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9
Biljne ekonomije u neolitiku
na istočnom Jadranu: rezultati
arheobotaničkih istraživanja u
Danilu i Pokrovniku
Kelly Reed
Biotehnološki fakultet
Sveučilište Warwick
Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo
kellyreed@hotmail.co.uk
Sue Colledge
Institut za arheologiju
Sveučilišni koledž London
Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo
s.colledge@ucl.ac.uk
UDK: 58 (497.5 Šibenik) “652/653”
Izvorni znanstveni članak
Primljeno: 10. 6. 2015.
Prihvaćeno: 30. 9. 2015.
Malo se zna o počecima poljodjelstva u Hrvatskoj
(oko 6000. cal BC) i proveden je tek mali broj istra-
živanja usmjerenih na otkrivanje strategija preživlja-
vanja u to doba. U ovom su članku predstavljeni novi
arheobotanički podaci sa srednjoneolitičkog nalazišta
Danilo Bitinj i ranoneolitičkog te srednjoneolitičkog
nalazišta Pokrovnik, što je značajan doprinos dosa-
dašnjim spoznajama o počecima poljodjelstva u tom
području.
Ključne riječi: počeci poljodjelstva, impresso ke-
ramika, Hrvatska, uzgoj bilja
Kelly Reed, Sue Colledge
Plant Economies in the
Neolithic Eastern Adriatic:
Archaeobotanical Results from
Danilo and Pokrovnik
Kelly Reed
School of Life Sciences
University of Warwick
United Kingdom
kellyreed@hotmail.co.uk
Sue Colledge
Institute of Archaeology
University College London
United Kingdom
s.colledge@ucl.ac.uk
UDK: 58 (497.5 Šibenik) “652/653”
Original scientic paper
Received: 10. 6. 2015.
Accepted: 30. 9. 2015.
The beginning of farming in Croatia (ca. 6000
cal BC) is little understood and few archaeobotani-
cal studies have been conducted to explore the na-
ture of subsistence economies at this time. This paper
presents new archaeobotanical data from the middle
Neolithic site of Danilo Bitinj and the early/middle
Neolithic site of Pokrovnik, providing a signicant
contribution to the current evidence on early farming
in the region.
Keywords: Early Farming, Impressed Ware, Croa-
tia, Plant Cultivation
VAHD 109, 2016, 9-23
10
Uvod
Projekt “Rano poljodjelstvo i stočarstvo u Dalma-
ciji” pokrenuo je i vodio prof. Andrew Moore (Ro-
chester Institute of Technology, savezna država New
York, SAD). Iskopavanja dvaju neolitičkih lokaliteta,
Danila Bitinja (u daljnjem tekstu Danilo) i Pokrov-
nika, koja tvore temelj ovoga istraživanja, provedena
su u razdoblju od 2004. do 2006. godine. Srednjone-
olitičko nalazište Danilo nalazi se u plodnoj dolini
oko 8 km udaljenoj od obale, dok se rano i srednjo-
neolitičko nalazište Pokrovnik smjestilo u susjednoj
dolini u smjeru sjeveroistoka, otprilike 30 km udalje-
noj od obale (sl. 1). Smatra se da se naselje u Danilu
prostiralo na oko 9 ha, a ono je i eponimno nalazište
srednjoneolitičke danilske kulture.1 Procjenjuje se da
je nalazište u Pokrovniku manje i da pokriva površi-
nu od oko 3 ha, te da je bilo naseljeno tijekom ranog
neolitika (kultura impresso keramike, 6000.-5300.
cal BC) i srednjeg neolitika (danilska kultura, 5500.-
4900. cal BC).2 U sklopu iskopavanja proveden je i
opsežan program prikupljanja arheobotaničkog mate-
rijala. Glavni cilj istraživanja bio je utvrđivanje ras-
pona domesticiranih kultura i samonikloga bilja koje
se upotrebljavalo na ova dva nalazišta te procjena do
koje su mjere oni pridonosili sveukupnim gospodar-
skim strategijama preživljavanja. Nadalje, nakana je
bila i usporediti razvoj poljodjelstva, kako na lokalnoj
tako i na regionalnoj razini. Stoga su u ovome članku
predstavljeni arheobotanički rezultati terenskog istra-
živanja u Danilu u sezonama 2004. i 2005. te u Po-
krovniku u sezoni 2006.
Prethodna arheobotanička istraživanja u Danilu i
Pokrovniku
Iskopavanja su se u Danilu i Pokrovniku provodila
i prije prve sezone projekta “Rano poljodjelstvo i sto-
čarstvo u Dalmaciji”. Danilo je 50-ih godina 20. sto-
ljeća iskopavao Korošec,3 a 1992. godine Menđušić,4
dok su Pokrovnik 1979. godine iskopavali Brusić i
Talić iz muzeja u Splitu i Drnišu.5
Tijekom prethodnih iskopavanja u Danilu prona-
đeni su komadi kućnoga lijepa s utisnutim tragovima
zrna i posija žitarica.6 U odljevu tih tragova u lateksu
Hopf je prepoznala četiri fragmenta klasa (npr. vili-
častu strukturu klasa i pljevu), jedno slomljeno zrno
dvozrne pšenice (Triticum dicoccum) te tri fragmenta
1 Moore et al. 2007a.
2 Moore et al. 2007b; McClure et al. 2014.
3 Korošec 1958; Korošec 1964.
4 Menđušić 1998.
5 Brusić 2008.
6 Hopf 1964.
Introduction
The ‘Early Farming in Dalmatia’ project was initi-
ated and directed by Professor Andrew Moore (Roch-
ester Institute of Technology, NY). Excavations at the
two Neolithic sites of Danilo Bitinj (hereafter named
Danilo) and Pokrovnik, which formed the basis of the
research, were carried out between 2004 and 2006.
Middle Neolithic Danilo is located in a fertile valley
ca. 8km from the coast and the early-middle Neolithic
site of Pokrovnik is in the next valley to the northeast,
at a distance of ca. 30 km inland (Fig. 1). The settle-
ment at Danilo is thought to extend over ca. 9 ha and
is the eponymous site of the middle Neolithic Danilo
culture.1 Pokrovnik is estimated to be the smaller of
the two sites covering ca. 3 ha and was occupied dur-
ing the early (Impressed ware, 6000-5300 cal BC)
and middle (Danilo culture, 5500-4900 cal BC) Neo-
lithic.2 As part of the excavations an extensive archae-
obotanical recovery programme was conducted. The
main aims of this study were to determine the range of
domestic crops and wild plant resources utilised at the
two sites and to assess the extent to which they contrib-
uted to overall subsistence economies. The intention
also was to compare the development of crop-based
agriculture, both at the local and regional scales. This
paper therefore presents the archaeobotanical results
from the 2004 and 2005 Danilo and 2006 Pokrovnik
eld seasons.
Earlier archaeobotanical studies at Danilo and
Pokrovnik
Danilo and Pokrovnik had been excavated prior to
the rst season of the Early Farming in Dalmatia pro-
ject. Danilo was excavated in the 1950s by Korošec3
and in 1992 by Menđušić,4 and Pokrovnik was exca-
vated in 1979 by Brusić and Talić from the Museums
of Split and Drniš.5
During the earlier excavations at Danilo fragments
of daub with impressions of cereal grains and chaff
were recovered.6 From latex casts of the impressions
Hopf identied four spikelet fragments (e.g., spikelet
forks and glumes) and a single broken grain of emmer
(Triticum dicoccum) and three spikelet fragments of
einkorn (Triticum monococcum). She also tentatively
identied one spikelet fragment as naked barley (Hor-
deum vulgare var. nudum). The results of these early
1 Moore et al. 2007a.
2 Moore et al. 2007b; McClure et al. 2014.
3 Korošec 1958; Korošec 1964.
4 Menđušić 1998.
5 Brusić 2008.
6 Hopf 1964.
Kelly Reed, Sue Colledge, Plant Economies in the Neolithic Eastern Adriatic...
Kelly Reed, Sue Colledge, Biljne ekonomije u neolitiku na istočnom Jadranu...
11
Fig. 1. Location of Danilo and Pokrovnik
Sl. 1. Položaj Danila i Pokrovnika
klasa jednozrne pšenice (Triticum monococcum). Po-
vrh toga, jedan je fragment klasa preliminarno deter-
minirala kao ječam s golim zrnom (Hordeum vulgare
var. nudum). Rezultati tih prvih nalaza samo su opi-
sni, a kvantitativnu analizu nije bilo moguće provesti
na temelju tako malog broja nalaza.
Tijekom iskopavanja u Pokrovniku 1979. godine
prikupljen je mali uzorak (težine 327 g) iz srednjo-
neolitičkog sloja uništenja (sloj C u sondi VI), koji je
protumačen kao moguće vatrište, iako kontekstualna
poveznika nije jasna.7 Uzorak je suho i mokro prosi-
jan kako bi se iz njega izdvojila najveća moguća ko-
ličina pougljenjenih biljnih ostataka, te je determini-
rano 1.698 zrna ili fragmenata zrna žitarica i dijelova
posija (tablica 1).
Mogućnost prikupljanja raznovrsnijih svojti na oba
je lokaliteta bila ograničena zbog specičnog podrije-
tla i veličine uzoraka. Unatoč tomu, priopćena nazoč-
nost dviju pšenica (a možda i ječma s golim zrnom)
u srednjoneolitičkom Pokrovniku važna je, budući da
prethodno nije bilo zabilježenih arheobotaničkih nala-
za ni sa kojeg nalazišta toga razdoblja u Dalmaciji.8
Nova iskopavanja u Danilu i Pokrovniku
Tijekom istraživanja 2004. i 2005., u Danilu je
iskopano pet sondi. U njima su zabilježeni različiti
objekti. Primjerice, u sondi A nalazio se kameni zid,
ognjišta i dva dječja ukopa; u sondi B velik je jarak
prelazio preko kamenog popločenja; u sondi C nalazi-
li su se ostaci pravokutne građevine, u sondi D gotovo
i nije bilo tragova naseljavanja osim dvaju ognjišta;
dok su u sondi E pronađene dvije velike jame i može-
bitni zidovi pravokutne kuće. Kako su iskopavanja u
Danilu odmicala, postalo je razvidno da se tlo razliku-
je od sonde do sonde. Primjerice, u sondi B, zemlja je
bila tamna, s više organskih tvari, dok se u sondi D na-
lazila teška glina, što je upućivalo na različite procese
odlaganja koji su izazvali različite edafske uvjete.
U Pokrovniku su 2006. godine otvorene četiri son-
de. Samo su u tri sonde pronađeni tragovi naseljava-
nja, i to i iz razdoblja kulture impresso keramike i iz
razdoblja danilske kulture (A, C i D). U sondama A i
D nalazilo se više slojeva naseljavanja s ognjištima i
jamama, dok je u sondi C pronađeno nekoliko vanj-
skih zidova.
7 Karg, Müller 1990.
8 Za regionalni pregled, vidi Borojević et al. 2008, str.
296-298.
ndings are merely descriptive and no quantitative
analysis was possible on the basis of so few remains.
During the 1979 excavation at Pokrovnik one
small sample (weighing 327g) was collected from a
middle Neolithic destruction layer (layer C in trench
VI) interpreted as a possible replace, although the
contextual association is unclear.7 The sample was dry
and wet sieved to maximise recovery of charred plant
materials and 1,698 cereal grains or grain fragments
and chaff items were identied (table 1).
grains & fra-
gments / zrna
i fragmenti
chaff (glu-
me bases) /
posije (baze
pljeva)
Triticum dicoccum 660 68
Triticum monoco-
ccum 52 1
Triticum monoco-
ccum/dicoccum 908 9
Table 1. Summary of archaeobotanical evidence re-
covered from Pokrovnik by Karg, Müller 1990
Tablica 1. Sažeti prikaz arheobotaničkih nalaza iz Po-
krovnika, Karg, Müller 1990
The potential for recovery of a more diverse range
of taxa was obviously restricted at both of the sites
7 Karg, Müller 1990.
VAHD 109, 2016, 9-23
12
Materijal i metode
Za nedavna iskopavanja u Danilu i Pokrovniku
strategije uzorkovanja osmišljene su tako da omogu-
će prikupljanje najveće moguće količine nalaza koji
potječu iz prirode (npr. spaljenih makro-ostataka, mi-
kro-faune, školjaka, itd.). Na oba su se nalazišta upo-
trebljavala dva uređaja za otaciju, što je omogućilo
obradu velikih količina iskopanoga materijala tijekom
iskopavanja 2004.-2006. (tablica 2). Određena je naj-
manja dopuštena veličina uzorka od 100 litara po kon-
tekstu/sloju, dok gornja granica nije zacrtana pa su s
nekih dijelova nalazišta uzeti mnogo veći uzorci (npr.
čak i 1.290 litara: Danilo 2004., sonda A, sloj 14). Sit-
na frakcija izdvojena je uporabom mreže od 250μm a
krupna uporabom mreže od 1mm.
Svi biljni ostaci bili su karbonizirani, a determini-
rani su pomoću binokularnog mikroskopa male sna-
ge i povećanja 7-40 x, i usporedbama sa suvremenim
referentnim zbirkama Instituta za arheologiju Sveuči-
lišnog koledža u Londonu. Nomenklatura znanstve-
nog nazivlja bilja usklađena je prema Zohary i Hopf
(2000.) za kultivare.
Primijenjena je standardizirana metoda brojenja,
unutar koje se svako zrno broji kao jedan, a za fra-
gmente zrna procjenjuje se ekvivalent cijeloga zrna.
Fragmenti baze pljeva brojani su kao jedan, osim ako
nije bilo očigledno da su dio nekog drugog fragmenta,
a čitav viličasti dio klasa brojao se kao dvije baze plje-
va. Plodovi i sjemenke trava brojali su se kao jedan,
čak i kad je pronađen tek njihov fragment, osim ondje
gdje je velika sjemenka bila slomljena i očigledno se
radilo o dijelovima iste sjemenke, kao u slučaju dri-
jenka (Cornus mas).
Rezultati i rasprava
Biljne svojte koje su se nalazile u uzorcima iz Da-
nila i iz triju faza nalazišta u Pokrovniku prikazane su
u tablici 3. Najprimjetnija je dominacija gospodarski
značajnih biljnih svojti: žitarica, mahunarki i uljarica,
due to the specic nature of the provenance and the
size of the samples. The reported presence during the
middle Neolithic of two glume wheats (and possibly
naked barley) at Pokrovnik was nevertheless impor-
tant given that archaeobotanical remains had previ-
ously not been recorded from any sites of this period
in Dalmatia.8
Recent excavations at Danilo and Pokrovnik
Five trenches were excavated at Danilo during
the 2004 and 2005 seasons. Different features were
recorded in the trenches for example, trench A con-
tained a stone wall, hearths and two child burials; in
trench B a large ditch overlay a stone paved area; in C
there were traces of a rectangular building; in D there
was little occupation evidence apart from two hearths;
and E contained two large pits and possible walls of a
rectangular house. As excavation proceeded at Danilo
it became clear that soil types varied from trench to
trench, for example, in B the soil was dark and more
organic while in trench D there was heavy clay, thus
suggesting the depositional processes that gave rise to
the different edaphic conditions were also varied.
Four trenches were opened at Pokrovnik in 2006.
Only three of the trenches provided evidence of oc-
cupation from both the Impressed ware and Danilo
culture periods (A, C and D). Trenches A and D con-
tained multiple occupation layers with hearths and
pits; trench C contained a number of large boundary
walls.
Materials and Methods
For the recent excavations at Danilo and Pok-
rovnik sampling strategies were designed to facilitate
maximum retrieval of environmental materials (e.g.,
8 For a regional review see Borojević et al. 2008, pp.
296-298.
no. of samples /
broj uzoraka
volume oated
(l) / otirana
količina (l)
mean sample
size (l) / pro-
sječna veličina
uzorka (l)
no. of identied
plant taxa / broj
determiniranih
biljnih svojti
mean/10 litres /
prosjek/10 litara
Pokrovnik: EN 29 3,635 125 902 2.40
Pokrovnik: E/MN 91,415 157 603 4.26
Pokrovnik: MN 25 3,345 134 409 1.22
Danilo: MN 44 11,120 253 1,161 1.04
Table 2. Sampling volumes and summary of the identied plant items from the 2004-2006 excavations at Danilo
and Pokrovnik. EN=Early Neolithic, E/MN=Early/Middle Neolithic, MN=Middle Neolithic
Tablica 2. Veličine uzoraka i sažeti prikaz determiniranih biljnih ostataka iz iskopavanja u Danilu i Pokrovniku
2004.-2006. godine. EN=Rani neolitik, E/MN=Rani/Srednji neolitik, MN=Srednji neolitik
Kelly Reed, Sue Colledge, Plant Economies in the Neolithic Eastern Adriatic...
Kelly Reed, Sue Colledge, Biljne ekonomije u neolitiku na istočnom Jadranu...
13
a na oba je lokaliteta pronađeno i samoniklo voće i
orašasti polodovi. To pokazuje da je biljna hrana ima-
la značajan udio u strategiji preživljavanja te, što je
možda još važnije, da se u ranom neolitiku razvija po-
ljodjelstvo utemeljeno na uzgoju bilja. U uzorcima s
obaju nalazišta pronađeni su i korovi i ruderalne bilj-
ke.
Stanje očuvanosti
Stanje očuvanosti pougljenjenih ostataka na oba
je nalazišta bilo različito (npr. od lošeg: nedostaju
vanjski slojevi stanica, ostaci su iznimno izobličeni,
itd., do dobrog: uzorci stanica vidljivi su na sjeme-
noj čahuri, minimalna deformacija, itd.), a različit je
bio i stupanj fragmentacije, iako je većinu ostataka
bilo moguće determinirati do razine roda i vrste. Broj
biljnih ostataka prikupljenih na svakome od nalazišta
(uključujući i cjelovite i fragmentirane ostatke) nave-
den je u tablici 2 (u ukupan broj nisu uključeni ostaci
koji nisu sjemenke, kao što su npr. parenhimatozna
tkiva, drveni ugljen itd.). Samo u sondi B u Pokrov-
niku nije bilo ostataka koji su se mogli determinirati,
osim drvenoga ugljena.
Gustoća pougljenjenih ostataka (izmjerena kao
broj prepoznatljivih ostataka u 10 litara otiranog se-
dimenta) na nalazištu Pokrovnik bila je veća nego u
Danilu (tablica 2). Taj se trend odražava i na prosječan
broj svojti (npr. različitih vrsta, rodova itd.) pronađe-
nih na pojedinom nalazištu, pa je tako broj po jedinici
volumena u Danilu manji nego u bilo kojoj pojedinoj
fazi nalazišta u Pokrovniku (drugim riječima, materi-
jal iz Danila manje je raznolik).
Postoje i varijacije u gustoći i raznolikosti nala-
za između pojedinih sondi unutar svakog nalazišta, a
njih bi se moglo objasniti pojedinim djelatnostima u
kojima su se upotrebljavali biljni resursi.9
Žitarice
Žitarice na oba lokaliteta predstavljaju domi-
nantnu kulturu, kako u smislu broja ostataka tako i
u smislu njihove sveprisutnosti (postotak nazočno-
sti po nalazištu ili fazi; sl. 2). Tri osnovne žitarice,
ječam (Hordeum vulgare), jednozrna pšenica (Triti-
cum monococcum) i dvozrna pšenica (Triticum dico-
ccum), najučestalije su vrste. U Pokrovniku i u ranom
i u srednjem neolitiku prevladava dvozrna pšenica
(koja se pojavljuje u više od 70% uzoraka), dok su
zrna ječma i jednozrne pšenice nazočna u otprilike
pola uzoraka. U Danilu se zrna svih triju vrsta pojav-
ljuju u više od 20% uzoraka. Zrna jednozrne pšenice
9 Reed 2006.
charred macro-remains, micro-fauna, molluscs, etc.).
Two otation machines were employed at both sites
and this enabled large volumes of excavated deposits
to be processed during the 2004-2006 seasons (table
2). A minimum sample size of 100 litres per context/
level was set but no upper limit was dened and much
larger volumes were taken in certain areas of the sites
(e.g., as large as 1,290 litres: Danilo 2004 trench A,
level 14). The ots were collected using a 250μm
mesh and the residue with a 1mm mesh.
All plant remains were carbonised and were iden-
tied using a low power 7-40x binocular microscope
and comparisons made from the modern reference
collections at the Institute of Archaeology, University
College London. The nomenclature of scientic plant
names follows Zohary and Hopf (2000) for cultivars.
A standardised counting method was used, where
each grain counts as one and the whole grain equiva-
lent (WGE) was estimated for fragments of grains.
Glume base fragments were counted as one unless
clearly representing more than half a spikelet fork,
while whole spikelet forks were counted as two glume
bases. The fruit and weed seeds were counted as one,
even when only a fragment was found, except where
large seeds were broken and clearly represented parts
of the same seed, such as Cornus mas.
Results and Discussion
Taxa present in the samples at Danilo and the three
phases at Pokrovnik are presented in table 3. Most no-
ticeable is the dominance of economic taxa; cereals,
pulses and oil plants, in addition wild fruits and nuts
were also recovered from both sites. This demonstrates
that plant foods represented a signicant component
of the subsistence regimes and, perhaps more impor-
tantly, that crop-based agriculture was established by
the early Neolithic. Weeds and ruderal plants were
also identied in samples from both sites.
Preservation
The quality of preservation of the charred materi-
als varied at both sites (e.g., from poor: lack of outer
cell layers, extreme distortion, etc., to good: cell pat-
terns visible on the testa, minimal deformation, etc.)
as did the extent of fragmentation, but the majority of
the remains was identiable to the level of genus and
species. The numbers of plant items (including whole
and fragmentary remains) recovered from each site
are given in table 2 (totals are exclusive of non-seed
items, e.g., parenchymatous tissues, wood charcoal,
etc.); only trench B at Pokrovnik yielded no identi-
able remains other than wood charcoal.
VAHD 109, 2016, 9-23
14
Fig. 2. Ubiquity comparison of crops and fruit species for early Neolithic (EN) Pokrovnik and middle Neolithic
(MN) Danilo and Pokrovnik. (n=number of samples, g/b= glume base)
Sl. 2. Usporedba rasprostranjenosti vrsta žitarica i voća za ranoneolitičko nalazište (EN) Pokrovnik i srednjoneo-
litička nalazišta (MN) Danilo i Pokrovnik. (n=broj uzoraka, g/b= baza pljeva)
pronađena su u velikim količinama u sondi E u Da-
nilu, i samo ih je u tom kontekstu bilo više nego zrna
ječma i jednozrne pšenice prikupljenih iz svih drugih
sondi na tom nalazištu. Pšenične posije, koje nije bilo
moguće determinirati ni kao jednozrnu ni kao dvozrnu
pšenicu, pronađene su tek u malom broju uzoraka, i to
u vrlo maloj količini (tablica 3, sl. 2), ali one upućuju
The densities of charred material (i.e. measured in
terms of numbers of identiable items per 10 litres
of sediment oated) are greater at Pokrovnik than at
Danilo (table 2). This trend is reected in the mean
number of taxa (e.g., different species, genera, etc.)
recovered from each site, and Danilo has fewer per
Kelly Reed, Sue Colledge, Plant Economies in the Neolithic Eastern Adriatic...
Kelly Reed, Sue Colledge, Biljne ekonomije u neolitiku na istočnom Jadranu...
15
na to da su se žitarice vjerojatno obrađivale na samim
nalazištima ili u njihovoj blizini.
Drugih je žitarica među nalazima bilo mnogo
manje. Primjerice, krušna pšenica (Triticum aesti-
vum, kompaktni tip) pronađena je u tri uzorka iz Da-
nila; proso (Panicum miliaceum) je bilo nazočno u
Pokrovniku, u jednom sloju s prijelaza iz ranog u
srednji neolitik i u tri sloja iz srednjeg neolitika, i to
u malom broju (tablica 3, sl. 2). Krušna pšenica se-
kundarno je domesticirana vrsta (što znači da se ra-
zvila neko vrijeme nakon primarno domesticiranih
biljaka10) a u europski neolitički paket uključena je
nakon početnog širenja primarno domesticiranih kul-
tura. Ima onih koji smatraju da isto vrijedi i za proso.11
Međutim, nedavnim datiranjem zrna prosa metodom
C14 koje su napravili Motuzaite-Matuzeviciute i dr.
utvrđeno je da zrna za koja se prethodno smatralo da
potječu iz neolitika zapravo pripadaju razdoblju izme-
đu brončanog doba i srednjega vijeka, čime se dovodi
u pitanje uzgoj te vrste u Europi u neolitiku.12
Ostale kulture
Mahunarke se pojavljuju u malom broju uzoraka
s oba nalazišta (tablica 3, sl. 2), a raspon zastuplje-
nih svojti je ograničen: sa sigurnošću su determinira-
ni samo sjetvena kukavičica (Laythrus sativus) i leća
(Lens sp.). U uzorcima su pronađene samo pojedinač-
ne supke (ili dijelovi supki) a ne čitave sjemenke, pa
je razlikovanje pojedinih rodova bilo problematično.
Stoga je u popis svojti za ranoneolitički i srednjoneo-
litički sloj u Pokrovniku uvrštena kategorija Lathyrus/
Pisum sp. (graholika/grašak). Na oba je nalazišta sta-
nje očuvanosti biljnih ostataka bilo loše, kao što je
vidljivo iz velike količine fragmenata “nedetermini-
ranih velikih mahunarki” (npr. fragmenata koje nije
bilo moguće raspoznati dalje od razine porodice) koji
su pronađeni u mnogim uzorcima. Na arheološkim
nalazištima mahunarke su obično manje zastupljene,
primjerice, u usporedbi sa žitaricama, a pretpostavlja
se da razlog tome uglavnom leži u različitim načini-
ma pripreme dviju vrsta biljnih kultura i u učestalosti
kojom proizvodi i nusproizvodi njihove prerade mogu
doći u dodir s vatrom (na ognjištima ili u pećima) i
tako postati pougljenjeni.13
Sjetvena kukavičica ne nalazi se na popisu primar-
no domesticiranih biljnih vrsta, ali u repertoar biljnih
kultura koje su se uzgajale na neolitičkim nalazištima
10 Zohary, Hopf 2000, str. 51-58.
11 Hunt et al. 2008.
12 Motuzaite-Matuzeviciute et al. 2013.
13 Dennell 1972, str. 151; vidi i Guarino, Sciarrillo 2004.
unit volume than for each phase at Pokrovnik (i.e., the
assemblages are less diverse at Danilo).
There are also variations in density and diversity
between the different trenches within each site and it
is suggested that these can be explained in terms of
specic activities involving the use of plant resourc-
es.9
Cereals
Cereals are the dominant crop type at both sites,
both in terms of numbers of remains and ubiquity
(percentage presence per site or phase; gure 2). The
three founder crop cereals, hulled barley (Hordeum
vulgare), einkorn (Triticum monococcum) and emmer
(Triticum dicoccum), are the most frequently occur-
ring species; at Pokrovnik, in both early and middle
Neolithic phases, emmer is predominant (occurring in
over 70% of samples) and grains of hulled barley and
einkorn are present in approximately half the sam-
ples, and at Danilo the grains of all three species were
identied in more than 20% of the samples. Einkorn
grains were found in large quantities in trench E at
Danilo and in this context alone are more numerous
than those of emmer and barley recovered from all
other trenches at the site. Glume wheat chaff, which
could not be identied to either einkorn or emmer,
was found in only a minority of samples and in very
low numbers (table 3, gure 2), but is indicative that
processing of the cereals was probably carried out at,
or nearby both sites.
Other cereals are far less common in the assem-
blages; for example, free threshing wheat (Triticum
aestivum compact type) was found in three samples at
Danilo; millet (Panicum miliaceum) is present at Pok-
rovnik in one early/middle Neolithic transition phase
and three middle Neolithic levels, again in small num-
bers (table 3, gure 2). Free threshing wheat is a sec-
ondary domesticate (i.e. it evolved at some time after
the primary domesticates10) and it was integrated in
the European Neolithic crop package after the initial
dispersal of the founder crops. Some have suggested
this was also the case for millet;11 however, recent C14
dating of millet grains by Motuzaite-Matuzeviciute et
al. found that grains previously thought to have dated
to the Neolithic actually dated to between the Bronze
and Medieval period questioning the cultivation of
this species in Europe during the Neolithic.12
9 Reed 2006.
10 Zohary, Hopf 2000, pp. 51-58.
11 Hunt et al. 2008.
12 Motuzaite-Matuzeviciute et al. 2013.
VAHD 109, 2016, 9-23
16
Table 3. Summary of the plant remains recovered from Danilo and Pokrovnik (EN – Early Neolithic, MN – Middle
Neolithic)
Tablica 3. Sažeti prikaz biljnih ostataka pronađenih u Danilu i Pokrovniku (EN – rani neolitik, MN – srednji neolitik)
Pokrovnik Pokrovnik Pokrovnik Danilo
EN EN / MN MN MN
CEREALS / ŽITARICE
Hordeum vulgare grain / zrno 57 27 32 52
Triticum dicoccum grain / zrno 87 58 61 23
Triticum monococcum grain / zrno 53 25 31 228
Triticum monococcum/dicoccum grain / zrno 72 32 23 22
T. monococcum/dicoccum glume base / baza pljeva 7 2 20 12
Triticum aestivum (compact type) grain / zrno 4
Triticum spp. (indeterminate) grain / zrno 102 45 26 39
Panicum miliaceum grain / zrno 1 4
Cerealia grain / zrno 362 283 143 127
OTHER CROPS / OSTALI USJEVI
Linum cf. usitatissimum seed / sjemenka 2 1 5
Lathyrus sativus seed / sjemenka 2 4 1 3
cf. Lathyrus/Pisum sp. seed / sjemenka 5 8 3
Lens sp. seed / sjemenka 11 10 4 2
Large legumes indeterminate / Nede-
terminirane velike mahunarke seed / sjemenka 18 16 9 11
FRUITS & NUTS / VOĆE I ORA-
ŠASTI PLODOVI
Pistacia sp. nut / oraščić 5
Sambucus sp. fruit / plod 6 2
Cornus mas fruit / plod 6 2 3 9
cf. Cornus sanguinea fruit / plod 2 2
cf. Amygdalus sp. nut / oraščić 1
Rosa cf. canina fruit / plod 24 4 15 72
Rubus sp. fruit / plod 1 1 4 251
cf. Sorbus aria fruit / plod 1
Vitis sp. fruit / plod 1
WEEDS AND RUDERAL PLANTS /
KOROVI I RUDERALNE BILJKE
cf. Avena sp. seed / sjemenka 1 2 6
cf. Brassica/Sinapis spp. seed / sjemenka 1
Caryophyllaceae seed / sjemenka 2
Chenopodium sp. seed / sjemenka 200
Chenopodiaceae seed / sjemenka 9 55 3 1
Lolium sp. seed / sjemenka 1
Gramineae seed / sjemenka 10 3 1 6
Hypericum sp. seed / sjemenka 6 4 8 10
Teucrium sp. seed / sjemenka 44 13 7 6
Leguminosae - small / male seed / sjemenka 1 1 2
Liliaceae seed / sjemenka 2 2 45
Plantago sp. seed / sjemenka 1 1
Polygonum sp. seed / sjemenka 6 1 1 1
Potentilla sp. seed / sjemenka 1 1 6
cf. Verbascum sp. seed / sjemenka 1
cf. Hyoscyamus niger seed / sjemenka 3 1 3
Urtica urens seed / sjemenka 6
cf. Viola sp. seed / sjemenka 1 1
INDET / NEDETERMINIRANI 1058 326 217 874
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Kelly Reed, Sue Colledge, Biljne ekonomije u neolitiku na istočnom Jadranu...
17
u jugoistočnoj Europi ušla je rano,14 pa je njezina na-
zočnost u uzorcima iz najstarijih slojeva u Pokrovniku
jednako važna za razmatranje početaka poljodjelstva
u Dalmaciji kao i nalazi leće i lana.
Sjemenke lana (Linum cf. usitatissimum) nazočne
su na oba lokaliteta, no pojavljuju se u malom broju
uzoraka (tablica 3, sl. 2).
Voće i orašasti plodovi
Mnoštvo voća i orašastih plodova koji su zastu-
pljeni među nalazima iz Pokrovnika i Danila upućuju
na to da su samonikle biljke bile važan dio prehra-
ne u ranom i srednjem neolitiku (sl. 2), pri čemu su
sve rasle u lokalnom okruženju i stoga ih se lako mo-
glo skupljati.15 Divlje voće, koje se moglo jesti siro-
vo, sušeno, kuhano ili u prerađenom obliku kako bi
se oslobodilo od toksina, pronađeno je u uzorcima s
oba nalazišta. To su: bazga (Sambucus sp.), drijenak
(Cornus mas), svib (Cornus sanguinea), šipak (Rosa
cf. canina), kupina/malina (Rubus sp.) i mukinja (cf.
Sorbus aria). Vrste Rosa i Rubus najčešći su taksoni
u Pokrovniku i u Danilu. Obje vrste u svakom plodu
imaju mnoštvo sjemenki (npr. u šipku ima više od 100
sjemenki, a u kupini/malini ima ih više od 50), pa raz-
mjerno velik broj ovih svojti u uzorcima nije nužno
odraz njihove preferirane uporabe u odnosu na drugo
voće, koje sadrži samo jednu sjemenku ili tek nekoli-
ko njih u jednome plodu.
Fragmenti ljuski badema (Amygdalus sp.) prona-
đeni su u srednjoneolitičkim slojevima u Pokrovni-
ku, a fragmenti plodova (oraščića) smrdljike/tršnje/
pistacije (Pistacia terebithus/lentiscus/atlantica sp.) u
srednjoneolitičkim slojevima u Danilu. Divlji bademi
sadrže glikozid amigdalin, koji se, ako se jedu svježe
sjemenke (oraščići), pretvara u cijanovodik; kako bi
bile jestive, potrebno je ukloniti toksine, što se može
postići sušenjem, prženjem ili ispiranjem.16 Plodovi
vrste Pistacia mogu se jesti sirovi ili prženi, a smole
koje sadrže imaju ljekovita svojstva.17
U prijelaznim slojevima između ranog i srednjeg
neolitika u Pokrovniku je pronađena jedna sjemenka
grožđa (Vitis sp.), za koje nije bilo moguće odredi-
ti je li divlje ili kultivirano. Sjemenke divljeg grožđa
prethodno su nađene na ranoneolitičkim, srednjone-
olitičkim i kasnoneolitičkim nalazištima u Grčkoj,18
14 Zohary, Hopf 2000, str. 120; Colledge, Conolly
2007a.
15 C. Palmer osobno priopćeno.
16 Martinoli 2004; Zohary, Hopf 2000, str. 187.
17 Jeffrey 1959, str. 494-495.
18 Hansen 1991; Housley, Hubbard 2000; Kroll 1979;
Renfrew 1989.
Other crops
Pulses occur in few samples at both sites (table 3,
gure 2) and the range of taxa represented is limited:
only grass pea (Laythrus sativus) and lentils (Lens
sp.) were identied with certainty. Single cotyledons
(or fragments of cotyledons) rather than whole pulses
were recovered in the assemblages and thus distinc-
tion between genera was problematic, hence the cat-
egory Lathyrus/Pisum sp. (vetchling or vetch/pea) is
included in the list of taxa for early and middle Neo-
lithic levels at Pokrovnik. Preservation was poor at
both sites as indicated by the large quantities of ‘large
legume indeterminate’ fragments (e.g., fragments un-
identiable beyond family level) recorded in many
samples. Pulses are often under-represented on sites,
for example in comparison with cereals, and it has
previously been assumed this is due largely to the dif-
ferent methods of preparation of the two crop types
and the frequency (or otherwise) with which the prod-
ucts or by-products of processing are likely to come
into contact with re (in hearths or ovens), thus be-
coming charred.13
Grass pea is not included in the list of founder spe-
cies, but was added to the crop repertoire on Neolithic
sites in southeast Europe at an early date14 and so evi-
dence for its presence in samples from the earliest lev-
els at Pokrovnik is as relevant to the consideration of
the beginnings of agriculture in Dalmatia as the nds
of lentil and ax.
Flax seeds (Linum cf. usitatissimum) are present at
both sites and they occur in only a minority of sam-
ples (table 3, gure 2).
Fruits and nuts
The array of fruits and nuts represented at Pok-
rovnik and Danilo suggests that wild plant resources
were also important components of the diet during
the early and middle Neolithic (gure 2), all would
have been growing locally and therefore could have
been easily harvested.15 Wild fruits, which could be
eaten raw, dried, cooked or in processed form to re-
move toxins, were identied in the assemblages from
both sites, including: elder (Sambucus sp.), Cornelian
cherry (Cornus mas), common dogwood (Cornus san-
guinea), dog rose/rosehip (Rosa cf. canina), blackber-
ry/raspberry (Rubus sp.) and common whitebeam (cf.
Sorbus aria). Rosa and Rubus species are the most
13 Dennell 1972, p. 151; see also Guarino, Sciarrillo
2004.
14 Zohary, Hopf 2000, p. 120; Colledge, Conolly 2007a.
15 C. Palmer pers. Comm.
VAHD 109, 2016, 9-23
18
Makedoniji19 i Italiji,20 te nešto kasnije na eneolitič-
kom nalazištu u Sloveniji.21 Zohary i Hopf navode da
je divlja vinova loza (Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris)
autohtona vrsta u južnoj Europi, a njihov zemljovid
koji prikazuje distribuciju podvrsta obuhvaća i dalma-
tinsku obalu.22 Međutim, za sada još nema tako ranih
nalaza iz ovog područja, pa sjemenka grožđa iz Po-
krovnika predstavlja važan dokaz postojanja divljega
grožđa u neolitiku.
Korovi i ruderalne biljke
U uzorcima s obaju lokaliteta pronađene su samo-
nikle svojte. Najveći broj takvih ostataka determiniran
je samo do razine roda ili porodice, što onemoguću-
je bilo kakvo konačno ekološko tumačenje. Nekoli-
ko pronađenih svojti vjerojatno je raslo u poljima s
usjevima te su dopremljene do nalazišta zajedno sa
žetvom (npr. korovi koji rastu u ratarskim usjevima:
Chenopodium sp., Lolium sp., Hypericum sp., Poly-
gonum sp.) dok su druge možda nastanjivale pusto-
poljine u okolici naselja (npr. ruderalna biljka Urtica
urens).
Danilo i Pokrovnik na istočnom Jadranu
Prije projekta “Rano poljodjelstvo i stočarstvo u
Dalmaciji” malo se znalo o poljodjelstvu na istočnom
Jadranu. S obzirom na važnost tog područja kao puta
kojim su se usjevi, stoka, tehnike i tehnologije širili
prema sjevernoj Italiji i dalje, iznenađuje da je prove-
deno tako malo istraživanja načina i vremena uspo-
stave poljodjelstva u tom kraju. Chapman i dr. primi-
jetili su da je uglavnom zbog nedostatka materijala za
datiranje i paleontoloških podataka “Dalmacija regija
u kojoj je tek rijetko ostvaren pun potencijal arheološ-
kih i bioloških nalaza”.23 Čini se da je prije 90-ih go-
dina 20. stoljeća pomanjkanje bioloških nalaza (npr.
stvarnih ostataka domesticiranih biljaka i životinja)
sa nalazišta u ovome području djelomično bilo rezul-
tat nepostojanja integriranih programa uzorkovanja i
otiranja. Za određivanje najranije pojave neolitika
koristila se keramika, i automatski se pretpostavljalo
da je istodobno uveden ili prihvaćen i uzgoj biljaka i
životinja.24
Borojević i dr. navode da prije iskopavanja u
Grapčevoj špilji 1996. godine nije bilo sustavnog pri-
19 Renfrew 1979.
20 Costantini, Stancanelli 1994; Pals, Voorrips 1979;
Rottoli 1999; Rottoli, Pessina 2007.
21 Jeraj et al. 2009.
22 Zohary, Hopf 2000, str. 151-159.
23 Chapman et al. 1996, str. 5-8.
24 Fohrenbaher, Miracle 2005.
commonly occurring taxa at Pokrovnik and at Danilo.
Both have numerous seeds (achenes) per single fruit
(e.g., rosehips contain more than 100 seeds and black-
berries/raspberries have over 50 seeds) and the relative
abundance of these taxa in the samples is therefore not
necessarily an accurate reection of their preferential
use in comparison with the other fruits, each of which
comprises single or very few seeds.
Fragments of almond (Amygdalus sp.) nutshell and
of fruits (nutlets) of the terebinth/mastic tree (Pistacia
terebithus/lentiscus/atlantica sp.) were found in mid-
dle Neolithic levels, the former at Pokrovnik and the
latter at Danilo. Wild almonds contain the glycoside
amygdalin, which is converted into hydrogen cyanide
if the fresh seeds (nuts) are eaten, and to render them
edible the toxins have to be removed by drying, roast-
ing or leaching.16 The fruits of Pistacia species can be
eaten either raw or roasted and the resins they contain
have medicinal properties.17
One grape pip (Vitis sp.), which could not be iden-
tied as either wild or cultivated, was found in the
early/middle Neolithic transition levels at Pokrovnik.
Wild grape pips have previously been recovered from
early, middle and late Neolithic sites in Greece,18
Macedonia19 and Italy,20 and at a slightly later date on
an Eneolithic site in Slovenia.21 Zohary and Hopf note
that the wild vines (Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris) are
native to southern Europe and their map showing the
distribution of the subspecies includes the Dalmatian
coast,22 however, to date there has been no evidence
for early nds from the region and so the Pokrovnik
grape pip represents important evidence for wild
grape in the Neolithic.
Weeds and ruderal plants
Wild taxa were also recovered from the samples at
both sites. A majority of these were identied to ge-
nus or family level only thus precluding any denitive
ecological interpretations. Several of the taxa repre-
sented are likely to have been growing in crop elds
and would have been brought to site with the harvests
(e.g., segetals: Chenopodium sp., Lolium sp., Hyperi-
cum sp., Polygonum sp.) others possibly inhabited
16 Martinoli 2004; Zohary, Hopf 2000, p. 187.
17 Jeffrey 1959, pp. 494-495.
18 Hansen 1991; Housley, Hubbard 2000; Kroll 1979;
Renfrew 1989.
19 Renfrew 1979.
20 Costantini, Stancanelli 1994; Pals, Voorrips 1979;
Rottoli 1999; Rottoli, Pessina 2007.
21 Jeraj et al. 2009.
22 Zohary, Hopf 2000, pp. 151-159.
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Kelly Reed, Sue Colledge, Biljne ekonomije u neolitiku na istočnom Jadranu...
19
kupljanja ni istraživanja arheobotaničkog materijala
na istočnojadranskim otocima.25 Na sličan način, na-
lazišta Tinj-Podlivade26 i Crno vrilo27 u Dalmaciji te
Kargadur-Ližnjan28 u Istri jedina su druga neolitička
nalazišta s objavljenim arheobotaničkim i zooarheo-
loškim podacima. Na nalazištu Tinj-Podlivade deter-
minirano je samo oko 15 zrna žitarica i 50 ostataka
posija, od dvozrne i jednozrne pšenice, ječma, pira
(Triticum spelta), krušne pšenice (Trtiticum aesti-
vum), kao i samonikle jednozrne pšenice (Triticum
boeoticum) i sedam mogućih fragmenata pljeve zobi
(Avena sp.). Međutim, čini se da su u tekstu deter-
minacije navedene uz priličnu ogradu, bez fotograja
ili opisa pomoću kojih bi se one mogle potvrditi. Na
Crnom vrilu pronađena su samo zrna ječma, dvozrne
i jednozrne pšenice. Na nalazištu Kargadur-Ližnjan,
preliminarne analize upućuju na nalaze ječma, jedno-
zrne i dvozrne pšenice, i drugih vrsta pšenica, koje su
determinirane kao krušna pšenica i pravi pir. Među-
tim, nisu navedene količine niti bilo kakvi drugi po-
daci o kontekstu nalaza.
U kontinentalnoj Hrvatskoj, nedavna su istraživa-
nja dala prve nalaze arheobotaničkih ostataka s dva
neolitička nalazišta, Sopot i Tomašanci-Palača, a u
njima su pronađeni ječam, dvozrna pšenica, jednozr-
na pšenica, leća, grašak i lan iz 6000. cal BC.29
Na temelju malog broja nalaza iz ranog i srednjeg
neolitika, neki su autori izrazili mišljenje da je tada već
postojala dihotomija između špilja i naselja na otvore-
nom u pogledu biljnih kultura i životinjskih vrsta koje
su se iskorištavale, ustvrdivši da je na špiljskim nala-
zištima pronađeno mnogo manje primarno domestici-
ranih vrsta (odnosno da se radi o smanjenom neolitič-
kom “paketu”).30 Čini se da ovo istraživanje potvrđuje
tu tezu, bez obzira što se temelji na oskudnoj količine
podataka iz jedne i druge navedene vrste lokaliteta s
kojima su se rezultati mogli usporediti, a oni upućuju
na to da su biljne kulture pronađene u Pokrovniku i
Danilu pokazatelj prisutnosti naprednog poljodjelstva
od samih početaka neolitika.
Raspon domesticiranih vrsta koje su se u Dal-
maciji uzgajale u ranom neolitiku govori o znatnom
smanjenju raznolikosti, u usporedbi s rasponom vrsta
zabilježenim na najranijim nalazištima u Grčkoj, gdje
se poljodjelstvo jugoistočne Europe najprije pojavilo.
Primjerice, “paket” biljnih kultura koje su nazočne
na grčkim nalazištima sličan je onome na nalazišti-
25 Borojević et al. 2008, str. 282.
26 Huntley 1996, str. 187-189.
27 Šoštarić 2009.
28 Komšo 2005, str. 212-214.
29 Reed 2015.
30 Fohrenbaher, Miracle 2005, str. 517; Borojević et al.
2008.
waste ground, perhaps close to the settlements (e.g.,
ruderals: Urtica urens).
Danilo and Pokrovnik in the eastern Adriatic
Prior to the ‘Early Farming in Dalmatia’ project
little was known about nature of crop-based agricul-
ture in the eastern Adriatic. That so few studies have
investigated how and when farming was established
in the region is surprising given its importance as a
route via which crops, livestock, techniques and tech-
nologies spread into northern Italy and beyond. Chap-
man et al. commented that due largely to the lack of
dating evidence and palaeoeconomic data ‘Dalmatia
was a region where the full potential of the archaeo-
logical and environmental record had scarcely been
realized’.23 Prior to the 1990s the absence of environ-
mental evidence (e.g., the actual remains of domestic
plants and animals) on sites in the region was, it seems,
due in part to the lack of integrated programmes of
sampling and otation. Pottery was used to demarcate
the earliest appearance of the Neolithic and by default
it is assumed also that farming was introduced or ad-
opted at the same time.24
Borojević et al. report that before the 1996 excava-
tions at Grapčeva Cave there had been no systematic
recovery or investigation of archaeobotanical materi-
als on an eastern Adriatic island.25 Similarly, Tinj-Pod-
livade26 and Crno Vrilo27 in Dalmatia, and Kargadur-
Ližnjan28 in Istria are the only other Neolithic sites
with reported archaeobotanical and zooarchaeologi-
cal data. At Tinj-Podlivade, only ca. 15 cereal grains
and 50 chaff items were identied, from emmer and
einkorn, barley, spelt (Triticum spelta), free threshing
wheat (Triticum aestivum), as well as wild einkorn
(Triticum boeoticum) and seven possible oat (Avena
sp.) awn fragments. Identications, however, seemed
rather tentative in the text, with no pictures or descrip-
tions to conrm identications. At Crno Vrilo only
emmer, einkorn and barley grains were recorded. At
Kargadur-Ližnjan preliminary analyses indicate evi-
dence of barley, einkorn, emmer, and other wheats
identied as free threshing and spelt wheat; however,
no quantities were noted and no further contextual in-
formation was provided.
In continental Croatia recent excavations have pro-
vided the rst evidence of archaeobotanical remains
dating to the early Neolithic from two sites; Sopot and
23 Chapman et al. 1996, pp. 5-8.
24 Fohrenbaher, Miracle 2005.
25 Borojević et al. 2008, p. 282.
26 Huntley 1996, pp. 187-189.
27 Šoštarić 2009.
28 Komšo 2005, pp. 212-214.
VAHD 109, 2016, 9-23
20
ma iz razdoblja pretkeramičkog neolitika u jugoza-
padnoj Aziji, gdje su se i razvile primarno domesti-
cirane vrste.31 Nalazi iz Dalmacije odgovaraju stanju
u uzgoju biljaka na ranoneolitičkim nalazištima sje-
verno i istočno od Dinarida, u Bosni i Hercegovini,
Makedoniji i Mađarskoj.32 Bogaard i dr. navode da
smanjenje raznolikosti predstavlja regionalni trend,
“sve veće sužavanje spektra kultura”, idući od juga
prema sjeveru jugoistočne Europe.33 Taj smanjeni
paket biljnih kultura možda je rezultat kulturnih i/ili
prirodnih selekcijskih pritisaka.34
Zaključak
Nedavna iskopavanja u Danilu i Pokrovniku rezul-
tirala su novim nalazima koji svjedoče o poljodjelstvu
u razdoblju ranoga i srednjeg neolitika na istočnom Ja-
dranu. Na temelju arheobotaničkih nalaza, kulture koje
su se uzgajale na ta dva nalazišta vjerojatno su bile je-
čam, dvozrna pšenica, jednozrna pšenica, leća, sjetvena
kukavičica i lan (odnosno pet od osam primarno dome-
sticiranih kultura). Pronađeni su i ostaci drugih vrsta
samoniklog voća i orašastih plodova, što upućuje na
kontinuirano iskorištavanje mjesnog okoliša za potre-
be prehrane.
31 Colledge, Conolly 2007a.
32 Colledge, Conolly 2007b, str. 33-34.
33 Bogaard et al. 2007, str. 435.
34 Conolly et al. 2008.
Tomašanci-Palača, providing evidence of barley, em-
mer, einkorn, lentil, pea and ax from 6000 cal BC.29
On the basis of the limited evidence available for
the early/middle Neolithic some authors have sug-
gested that that there was a dichotomy between caves
and open air settlements in terms of the range of crops
and livestock exploited, such that far fewer founder
species (i.e., a reduced Neolithic ‘package’) were
identied at the former site type.30 The present study
appears to conrm this, albeit on the basis of scant
data from either site type with which to make com-
parisons, and suggests that the suites of crops found
at Pokrovnik and Danilo are an indication of the ad-
vanced nature of farming from the earliest Neolithic.
The range of domestic species cultivated during the
early Neolithic in Dalmatia shows a marked reduction
in diversity in comparison with that recorded for the
earliest sites in Greece, where farming rst spread to
southeast Europe; for example, the ‘package’ of crops
present on the Greek sites is similar to that on Pre-
Pottery Neolithic sites in southwest Asia, where the
founder species evolved.31 The Dalmatian evidence
reects the status of the plant economies on early Neo-
lithic sites to the north and east of the Dinaric Alps, in
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Hungary.32
Bogaard et al. comment that the decrease in diversity
indicates a regional trend, ‘a progressive narrowing of
the crop spectrum’, from south to north in southeast
Europe.33 Cultural and/or natural selection pressures
may account for this reduced crop package.34
Conclusion
Recent excavations at Danilo and Porkrovnik have
provided new evidence of early to middle Neolithic
agriculture in the eastern Adriatic. From the archaeo-
botanical evidence the crops grown at the two sites
were likely barley, emmer, einkorn, lentil, grass pea
and ax (i.e. ve of the eight founder crops). Other
wild fruit and nut species were also recovered show-
ing a continued exploitation of the local environment
for food.
29 Reed 2015.
30 Fohrenbaher, Miracle 2005, p. 517; Borojević et al.
2008.
31 Colledge, Conolly 2007a.
32 Colledge, Conolly 2007b, pp. 33-34.
33 Bogaard et al. 2007, p. 435.
34 Conolly et al. 2008.
Kelly Reed, Sue Colledge, Plant Economies in the Neolithic Eastern Adriatic...
Kelly Reed, Sue Colledge, Biljne ekonomije u neolitiku na istočnom Jadranu...
21
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