralogical analysis, also pH, plasticity, specific surface area and thermal analysis were determined. Grain size analysis, TOC content and depositional conditions were taken under consideration. Toxic element contents, e.g., Ni, Mo, Ga, Te, and Sr, of the studied pel-oids were higher than permissible levels, whereas the mineralogi-cal composition mainly showed the presence of smectite, quartz, plagioclase, and some carbonates (calcite and dolomite). The temperature of the studied samples was between 23 and 26°C, pH between 8.3 and 9.6, the surface area between 6 and 26m 2 /gr. Thermal analysis showed gradually large weight loss from about 670°C due to calcination and decomposition of calcium carbonate CaCO 3. Combination of all the above results could be utilized in the direction of using these materials for pelotherapy, as they do not contain toxic elements, beyond the permissible levels.
... The pore structure was analyzed by a speci c surface area/porosity analyzer (ASAP2460, Micromeritics, Georgia, USA) at 77.4 K. The speci c surface area (S BET ) was calculated according to Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) methods (Brunauer et al. 1938) and the pore size distribution was determined according to Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) methods (Barrett et al. 1951). ...
Thermal modification (TM) is considered to be the most environmentally friendly and effective industrial method to reduce the hygroscopicity of wood. However, different heating mediums of TM often results in various performance. In this study, the changes of microstructure, crystallization, chemical composition and equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of thermally modified wood (TMW) were investigated respectively to explore the effects of heating mediums (saturated steam, superheated steam, air), modification temperature and water leaching post-treatment on TMWs. The results showed the general intensity of TM was in the order of: saturated steam > superheated steam > air. Saturated steam induced severer cell wall destruction than the other two mediums. Although the porosity slightly increased with the increasing TM temperature and leaching treatment, superheated steam and air TM still decreased the porosity compared to that of control, whereas saturated steam TM increased the porosity apparently. Although TM increased both relative crystallinity and crystal size of TMWs. The increasing TM temperature slightly increased the relative crystallinity, but decreased the crystal size. Leaching caused opposite changes in crystal size of TMWs with different heating mediums. The highest crystallinity was observed after saturated steam TM. The increase in relative amount of lignin and cellulose due to the hemicellulose degradation was the main chemical changes of TMWs, further lignin condensation reaction was occurred after saturated steam TM. Although saturated steam TM induced increased porosity, its lowest EMC indicated the decrease of hydroxyl groups was the dominate reason for the decreased hygroscopicity than the changes of microstructure.
... The textural properties of the MIL-100(Fe) and S@MIL-100(Fe) were investigated by N 2 adsorption-desorption isotherms at liquid nitrogen (N 2 ) temperature (77 K) with a Micromeritics ASAP 2020 system. The specific surface area and the total pore volume of these solids were determined by the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method [43] and the Gurvich rule [44] at p/p 0 = 0.98, respectively. The pore size distribution was calculated using the density functional theory (DFT). ...
Metal–Sulfur (Li/Na–S) battery technology is considered one of the most promising energy storage systems because of its high specific capacity of 1675 mA h/g, attributed to sulfur. However, the rapid capacity degradation, mainly caused by metallic polysulfide dissolution, remains a significant challenge prior to practical applications. This work demonstrates for the first time that a Fe-based metal organic framework (MIL-100(Fe)) can remarkably stabilize the electrochemical behavior of sulfur-cathodes in Metal-S cells during prolonged cycling. The chemical and morphological properties of MIL-100(Fe) and, especially conjugated with their textural characteristics, can help immobilize lithium/sodium polysulfides within the highly microporous cathode structure. Capacity loss per cycle is 0.044 mA h after 3000 cycles at 2C in Li–S cells. This behavior is confirmed when the MOF-based cathode is studied in RT Na–S batteries, managing to stabilize the capacity with a loss of less than 0.08 % during 2000 cycles at 0.1 C-rate. The excellent performance can be attributed to the synergistic effects of the highly microporous structure of MOF-100(Fe), which provide an ideal matrix to confine polysulfides, and the presence of Fe(III) active centers that provide chemical affinities to sulfur and polysulfides. These factors contribute to the excellent cycling performance of the S@MIL-100(Fe) composite in Metal-Sulfur batteries.
... CaO has an ideal density of 3.34 g/ cm 3 . Furthermore, the CaO powder had particles sizes ranging from 10s to 1000 s nm based on scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and an average Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) specific surface area of 2.74 ± 0.17 m 2 /g as determined by N 2 adsorption (Brunauer et al., 1938). All experiments used dry CaO powder to react with humid air for hydration and subsequent carbonation. ...
Calcium oxide (CaO; lime) looping is a proposed technology with the potential to capture gigatonnes of carbon
dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere to help mitigate climate change. The importance of water in carbonation
reactions is widely understood as it is needed for mineral and CO2 dissolution and carbonate precipitation.
However, the effects of water vapor on CaO carbonation pathways and rates have yet to be elucidated in a
systematic manner. Here, we examine the impact of relative humidity (RH) on CO2 removal using CaO powder at
20% to 95% RH. Higher RH resulted in faster hydration rates, forming Ca(OH)2 (portlandite); however,
passivation limited carbonation in all experiments, with the greatest carbonation occurring at 80% RH (65%
CaCO3; calcite). Thus, CaO powder is highly prone to passivation when using RH to drive hydration and
carbonation. In RH swing experiments, RH was changed at different times (hours or days) and by different
amounts (e.g., 40–99%). Humidity swings can yield >85% CaCO3 when complete CaO hydration at a low RH
(<40%) occurs before carbonation at a high RH (~99%). Importantly, separating these two processes yields
nearly complete carbonation. In this case, we achieved a CO2 removal rate of 1 t CO2 for every 1.95 t of Ca(OH)2
per day.
... Some of the most applied and known isotherm adsorption models are the Langmuir adsorption model, which assumes that adsorption occurs through a monolayer of molecules on the surface, with each adsorbed molecule being independent of others [104], or the Freundlich adsorption model [105]. Other isotherm adsorption models are the Sips model [106] and the Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller (BET) model [107], among others. ...
This review explores the potential use of plastic waste for the preparation of activated carbons, which can be used as adsorbent materials to remove contaminants from water. Using discarded plastics to synthesize activated carbons has several benefits. Firstly, it helps to reduce the plastic waste burden that ends up in landfills and oceans or dumped on roadsides. Secondly, it creates a potential sector for using discarded plastics to treat pollutants further and approaches a closer circular economy scenario for plastics. Polyethylene terephthalate, tire, and plastic mixtures have been the plastic polymers most studied. The superficial area of activated carbons derived from plastic waste chars varies in a wide range, from 0.1 to 2152 m 2 /g. KOH seems to be the most widespread activated agent used, and the one that leads to the best textural properties. In general, the adsorption capacities of heavy metals were lower than 300 mg/g. On average, plastic waste chars have higher kinetic rates for adsorbing contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) compared to heavy metals. CECs uptake varies from 2 to 659 mg/g. Although the feasibility of developing porous materials is currently under research with promising results for a successful industrial application, some flaws regarding the granulometry, possible leaching, regeneration ability, and costs, among others, have not been addressed yet.
... A comprehensive explanation of this method and the formulas used to compute the open porosity and apparent density (ρapparent) have been documented in a separate publication [20]. The determination of the specific surface area of the microspheres calcined at 823 K was conducted through the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method utilizing a Micromeritics Tristar ® II 3020 surface and pore analyzer [28]. Prior to measurement initiation, the samples underwent degassing in a vacuum environment and were heated at 523 K for 2 hours. ...
An innovative, dust-free method for producing (U,Am)O2-x targets without the generation of Am-contaminated liquid waste has been successfully demonstrated. The method comprises the fabrication of porous uranium oxide microspheres through internal gelation, using starch as a pore-former, and a single-step Am(NO3)3 aqueous solution infiltration process. Various samples containing targeted Am contents of 5, 10, 20, or 30 mol% were prepared. The concentration of the Am(III) stock solution was confirmed by ICP-MS and no other Am species than Am3+ were distinguished by UV–Vis spectrophotometry. The microstructural investigations revealed that the density of the porous host microspheres was approximately 65 %TD, with 30 vol% accessible porosity, suitable for an efficient infiltration. Microstructural analysis using SEM-EDS was performed on the sintered microspheres. Unexpectedly, EDS analysis was found to be incompatible due to detector interference from the 60 keV gamma-rays emitted by the sample. Therefore, examination of cross-sectioned (U,Am)O2-x microspheres was performed using wavelength dispersive spectrometry (WDS), which was unaffected by the soft gamma ray emission. A homogeneous mixing of Am and U was observed, without the formation of agglomerates with distinct doping levels. From the periphery to the center of the microspheres a radial gradient in Am content was observed, indicating a slight enrichment of Am on the surface of the microspheres. Overall, the nominal Am concentration was in very good agreement with the targeted content.
... According to the IUPAC classification, all isotherms are the ''II'' type of isotherm and have the H3 hysteresis [72]. Thus, the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method and Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) method (based on the adsorption branch) were utilized to characterize the specific surface area (S BET ) and pore properties, respectively [73,74]. When the size of pores increases from 100 nm to above, the accuracy cannot be guaranteed, as a tiny difference in relative pressure is needed in this situation to differentiate the pore size [75,76]. ...
... A comprehensive classification is provided in the works of Giles et al. [214,215] and Voice and Weber [188]. Some models, such as Langmuir [216], BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller [217]), and Gibbs, may not be suitable for describing sorption in the water phase. Therefore, only Freundlich and linear models appear suitable for characterizing pollutant reabsorption in the aqueous environment [218,219]. ...
The pollution of groundwater and soil by hydrocarbons is a significant and growing global problem. Efforts to mitigate and minimise pollution risks are often based on modelling. Modelling-based solutions for prediction and control play a critical role in preserving dwindling water resources and facilitating remediation. The objectives of this article are to: (i) to provide a concise overview of the mechanisms that influence the migration of hydrocarbons in groundwater and to improve the understanding of the processes that affect contamination levels, (ii) to compile the most commonly used models to simulate the migration and fate of hydrocarbons in the subsurface; and (iii) to evaluate these solutions in terms of their functionality, limitations, and requirements. The aim of this article is to enable potential users to make an informed decision regarding the modelling approaches (deterministic, stochastic, and hybrid) and to match their expectations with the characteristics of the models. The review of 11 1D screening models, 18 deterministic models, 7 stochastic tools, and machine learning experiments aimed at modelling hydrocarbon migration in the subsurface should provide a solid basis for understanding the capabilities of each method and their potential applications.
... Stephen Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller (1938) Guggenheim, Anderson, and de Boer (GAB) ...
Andean roots can be used as an alternative to gluten-free food. The objective of this study was to enhance the technological and nutritional properties of Andean root flours to promote their industrial applicability. The water content and activity of the flour were lower than those required to prevent mold growth. The bulk density of the flour was comparable to that of wheat flour. The flour of Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. exhibited the lowest water absorption capacity of the tested samples. However, both this flour and Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz & Pavón showed a higher fat absorption capacity. The samples exhibited type-II isotherms, indicating that the flours were highly hygroscopic. The Guggenheim, Anderson, and de Boer GAB model showed a higher coefficient of determination in mathematical modeling. The chroma of T. tuberosum Ruiz & Pavón flour was higher than the other samples, which was related to total carotenoids and lycopene. Furthermore, I. batatas (L.) Lam. exhibited the highest phenol value.
... Instead of the well-known Langmuir isotherm, Wang et al. [33] suggested that some shale samples' adsorption behavior follows the BET isotherm [34] . The traditional BET isotherm depicts the adsorption process in three steps and assumes an unlimited number of adsorption layers: i. ...
This paper comprehensively reviews the role of geomechanical and petrophysical studies in CO2-enhanced gas recovery and/or CO2 storage following CO2 injection in shale gas reservoirs. In order to achieve CO2-enhanced gas recovery (CO2-EGR) from shale reservoirs and/or CO2 storage in shale reservoirs, numerical models and designs rely on an effective appraisal of the target reservoir. This paper analysed the geomechanical and petrophysical characteristics that were taken into account while constructing models for a successful CO2-EGR, in addition to examining assessments of shale reservoirs undertaken in diverse fields of research. The factors were weighted based on their importance in distinct shale reservoir settings. Natural fracture system, fracture conductivity, hydraulic fracture half-length, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, and other geo-mechanical and petro-physical parameters are important throughout the entire process, which also includes CO2 injection, residual hydrocarbon mobilisation, variations in stress and strain during hydrocarbon production, and the subsequent impact on fracture network conductivity. This research will also give recommendations on how to improve the previously described geomechanical and petrophysical characteristics in order to achieve effective CO2-enhanced gas recovery and/or CO2 storage in shale gas reservoirs. The energy sector's goal is to continue employing unconventional resources to provide sustainable energy. As a result, this review study will contribute significantly to our understanding of how to reduce subsurface failure in CO2-EGR fracturing and injection, as well as refracturing and CO2 injection in depleted shale gas reservoirs for CO2 storage.
... The SSA was determined via nitrogen adsorption isotherms (Tristar 3000, Micromeritics, GA, USA) at 77 K. Before the measurement, the samples (0.1-0.2 g) were outgassed in a vacuum oven at 45 • C overnight. The calculation of SSA was based on the multipoint Brunauer-Emmett-Teller equation (BET) in the relative pressure range of 0.05 to 0.3 [26]. The total pore volume was estimated by the t-plot method at the highest applied relative pressure [27]. ...
The study aimed to enhance the solubility of the poorly water-soluble drug, fenofibrate, by loading it onto mesoporous silica, forming amorphous solid dispersions. Solid dispersions with 30% fenofibrate were prepared using the solvent evaporation method with three solvents (ethyl acetate, acetone, and isopropanol) at different temperatures (40 °C, boiling point temperature). Various characteristics, including solid-state properties, particle morphology, and drug release, were evaluated by different methods and compared to a pure drug and a physical mixture of fenofibrate and silica. Results revealed that higher solvent temperatures facilitated complete amorphization and rapid drug release, with solvent choice having a lesser impact. The optimal conditions for preparation were identified as ethyl acetate at boiling point temperature. Solid dispersions with different fenofibrate amounts (20%, 25%, 35%) were prepared under these conditions. All formulations were fully amorphous, and their dissolution profiles were comparable to the formulation with 30% fenofibrate. Stability assessments after 8 weeks at 40 °C and 75% relative humidity indicated that formulations prepared with ethyl acetate and at 40 °C were physically stable. Interestingly, some formulations showed improved dissolution profiles compared to initial tests. In conclusion, mesoporous silica-based solid dispersions effectively improved fenofibrate dissolution and demonstrated good physical stability if prepared under appropriate conditions.
... SSA measurements were conducted with Quadrasorb EVO and Quantachrome Nova Station. The SSA was determined according to the method described by [33], utilizing the Brunauer-Emmet-Teller (BET) equation [44] for calculation. The SSA analysis was performed at the Institute of Analysis and Testing, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology. ...
The Dongsha area, a key region in the northern South China Sea (SCS), features both diffusive deep and seepage shallow gas hydrate reservoirs. Utilizing sediment samples from gas hydrate reservoirs and adjacent layers at sites W08 and W16 in the Dongsha area, this study aims to uncover the sediment property differences between deep and shallow gas hydrate reservoirs and their impact on gas hydrate accumulation through grain size, X-ray diffraction, and specific surface area (SSA) analyses. The findings classify the study intervals into four distinct layers: shallow non-gas hydrate layer (shallow-NGHL), shallow gas hydrate reservoir (shallow-GHR), deep non-gas hydrate layer (deep-NGHL), and deep gas hydrate reservoir (deep-GHR). In the clayey silt sediment reservoirs, grain size has a minor influence on gas hydrate reservoirs. Both shallow and deep NGHLs, characterized by high smectite content and SSA, possess a complex structure that impedes gas and fluid migration and offers limited potential reservoir space. Consequently, both shallow and deep NGHLs function as sealing beds. The deep GHR, having low smectite content and SSA, exhibits a strong capacity for gas and fluid migration and greater potential reservoir space. As a result, sediment properties significantly influence the deep GHR. Seepage primarily controls the shallow GHR.
... A Micromeritics ASAP 2020 Physisorption Analyzer (Micromeritics Instrument Corp., Norcross, GA, USA) was used for N 2 adsorption-desorption measurements. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method was used to calculate the specific surface area on the basis of nitrogen adsorption isotherm measurements at 77 K [24]. ...
Dextran coated zinc oxide nanoparticles with various zinc concentration have been developed in this study. Various characterization techniques were used in order to study the physical-chemical properties of the obtained samples. The structure of the samples was investigated using X-Ray diffraction (XRD), while the morphology was studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Information regarding the porosity of the samples were obtained with the aid of Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method. The results of the physico-chemical characterization depicted the obtaining of a nanocomposite with homogenous and uniform morphology. Furthermore, the antimicrobial activity of the samples was also investigated against Gram-positive bacterial strains (Staphylococcus aureus 0364, Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212 and Bacillus subtilis), Gram-negative bacterial strains (Pseudomonas aeruginosa 1397, Escherichia Coli ATCC 259220 and against fungal strain Candida albicans ATCC 10231. The results of the antimicrobial assay showed that the nanocomposites exhibited good inhibitory effects against all the tested microorganisms making them suitable candidates for the further development of antimicrobial agents for biomedical applications.
... Samples were analyzed in the relative pressure (P/P 0 ) range of 0.05− 0.995 in liquid nitrogen (−196°C). The SSA was determined in the relative pressure range of 0.05−0.25 via the Brunauer−Emmett− Teller (BET) 26 model. Functional groups were characterized using a PerkinElmer Spectrum 100 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer. ...
Metallic wood combines the unique structural benefits of wood and the properties of metals and is thus promising for applications ranging from heat transfer to electromagnetic shielding to energy conversion. However, achieving metallic wood with full use of wood structural benefits such as anisotropy and multiscale porosity is challenging. A key reason is the limited mass transfer in bulk wood where fibers have closed ends. In this work, programmed removal of cell-wall components (delignification and hemicellulose extraction) was introduced to improve the accessibility of cell walls and mass diffusion in wood. Subsequent low-temperature electroless Cu plating resulted in a uniform continuous Cu coating on the cell wall, and, furthermore, Cu nanoparticles (NPs) insertion into the wood cell wall. A novel Cu NPs-embedded multilayered cell-wall structure was created. The unique structure benefits compressible metal-composite foam, appealing for stress sensors, where the multilayered cell wall contributes to the compressibility and stability. The technology developed for wood metallization here could be transferred to other functionalizations aimed at reaching fine structure in bulk wood.
... The BET equation [54] was employed to estimate the BET equivalent surface area (S BET ) [48], which is related to the physical adsorption of monolayers in mesopores and the filling of micropores. Data conforming to the linear form of the BET equation were found in the P/P 0 range between 0.4 and 0.32 (Fig. 7c). ...
... To compare adsorption capacity values between different MP polymers and size classes, the specific surface area (SSA) of the pristine material was assessed through N 2 Brunauer−Emmett−Teller surface analysis (N 2 -BET) through 11-point adsorption− desorption isotherm measurements using an Autosorb iQ MP surface area analyzer (Anton Paar GmbH, Austria). 38 A summary of the model MP characteristics can be found in Table S1. ...
Adsorption of biomacromolecules onto polymer surfaces, including microplastics (MPs), occurs in multiple environmental compartments, forming an ecocorona. Environmental DNA (eDNA), genetic material shed from organisms, can adsorb onto MPs which can potentially either (1) promote long-range transport of antibiotic resistant genes or (2) serve to gain insights into the transport pathways and origins of MPs by analyzing DNA sequences on MPs. However, little is known about the capacity of MPs to adsorb eDNA or the factors that influence sorption, such as polymer and water chemistries. Here we investigated the adsorption of extracellular linear DNA onto a variety of model MP fragments composed of three of the most environmentally prevalent polymers (polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, and polystyrene) in their pristine and photochemically weathered states. Batch adsorption experiments in a variety of water chemistries were complemented with nonlinear modeling to quantify the rate and extent of eDNA sorption. Ionic strength was shown to strongly impact DNA adsorption by reducing or inhibiting electrostatic repulsion. Polyethylene terephthalate exhibited the highest adsorption capacity when normalizing for MP specific surface area, likely due to the presence of ester groups. Kinetics experiments showed fast adsorption (majority adsorbed under 30 min) before eventually reaching equilibrium after 1–2 h. Overall, we demonstrated that DNA quickly binds to MPs, with pseudo-first- and -second-order models describing adsorption kinetics and the Freundlich model describing adsorption isotherms most accurately. These insights into DNA sorption onto MPs show that there is potential for MPs to act as vectors for genetic material of interest, especially considering that particle-bound DNA typically persists longer in the environment than dissolved DNA.
... Adsorption/desorption of N 2 analysis was performed to measure the specific surface area, the average pore diameter, and the pore volume of the ACs. For this purpose, the BET (Brunauer et al. 1938) and the BJH (Barret et al. 1951) methods were applied to the corresponding nitrogen desorption isotherms. The method de Boer (De Boer et al. 1966) was used for micropore and external area calculations. ...
A static batch arrangement composed of anti-leak vials coupled to gas chromatography is proposed as a complementary system for performance assessment of biogas desulfurization by adsorption. For testing, a modified commercial activated carbon produced by controlled thermal treatment in the presence of iron(III) species improved biogas desulfurization. The adsorbents showed a superior hydrogen sulfide removal compared to ordinary one. Pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and Bangham’s kinetic models were used to fit experimental data. All studied samples followed pseudo-first-order model, indicating the predominance of physisorption, and Bangham’s model, confirming that the micropores structure played an important role for gases diffusion and adsorbent capacity. Additionally, the materials were characterized by N 2 adsorption–desorption, X-ray diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive spectroscopy. The thermal treatment associated with iron impregnation caused significant modifications in the surface of the materials, and the iron species showed two main benefits: an expressive increase in the specific area and the formation of specific adsorption sites for hydrogen sulfide removal. The results reinforce the advantages of iron-modified adsorbents in relation to their non-modified counterparts. The analytical methodology based on the confinement of multiple gases contributes to improving the understanding of the hydrogen sulfide adsorption process using pressure swing adsorption technology.
Graphical Abstract
... The zeta potential values of the cellulose-OH, cellulose-NH 2, and cellulose-COOH beads were obtained at various pH values and analyzed using a Zeta-sizer (Nano ZS, Malvern Instruments Ltd., Model number: ZEN3600). The specific surface areas of cellulose-OH, cellulose-NH 2, and cellulose-COOH were determined by a surface area device (Quantachrome Nova 2200 E, USA) and calculated using the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method (Brunauer et al. 1938). The water content of the cellulose bead preparations was determined by a gravimetric method. ...
In the present study, cellulose beads were prepared using the phase inversion method and then activated with epichlorohydrin. The epoxy groups of the activated beads were modified with Nα,Nα-bis(carboxymethyl)-L-lysine hydrate (CML), and tetraethylenepentamine (TEPA) ligands. These modified beads, coded as cellulose-COOH and cellulose-NH2, respectively, were used to remove of uranium (VI) ions from aqueous medium. The prepared adsorbents were characterized using FTIR, SEM, zeta-potential, and analytical methods; the performance of both the modified beads for the removal of uranium (VI) ions was optimized using different operational parameters in a batch system. The amount of adsorbed uranium ions on cellulose-COOH and cellulose-NH2 beads was 462.9 ± 13.7 and 127.4 ± 5.1 mg/g, respectively. The results are acceptable regarding the equilibrium kinetics for the adsorption of uranium (VI) ions, which followed the second-order kinetic model. The prepared activated cellulose beads could be utilized in many technological applications by making appropriate modifications in the reactive epoxy groups of cellulose.
... The surface charges of sample were determined by measuring the zeta potential [26]. The BET surface area and pore volume were analyzed by Smartsorb 92/93 surface area analyzer under nitrogen environment [27,28]. In addition to this, the other essential characterizations were carried out as per the standard methods and the analytical data are presented in Table 1. ...
Population and urbanization increase the sewage generation. Sewage treatment plant (STP) generates the sewage sludge. Agricultural runoff and sewage water discharge into water bodies proliferates the growth of water hyacinth and creates environmental issues. Managing the sewage sludge and water hyacinth are difficult task because of high water content, environmental concerns, regulatory measures and high operational cost. Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) converts the wet biomass into condensed solid product called hydrochar at moderate temperature range of 180 – 250°C under auto generated pressure. Through HTC process, the sewage sludge and water hyacinth were mixed and converted into hydrochar @ temperature of 200℃ and 4h resident time with L/S ratio of 9:1. The produced hydrochar showed desired functional groups viz., CH – methyl groups, C-O-C – alcohol groups, esters, ethers and Oxygenic functional groups (-C=O, -OH, -CO-O, C-O-C) with particle size of 494.8 nm, BET surface area of 369.70 m2 g-1, Zeta Potential of -27.9 mV. The hydrochar recorded slightly acidic pH (5.8) with appreciable levels of C (24.4%), N (2.51%), P (0.44%), K (0.98%), Ca (1.24%), Mg (0.68%). These properties of sewage sludge and water hyacinth derived hydrochar exhibits its potential use in agricultural and environmental applications.
... Coal, as a porous medium, exhibits a complex pore structure. The pore morphology in the microstructure of the coal body affects the storage and transportation characteristics of gas from coalbed methane [29]. Figure 5 shows the N 2 isotherm adsorption and desorption curves of the raw and treated coals, which are type IV isotherms according to the IUPAC classification standard. ...
The degree of irregularity and complexity of the pore structure are comprehensively reflected in the fractal dimension. The porosity of coal was determined by its fractal dimension, where a larger dimension indicates a lower porosity. Fractal theory and the Frenkel–Halsey–Hill (FHH) model were applied to explore the variation rules of concentration on functional groups and pore structure in this study. Combined with infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and low-temperature nitrogen adsorption, a starch-polymerized aluminum sulfate composite fracturing fluid was prepared, which plays an important role in methane adsorption and permeability of coal samples. The test results showed that, compared with the original coal, the pore volume and specific surface area of each group of coal samples were reduced, the average pore diameter was initially enlarged and then declined, and fractal dimension D1 dropped by 5.4% to 15.4%, while fractal dimension D2 gained 1.2% to 7.9%. Moreover, the nitrogen adsorption of each group of coal samples was obviously lower than the original coal, and the concentration of starch-polymerized aluminum sulfate solution existed at a critical optimal concentration for the modification of the coal samples, and the nitrogen adsorption reached a minimum value of 0.6814 cm3/g at a concentration of 10%. The novel composite solution prepared by the combination of starch and flocculant in this paper enhanced the permeability of the coal seam, which is of great significance in improving the efficiency of coalbed methane mining.
... The analysis of specific area was carried out according to the BET method (Brunauer et al., 1938). To characterize the porosity of the support without enzyme, approximately 200 mg of sample was subjected to the calcination process at 700 °C for 420 min. ...
The ionic solids [C16MI]Cl and [C14MI]Cl were used as structure directors on MCM-48 mesoporous support with immobilized CALB lipase for the synthesis of esters from geraniol. Significant results were obtained in the synthesis of geranyl acetate and geranyl butyrate. Enzyme concentration, temperature and molar ratio of substrates were parameters that affect the synthesis yield. The highest temperature (60°C) and highest enzyme concentration (13%) conditions showed the best ester conversion results. For both esters, the ionic liquid [C16MI]Cl showed better conversion results and reached a value above 38% of conversion. Furthermore, the support tested in the present study for application in ester synthesis is cost-effective. In addition, the enzymatic route to obtain the esters presents mild reaction conditions and the results show potential for application in industrial applications.
... The specific surface area of HEO samples was determined by nitrogen gas adsorption and using the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method [37]. ...
High entropy oxides (HEOs) have recently emerged as potential candidates for photocatalytic CO2 conversion and H2 production driven by their high structural stability and diversified elemental compositions. However, their practical use in photocatalysis is still limited particularly due to their comparatively small light absorbance and low active surface area. In this study, CO2 conversion and H2 production of an HEO TiZrHfNbTaO11 photocatalysts, originally synthesized by high-pressure torsion (HPT), were enhanced by employing pulsed laser processing in water to effectively fragment micropowders to nanopowders. The process led to a 30 times larger active surface area and accordingly to enhanced light absorbance and higher photoelectrochemical performance for CO2 and H2O conversion. The generation of the large active surface area together with the formation of laser-induced crystal lattice defects not only enhanced the photocatalytic efficiency by at least one order of magnitude but also yielded CO, H2 and CH4 production even without requiring any additional co-catalyst. This study represents a notable step forward in developing active high-entropy photocatalysts by using new strategies such as laser fragmentation.
... For the measurement of N 2 sorption isotherms at 77 K, an automatic surface area and porosity analyzer (Quantachrome, AUTOSORB IQ, USA) was utilized. The specific surface area was calculated using the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method [35], while the Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) method was applied to determine parameters [36]. To provide a more comprehensive analysis of the aerogel's pore structure, assumptions of cylindrical pores were made, and the pore volume (V pore ) and the average pore diameter (D pore ) were calculated according to the following equations [7]: ...
To enhance the thermal safety and preserve the excellent thermal insulation of hydrophobic silica aerogels (SA), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) intercalated layered double hydroxides (LDH) was incorporated into SA by in situ doping to form SDS-LDH/SA composites. The intercalation modification by SDS extends the layer spacing of LDH and improves the dispersibility of LDH in SA, in favor of the combination between LDH and SA. The physical combination between the SA and SDS-LDH is demonstrated by FTIR analyses. As the content of SDS-LDH rises, the SDS-LDH/SA continues to exhibit a low density (0.11–0.20 g/cm³), low thermal conductivity (<26.8 mW/m/K), and large specific surface area (709.4–839.2 m²/g), ensuring excellent thermal insulation performance. It further finds that the SDS-LDH effectively absorbs heat and inhibits the thermal decomposition of SA. Therein, the onset temperature of thermal decomposition of the SA with 20% SDS-LDH is 114.0 °C higher than that of pure SA. Additionally, it also finds that the gross calorific values of the SDS-LDH/SA decrease with the SDS-LDH content, and all these gross calorific values are lower than that of the pure SA. Hence, SDS intercalated LDH presents significant effects on enhancing the thermal safety of hydrophobic SA without impairing the thermal insulation too much.
Graphical Abstract
... The porous property of AC microparticles was determined via N 2 adsorption/desorption isotherms at −196 • C in a volumetric analyzer (ASAP 2000, Micromeritics, Mérignac, France) after outgassing under vacuum at 80 • C for 12 h. The specific surface area calculated via the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method, S BET , was obtained using the BET equation in the appropriate range of relative pressures [32]. The gas adsorption isotherms were used to evaluate the pore size distributions (PSDs) using the 2D-NLDFT-HS model for porous carbons with corrugated and chemically heterogenous surfaces [33]. ...
The development of bone-filling biomaterials capable of delivering in situ bone growth promoters or therapeutic agents is a key area of research. We previously developed a biomaterial constituting biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP) microparticles embedded in an autologous blood or plasma clot, which induced bone-like tissue formation in ectopic sites and mature bone formation in orthotopic sites, in small and large animals. More recently, we showed that activated carbon (AC) fiber cloth is a biocompatible material that can be used, due to its multiscale porosity, as therapeutic drug delivery system. The present work aimed first to assess the feasibility of preparing calibrated AC microparticles, and second to investigate the properties of a BCP/AC microparticle combination embedded in a plasma clot. We show here, for the first time, after subcutaneous (SC) implantation in mice, that the addition of AC microparticles to a BCP/plasma clot does not impair bone-like tissue formation and has a beneficial effect on the vascularization of the newly formed tissue. Our results also confirm, in this SC model, the ability of AC in particle form to adsorb and deliver large molecules at an implantation site. Altogether, these results demonstrate the feasibility of using this BCP/AC/plasma clot composite for bone reconstruction and drug delivery.
Hemp lime concrete (HLC) is an environment-friendly material increasingly used
in building construction. Many studies have focused on the moisture buffer
capacity of HLC, but its pollutant buffering capacity remains unknown. To address
this research gap, the potential for moisture and toluene buffering capacity of hemp
concrete is presented in this article. The sorption capacity toward toluene (TOL), a
typical indoor volatile organic compound (VOC), of HLC has been measured and
investigated with a 50 L environmental chamber at 23°C and a relative humidity
of 50%. Moisture buffering capacity of HLC has been determined according to the
Nordtest protocol. The experimental data have been used to evaluate the model
parameters of the CHAMPS-bio model (Coupled Heat, Air, Moisture
and Pollutant Simulation transport model dedicated to Bio-based building
materials) that assesses VOC transfers and hygrothermal behavior of building
materials under dynamic conditions. The results are innovative and new for hemp
concrete, and evidence that this bio-based material can mitigate the indoor toluene
concentration and regulate indoor relative humidity thanks to its buffering
capacity.
Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) are inorganic compounds listed as “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) materials and have been used in plant production as well as for plant disease control. This study investigated the antibacterial efficacy of ZnO NPs with various surface areas against Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris , assessed the effectiveness of ZnO NPs in controlling black rot disease in Chinese kale, and examined the influence of ZnO NPs application on soil bacterial communities. The results showed that ZnO NPs with high surface area effectively inhibited X . campestris pv. campestris by restraining growth and causing cell damage. Seed treatment and foliar spray application of high surface area ZnO NPs at 250 μg/mL significantly reduced the disease severity of black rot. Furthermore, in the greenhouse experiment, the soil bacterial communities in the treatment of plants applied with ZnO NPs did not differ from those in soil of nontreated plants. Therefore, ZnO NPs have the potential to serve as an alternative substance for plant disease management.
The presence of emerging contaminants of concern in surface waters is a problem because water treatment systems are not always designed to remove these contaminants. The objective of this study was to apply hydrothermal carbonization and physical activation to produce adsorbents from ion exchange resin residue, a residue not yet explored by these adsorbent production methodologies. The adsorbents were applied to remove bisphenol-A (BPA) and diclofenac (DCF) from water and were characterized by FT-IR, SEM, BET, metal, Boehm and PZC analyzes and ecotoxicity in water using the microalgae Raphidocelis subcapitata. Regeneration of adsorbents by ozonation for hydrochar adsorbent was studied. For the adsorption tests, the occurrence of DCF precipitation was observed. For BPA, the best results were in the pH range between 2.0 and 6.0. The ideal adsorbent dosage was 3.0 g/L for both adsorbents with BPA adsorption capacity close to 10 mg/g. The kinetic studies indicated a better fit of the data to the pseudo-second order model, with R2 equal to 0.930 and 0.979 for the two adsorbents tested and the adsorption isotherms showed a better fit to the Langmuir model with R2 of 0.996 and 0.994 and qmax of 12.87 mg/g and 8.21 mg/g. The ecotoxicity test of the adsorbents produced indicated that the materials were not toxic to the microalgae Raphidocelis subcapitata. The hydrocarbonized adsorbent regeneration tests through ozonization indicated an optimal ozonization time of 5 min with 70% regeneration.
Porosity affects key astromaterial processes from disruption in our atmosphere and impact with the ground, to the comminution of boulders by thermal and impact processes and slope mechanics on asteroid surfaces, to access and utilization of in-situ resources. Whereas the bulk porosity of clay-rich meteorites is well established, the magnitude of their surface area and nano-scale porosity is poorly known. Here we use N2 BET gas adsorption to measure the specific surface area and nanoscale pore distribution in several clay-rich meteorites. Two recent falls Tarda (C2-ung) and Aguas Zarcas (CM2) have specific surface areas of 72.5 and 16.5 m²/g, respectively. However, the specific surface area of Tarda ranges from 33.7 to 81.6 m²/g depending on outgassing conditions. The Tarda surface area is dominated by an interconnected network of ~ 3-nm-sized pores, whereas Aguas Zarcas shows a lower density of ~ 3 nm pores and broader size distribution around 40 nm. In contrast, Ivuna and Orgueil (CI1) have surface areas of ~ 15 to 18 m²/g: the low values compared to Tarda are likely due to the neoformation of pore-blocking minerals during atmospheric exposure. These data suggest that returned samples from asteroids Ryugu and Bennu, which are mineralogically and texturally similar to Tarda, also have interconnected nano-scale porosity with high surface area.
У статті наведено результати досліджень в області структуроутворення полімерних композитів із підвищеним вмістом мінеральних наповнювачів. При цьому як наповнювачі використовувались попутні продукти видобутку вулканічних порід – перліт і цеоліт родовищ Закарпаття, а як зв’язуючі – водні дисперії сополімерів двох типів – Policril 590 та Latex 2012. Теоретичною передумовою впливу на формування структури та відповідно на властивості композитів стали відомі генетичні особливості складу та будови досліджуваних наповнювачів. При розробці нових полімерних композитів важливу роль відіграє вибір системи наповнювач-зв’язуюче. Використання, при створенні об’ємних композитів в якості матриці водних дисперсій полімерів є маловивченою темою, що потребує поглиблених досліджень. Тому метою даного дослідження було вивчення процесів формування структури композитів та способів її регулювання за рахунок варіювання видів наповнювача і полімерної матриці та їх масового співвідношення. В свою чергу це впливало і на властивості композитів. В ході дослідження було зосереджено увагу на процесах формування структури композитів та аналізі взаємодії в системі наповнювач-полімерна матриця. Вивчено вплив типу сполучень полімерного зв’язуючого з наповнювачами наі розвиток поровоїі структури і фізико-механічні властивості композитів. Результати досліджень показали, що застосування різних типів сполучень досліджуваних компонентів дозволяє ефективно регулювати такі властивості композитів, як водопоглинання, яке змінювалося в інтервалі від 2,6 до 14,2 мас. %, відкрита пористість – від 3,58 до 21,35%, залишкова деформація – від 0,1 до 0,3, та Модуль Юнга – від 19,7 до 677,5 МПа, що відкриває широкі можливості для налаштування характеристик композитів під конкретні застосування.
Excess water on pipes and equipment under porous insulation materials can lead to undesired corrosion. This work aims to clarify to what extent thermal diffusion affects the migration of water inside insulation materials subject to large temperature gradients. Since no experimental data is available on the thermal diffusion coefficients of humid air, revised Enskog theory for Mie fluids is used to estimate transport properties. Comparison to experimental data from literature shows that the theory reproduces the diffusion coefficient, viscosity and thermal conductivity of humid air within 8.7%, 5.0 % and 3.5% respectively. The small discrepancies suggest that the theory can also provide reliable estimates of the thermal diffusion coefficients. In the investigated composition and temperature range, the theory predicts the Soret coefficient of water to be approximately −0.3 mK −1 , while the Soret coefficient of oxygen varies from −1.2 mK −1 to +0.1 mK −1. A case study with heating of glass wool insulation containing humid air, encapsulating a cylindrical pipe is investigated. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is used to consistently incorporate the Soret coefficients into the flux equations in a dynamic, non-isothermal model that includes diffusion, convection, thermal conduction and water sorption in the porous medium. With 50 K temperature difference across 5 cm of insulation, we find that at steady-state, thermal diffusion leads to a mole fraction of water in the gas phase that is about 1.5% higher at the hot location than if thermal diffusion is neglected.
Nanosheet-based membranes have shown enormous potential for energy-efficient molecular transport and separation applications, but designing these membranes for specific separations remains a great challenge due to the lack of good understanding of fluid transport mechanisms in complex nanochannels. We synthesized reduced MXene/graphene hetero-channel membranes with sub–1-nm pores for experimental measurements and theoretical modeling of their structures and fluid transport rates. Our experiments showed that upon complete rejection of salt and organic dyes, these membranes with subnanometer channels exhibit remarkably high solvent fluxes, and their solvent transport behavior is very different from their homo-structured counterparts. We proposed a subcontinuum flow model that enables accurate prediction of solvent flux in sub–1-nm slit-pore membranes by building a direct relationship between the solvent molecule–channel wall interaction and flux from the confined physical properties of a liquid and the structural parameters of the membranes. This work provides a basis for the rational design of nanosheet-based membranes for advanced separation and emerging nanofluidics.
The pore-fracture structure of deep coal reservoirs is highly important for evaluating, exploring, and developing coalbed methane (CBM) resources. This study considers three coal samples from the DJ57 well in the Benxi Formation in the Daning–Jixian block on the eastern margin of the Ordos Basin as the research object. Based on the coal quality parameters of the coal samples, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), gas adsorption experiments, high-pressure mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), and microcomputed tomography (micro-CT) scanning were used to quantitatively characterize the nanoscale pores and microscale fractures in deep coal reservoirs and to evaluate the pore-fracture structure at different scales. The results reveal that the pore types in the Benxi Formation coal samples are diverse and include mainly organic matter (OM) pores, inorganic pores (intraparticle and interparticle pores), and microfractures. The organic pores are diverse in shape and mainly exhibit round, oval, and wedge shapes, while the microfractures exhibit slender stripes or serrated curves. The multiscale quantitative characterization of deep coal reservoir pores and fractures is based on a variety of pore characterization methods, and the pore and fracture volume distributions are mainly U-shaped, revealing the coexistence of micropores and microfractures. The volumes of micropores (0.3–2 nm), mesopores (2–50 nm), macropores (50 nm to 10 μm), and microfractures (>10 μm) account for 78.00%, 6.78%, 2.08%, and 13.14%, respectively, of the total pore volume (PV). Based on a full-scale pore-fracture splicing calculation, the total permeability of the Benxi Formation coal samples ranges from 5.77 to 28.22 mD. The observation results indicate that the microfractures are connected to each other, forming a network structure with strong connectivity. The microfractures are mainly associated with pore diameters>100 μm, accounting for approximately 95% of the total permeability. Moreover, micropores in deep coal reservoirs provide a large space for CBM adsorption, and microfractures enhance the seepage capacity of CBM.
In this study, novel nanomagnetic catalysts, namely Fe2O3-MgO@choline formate (Ch. F.) and Fe2O3-MgO@choline cyanide (Ch. CN), were synthesized through immobilizing choline-based ion liquids to magnetic support via a simple and cost-effective methodology. FT-IR, TGA, FE-SEM, VSM, EDS, BET, and XRD techniques were employed to assess and characterize these organic–inorganic compounds. Following the successful preparation of nanoparticles, the catalysts were utilized in Knoevenagel and benzoin condensations. Fe2O3-MgO@Ch.F. exhibited exceptional activity in Knoevenagel condensation under solvent-free conditions at room temperature, achieving high yields (91–98%) in a short timeframe. Similarly, Fe2O3-MgO@Ch.CN demonstrated remarkable activity in benzoin condensation under environmentally friendly solvent conditions, yielding higher isolated yields (76–88%). Furthermore, these magnetically recyclable multifunctional catalysts displayed the ability to be reused up to five times without a significant loss in efficiency. Additionally, the heterogeneity of this nanocatalyst was investigated using the hot filtration technique. The findings indicated that the reaction primarily occurs via a heterogeneous pathway.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13065-024-01176-5.
The adsorption of robust molecules onto porous solids has proven to be a challenging task, even when the chosen adsorbent possesses suitable pore openings for analyte diffusion, as seen in the case of meso-ordered molecular sieves. Alongside the adsorption process, careful consideration must be given to the evaluation of adsorbent regeneration to ensure the complete removal of the analyte and the stability of the substrate, thereby extending its lifespan. This study utilized characterization techniques, including X-ray diffraction (XRD), textural analysis by nitrogen sorption, and field emission gun scanning electron microscopy (FEG/SEM), to acquire and quantify the properties of mesoporous silica sieves (SBA-15) and its carbon replica (CMK-3). Batch tests focusing on Rhodamine B adsorption revealed a 20-fold increase in adsorption capacity for the carbon substrate, CMK-3, despite the silica adsorbent featuring suitable pore openings and chemically compatible adsorption sites. This enhanced performance was primarily attributed to the slit-pore morphology network present for the carbon replica. Thermal analyses, including thermogravimetry (TG) and micro-pyrolysis, provided further support for the hypothesis that adsorption predominantly occurs in the extraporous region of SBA-15, explaining its low performance. Additionally, thermal analyses disclosed the degradation of the carbon substrate and the formation of new unsaturated and aromatic compounds through the recombination of carbon atoms from the substrate with the analyte in the presence of heat.
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