Exploring Disaster Resilience within the Hotel Sector: A Systematic Review of Literature

Abstract

Within the tourism industry, the hotel sector's vulnerabilities are multi-faceted. This literature discussion scrutinizes how disaster and resilience is framed for the tourism sector, and, more specifically, how the concepts can be applied to the hotel sector. A synthesis of the literature points to the importance of prioritizing disaster resilience building for the hotel sector. The body of literature regarding disasters, tourism, and more specifically hotels, has increased over the last 20 years, still improvements in the hotel sector's disaster preparedness and do not appear to be on the same trajectory. Illustrating the predicament of the contemporary hotel industry serves to open a discussion about the value of building resiliency to disaster for hotels. As the numbers of people affected by disasters grows, the importance of providing actionable information to limit the severity of these events on communities also escalates in pace.

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Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 1
This is a post-refereeing final draft. When citing, please refer to the published version:
Brown, N., Rovins, J., Feldmann-Jensen, S., Orchiston, C., & Johnston, J. (2017). Exploring
disaster resiliene within the Hotel sector: a systematic review of literature. International
Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction. 10.1016/j.ijdrr.2017.02.005
Exploring Disaster Resilience within the Hotel Sector:
A Systematic Review of Literature
Abstract
Within the tourism industry, the hotel sector’s vulnerabilities are multi-faceted. This literature
discussion scrutinizes how disaster and resilience is framed for the tourism sector, and how
the concepts can be applied to the hotel sector. A synthesis of the literature points to the
importance of prioritizing disaster resilience building for the hotel sector. The body of
literature regarding disasters, tourism, and more specifically hotels, has increased over the
last 20 years, still improvements in the hotel sector’s disaster preparedness and do not appear
to be on the same trajectory. Illustrating the predicament of the contemporary hotel industry
serves to open a discussion about the value of building resiliency to disaster for hotels. As the
numbers of people affected by disasters grows, the importance of providing actionable
information to limit the severity of these events on communities also escalates in pace.
Key Words
Disaster; Resilience; Tourism; Vulnerability; Sustainability; Crisis

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 2
1. Introduction
An important aspect of the world’s increasing interconnectedness is the ease and
frequency of travel. Increased numbers of tourists traveling to places of varying risk has
exposed new and uncertain vulnerabilities to the tourism sector (Ritchie, 2004). Tourism is
vulnerable to disaster because it relies upon infrastructure, the ability to move around freely,
and people’s perceptions of safety (Orchiston, 2012).
Within the tourism industry, the hotel sector’s vulnerabilities are multi-faceted. A
hotel’s physical infrastructure (buildings, water, power, sanitation) may be at risk from a
variety of natural and man-made hazards placing staff and guests at risk. Beyond guest and
staff safety, a hotel’s ability to continue operations and profitability is often at risk in
disasters. The hotel’s surrounding environment (sea, forests, natural beauty) can be affected
by hazards making their locale less desirable for future tourist in the short term (Becken,
Mahon, Rennie, & Shakeela, 2013). Hotel vulnerabilities are complex and factors that
contribute to risk are often the tourist motivation to visit.
Disastrous events can influence tourist’s choices of destinations (Faulkner, 2001).
Management of destination image, disruption from extreme weather, and event impacts
causing slow recovery may all affect tourism destinations negatively (Tsai, Wu, Wall, &
Linliu, 2016). Examples of this influence can be seen in: the 2001 Foot and Mouth Disease
outbreak, which is estimated to have cost the United Kingdom tourist industry between
USD$3.3 billion and USD$4.2 billion due to decreased numbers of tourist traveling to the
countryside (Thompson et al., 2002); the 2003 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
epidemic which coincided with Japanese outbound tourism dropping as much as 55% in one
month (Cooper, 2005); and Hurricane Katrina’s impacts on New Orleans which resulted in
1409 tourism and hospitality businesses shutting down- affecting 33,000 hospitality
employees, a decrease of USD$15.2 million per day in business and leisure travel

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 3
expenditures (Pearlman & Melnik, 2008). These examples highlight how disastrous events
can affect tourism.
People’s perceptions can be negatively influenced by media coverage of an event (de
Sausmarez, 2005; Faulkner, 2001; Mendoza, Brida, & Garrido, 2012; Pearlman & Melnik,
2008). In the aftermath of the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami, the hotel industry in Phuket,
Thailand successfully reopened 80% of their hotels within a week, only to see occupancy
rates drop to 10% (Henderson, 2007). Decrease in tourism can also be due to facility
availability and access. In 2005, following Hurricane Katrina and the New Orleans levees
failure, the lodging industry in New Orleans, which included an estimated 38,000 rooms, was
almost completely shut down (Singal, Wokutch, Ho, & Murrmann, 2010). Following a
second major earthquake in five months (February 2011) Christchurch, New Zealand lost
two-thirds of their hotel inventory (Orchiston & Higham, 2014). Aggravating the influence of
disasters on tourism further is the increasing interdependence of the tourist industry, where a
negative event in one location can affect the tourist economy of many countries (Maditinos &
Vassiliadis, 2008). For example, the 2010 Icelandic Volcanic Ash Cloud caused disruption to
air travel throughout Europe (Parker, 2015). “Tourism destinations in every corner of the
globe face the virtual certainty of experiencing a disaster of one form or another at some
point in their history” (Faulkner, 2001, p. 135).
Illustrating the predicament of the contemporary hotel industry serves to open a
discussion about the defining disaster resiliency for hotels. A cross-disciplinary lens may
provide an opportunity to identify connections between the hotel sector’s needs (ensuring
safety and security of guests and staff as well as remaining operational and profitable) and
disaster resilience building. The purpose of this article is to examine the literature and explore
important disaster resilience and hospitality industry concepts that can be applied specifically
to the hotel industry.

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 4
Defining key terms including disaster and resiliency within a hotel context begins with
an examination of the literature. These definitions form the basis for discussion of both
disaster effects on hotels and disaster resilience building within the hotel sector. The review
synthesizes current concepts of disaster resilience building in the context of the hotel sector,
and extracts concepts to inform further development in building disaster resilience into the
hotel sector.
Search word of disaster and hotel provided 143 peer reviewed articles, after duplicates
and articles not on topic were eliminated. Additional articles and grey literature were
captured through reviews of selected articles reference lists. In total 352 articles and papers
were identified and thematically coded for this literature review.
2. Basic Definitions
In order to discuss disaster resiliency, as it applies to the hotel sector, it is important to
first explore the literature aimed at defining these terms. The objective is to synthesize
common definitions for disaster and resilience as they will apply to this discussion.
2.1 Disaster/Crisis
The concepts of disaster and crisis, as applied to tourism businesses, have been
examined by many scholars (AlBattat & Mat Som, 2013; Cutter et al., 2008; Faulkner, 2001;
Norris, Stevens, Pfefferbaum, Wyche, & Pfefferbaum, 2008; Ritchie, 2004). Rockett (1999)
writes that definitions may be transient over time, but can serve our current need and allow
for common understanding. The most prevalent definitions adopted by authors of tourism
sector research has been Faulkner’s (2001) concept that crises often have a component that
could have been controlled by the group being affected (e.g. management failing to react to
events in a way that minimizes effects), while disasters occur suddenly and the actual trigger
event is out of the control of those affected (e.g. an earthquake hitting a populated area).
Ritchie (2008) recognises that an overlap can occur, when leadership actions during a disaster

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 5
then develop into a related crisis, thus confusing the concepts. Some authors chose not to
tackle the distinction of disaster and crisis but instead use the terms alternately or
simultaneously (Ritchie, 2008).
Mileti (1999) describes disasters as events that are the result of interaction with the
physical environment, the social and demographic characteristics of the community within
the physical environment, and the built environment the community constructed. Disasters
are often predictable, and in some cases avoidable (Mileti, 1999). While many disastrous
events are not controllable by human societies, affects may be minimized through action.
Disasters are often described as a cycle with phases leading from one to the next. A
common cycle is the 4R’s; reduction, readiness, response, and recovery (Ministry of Civil
Defence & Emergency Management, 2017). In this spectrum one reduces (or eliminates)
possible risks, readies for risk that cannot be reduced or eliminated, responds to events with
the readied preparation, and works toward recovery after the event, including reducing or
eliminating possible threats. Faulkner (2001) provides six phases of disaster in a tourism
disaster management framework. These phases include: 1) pre-event, where action is taken to
reduce effects of, or eliminate, potential events; 2) prodromal, the time immediate prior to an
imminent disaster where warnings and plans are initiated; 3) emergency, the actual disaster
response activities; 4) intermediate, where short term issues are resolved and return to normal
is being planned; 5) long-term recovery, a continuation of previous phase; and 6) resolution,
the final phase where normal activities resume and review of events takes place. In both of
these disaster management cycles the concept remains that the management process begins
prior to the onset of an event with planning and risk reduction, continuing through to learning
lessons and applying those lessons to future planning.
A key concept in the discussion of disaster is that disasters are social disruptions
(Rodriguez, Quarantelli, & Dynes, 2007). The disruption to human society causes the event

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 6
to be termed a disaster- even though a physical event such as an earthquake may begin the
cycle. For example, a magnitude 6.5 earthquake that occurs in an undeveloped and
unpopulated part of the world is of little consequence. The same earthquake in a developed
area has the potential to cause severe disruption and may be termed a disaster.
The term disaster can also illustrate a lack of capacity to manage an event. As a
description of the resources needed to stabilize the event, a disaster requires recruitment of
resources from outside of the affected community (United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) & Caribbean Alliance for Sustainable Tourism (CAST), 2008). Examining an event
in terms of resources required to respond illustrates that disruption to human systems is
integral to defining a disaster. A small hotel with limited resources could experience a
disaster that a larger hotel with greater resources might have been able to handle internally
with minimal disturbance.
For the purposes of this discussion, the definition proposed by Faulkner (2001) will
form the basis for defining disaster with additional wording taken from Mileti (1999), and
Rodriguez, Quarantelli, and Dynes (2007). For the remainder of this discussion disaster is
defined as:
A sudden event where the trigger is outside the current control of the affected area
(community and/or business), the event disrupts the function of that area and requires
additional resources (other than those available within the area) to respond to and
recover from the event.
2.2 What is Resilience?
The concept of resilience has been explored over many decades among a range of
disciplines, including ecology, engineering, psychology, and social science (Bec, McLennan,
& Moyle, 2015; Eiser et al., 2016; Folke et al., 2010; Klein, Nicholls, & Thomalla, 2003; A.
V. Lee, Vargo, & Seville, 2013; Martin-Breen & Anderies, 2011; Masten & Obradovic,
2006; Norris et al., 2008). It is worth highlighting that the meaning of resilience, at its heart,
remains similar across disciplines, but the nuances and values vary based on application.

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 7
The root resiliere comes from the Latin ‘to jump back’; however, in the context of
disasters affecting societies this definition falls short, as it may not be possible to go “back”
to the state prior to the disaster (Paton, 2006). Going back to the previous state may also be
undesirable, if it means building back to the same vulnerabilities (Esnard, 2013). Resilience is
a dynamic condition.
Many scholars have worked toward finding a shared meaning of resilience. However,
in order to study resilience one must first define: resilience by whom; and resilience to what
(Buckle, 2006; Cutter et al., 2008; Martin-Breen & Anderies, 2011). A universal
understanding of resilience is not possible:
Without frameworks tailored to specific populations, levels of analysis, phase of
disaster, and even the unique disaster context, our ability to advance the science of
disaster response toward more resilient communities is limited (Nowell & Steelman,
2013, p. 233).
For each group, and each circumstance, the meaning of resilience can take on new
dimensions. Exploring some of the different ways resilience has been applied can be a
constructive process toward defining disaster resilience for hotels. Resilience definitions vary
based on the context. The following discussion explores literature concerned with resilience
within the context of systems, organisations, economics, and communities in an effort to
understand how resilience may apply to the nexus of disasters and hotels.
2.2.1 Systems Resilience
Resilience concepts for systems have undergone numerous interdisciplinary scholarly
reviews (Aldunce, Beilin, Handmer, & Howden, 2014; Comfort, Boin, & Demchak, 2010b;
Cutter et al., 2008; Lamanna, Williams, & Childers, 2012; Norris et al., 2008; Orchiston,
2010; Paton & Johnston, 2006). Further insights are gained from research in physics,
mathematics, psychology, and psychiatry, and ecology by Aldunce et al. (2014), whose work
showed that resilience is not just bouncing back to the previous state, instead resilient

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 8
systems have the capacity to change and adapt to new stresses, and create a new norm from
which to continue forward.
Resilience in complex adaptive systems (CAS) differs from engineer-based systems
resilience. Engineer-based systems resilience looks at returning to previous state of
functionality (Rose & Krausmann, 2013). CAS theory considers a move to a new normal that
allows functioning to continue. Four characteristics that help a CAS to be resilient include:
“…capacity for creative innovation, flexibility in relationships between the parts (of
the system) and the whole, interactive exchange between the system and its
environment, and a crucial role for information in evolving complexity” (Comfort,
1994, pp. 159-160).
A CAS can also vary in size and components, moving, expanding and contracting as needed.
In the case of hotels, groups of internal departments working together can function as a CAS,
and those same groups working with external partners can also be a CAS. Those same groups
unable to be innovative, flexible, and collaborate in the face of disaster can delay response
and recovery.
The ability of a system to adapt and change is critical in our understanding of resilience
as applied to larger groups, including business organisations like hotels. Tourist destinations
can be conceptualized as “… a human-environment system” (Becken et al., 2013, p. 956).
During an unfolding disaster a hotel’s management and staff must understand the possible
risks to the business, guests, and surrounding area, and have the capacity to cope with those
possibilities exists.
2.2.2 Organisational Resilience
Organisational resilience considers physical properties as well as organisational
structure and capacities (Cutter et al., 2008). Resilient organisations are able to overcome
adversity and continue forward, often thriving as they reinvent themselves (Dahles &
Susilowati, 2015). Building organisational resilience includes “…reducing the consequences

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 9
of failure and assuring business/service continuity under adverse conditions” (Rose &
Krausmann, 2013, p. 79).
In studies of resilient organisations, a few common traits have been proposed. Resilient
organisations question assumptions about their environment constantly and are competitive
(A. V. Lee et al., 2013). Dahles and Susilowati (2015) write there are three components to a
business’s resilience: survival, adaptation, and innovation- all working together to make an
organisation resilient. For hotels, these actions translate into understanding changing risks in
a variety of contexts, and working to limit those risks constantly.
Resilient organisations employ adaptive strategies in a rapidly changing environment;
the adaptations may fundamentally change the organisation in some ways, but allow it to
survive into the future (Dahles & Susilowati, 2015). Organisational structure and culture
influence adaptive capacities (Wang & Ritchie, 2010). As an example, Comfort (1994), in her
study of the 1994 Northridge Earthquake response, found the response’s networked
organisational structure and flexible leadership allowed for higher functioning and quicker
decision making. When organisations are too rigid and systematic, with too many layers of
bureaucracy, they are less able to create adaptation strategies during dynamic events (Celik &
Corbacioglu, 2013; Comfort, 1994). Sawalha (2015) studied resilience of insurance
companies in Jordan. Findings included that the Jordanian business model characterised by
centralized power and hierarchy, with low levels of autonomy and delegation worked at
cross-purpose with resiliency. Organisational structure, adaptability, culture, and flexibility
features may all influence hotel disaster resilience. Large hotel chains may have
organisational hierarchies that make quick decision-making, flexibility, and adaptive
strategizing difficult.
Despite the fact that organisations rarely prioritize resilience building, A. V. Lee et al.
(2013) argue that many traits of a resilient organisation are also traits of successful

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 10
organisations. Obstacles to building resilience in organisations include a lack of tangible
ideas and concepts for businesses to adopt or adapt for their organisation (McManus, Seville,
Vargo, & Brunsdon, 2008). These challenges have slowed progress in building resilient
organisations. It may be possible to overcome some of these impediments by focusing on the
intersection of resilient organisations and successful organisations. Resilient organisations
have improved response to more common daily challenges because they have an increased
self-awareness, greater ability to manage their vulnerabilities, and are adaptive and
innovative (Aldunce et al., 2014). Capitalizing on this idea a hotel may be able to build
success commercially while building disaster resilience.
In making a case for organisational resilience building, A. V. Lee et al. (2013) proposes
adaptive capacity building and pre-planning as components to becoming increasingly resilient
to disaster. Paton and Hill (2006) also suggest the ability of an organisation to adapt and
change predicts a business’s ability to survive post disaster. Organisations need to integrate
elements of resilience into their daily philosophy to improve response in the face of adversity
(Sawalha, 2015). Integrating resilience management into everyday business practices through
“encouraging increased situation awareness, improved adaptive capacity, and better
identification and management of keystone vulnerabilities” is also important (McManus et
al., 2008, p. 84). Thus, the research points to the importance of organisation’s adaptive
capacity in building resilience.
2.2.3 Economic Resilience
Economic resilience is another element of disaster resilience building within the hotel
sector. Economic resilience is defined as the “…ability or capacity of a system to absorb or
cushion itself against damage or loss” (Rose, 2006, p. 228). Hotels are fundamentally
businesses that must maintain financial viability to continue operations.

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 11
There are two distinct areas of business resilience: the customer considerations and the
supply considerations (Rose & Krausmann, 2013). Customer-side resilience takes into
account disruptions in customer’s service, while supply side looks at service disruptions in
supply chains. Both of these areas are important to disaster resilience for hotels. Additionally
economic resilience can be broken into two separate measures: static economic resilience
concerns the ongoing ability of an organisation to function; and dynamic economic resilience
refers to the flexible capacity of organisations to reorganize and stabilize quickly.
An important economic resiliency implication is that local tourism businesses are
critical to the wider community economy in terms of providing jobs and customers for other
businesses (Dahles & Susilowati, 2015). Additionally, hotels that can remain operational in
the aftermath of a hazard event often maintain strong occupancy through services provided to
response and recovery teams (Drabek, 2000; Faulkner & Vikulov, 2001; Pottorff & Neal,
1994; Ritchie, Crotts, Zehrer, & Volsky, 2013).
The individual business resilience is at micro level of an economy. The industry’s
resilience (e.g. tourism) is at the meso-economic level, and the community’s resilience is the
macro-economic level (Rose & Krausmann, 2013). Accordingly, organisational resilience is
linked and connected to community economic resilience.
2.2.4 Community Resilience
Community resilience to disaster is the ability of a group to mitigate and withstand the
effects of disaster, however, there is little consensus regarding the components and processes
that enable communities to be disaster resilient (Chandra et al., 2011). Paton and Johnston
(2001, p. 275) write that a community’s disaster resilience is built on, “… efficacy, problem-
focused coping, and a sense of community…” Community resilience has also been defined as
“…a process linking a network of adaptive capacities (resources with dynamic attributes) to
adaptation after a disturbance...” (Norris et al., 2008, p. 127). These characteristics are

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 12
identified as: 1) economic development - equitable distribution of economic resources within
a group; 2) social capital - relationships as resources; 3) information and communication -
creating common meaning and understandings and systems to move information in times of
stress; and 4) community competence - the ability to make decisions and take actions as a
collective. These diverse facets point to the complexity of community resilience.
Organisations and communities are inextricably linked (McManus et al., 2008).
Resilient businesses assist a community in maintaining social continuity in the aftermath of
disaster (Moore & Lakha, 2006). Resilient organisations improve the ability of communities
to respond to disasters (A. V. Lee et al., 2013; McManus et al., 2008; Sawalha, 2015).
Looking at community resilience as a basis for developing a model for building resilience in
the tourism sector, Bec et al. (2015) use a definition of community resilience that included a
group’s ability to harness resources to adapt to change. Buckle (2006, p. 91) reviews
definitions of community resilience and finds “…they refer to “community” as a large social
group…” While an imminent and potentially disastrous event can pose incredible challenges
for a hotel operation, disaster preparedness and resilience building can mitigate the
consequences (Lamanna et al., 2012). A hotel is an integral part of its larger community, but
may also its own community. Building resilience requires participation by all stakeholders,
across sectors.
Disasters happen to all members of a community at the same time, and recovery must
happen together as well (Norris et al., 2008). Building communities that are resource and
capacity rich, and helping them understand risk is at the heart of resilience building.
Furthermore, planning ways to overcome potential hazards allows communities to take
advantage of, and enhance, those qualities and capacities already available to their
communities.

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 13
The sheer number of components that combine to form a community makes assessing
dimensions and indicators for community resilience more difficult. Cutter et al. (2008, p.
603) discuss the “multifaceted nature of resilience”, which poses challenges in designing
assessment to manage the disaster resilience building process. Furthermore, conditions of
resilience are dynamic, not static, so evaluation of components and measures is required on a
consistent basis (Paton, Kelly, & Doherty, 2006). However, resilience in communities can be
enhanced through preparedness planning, risk awareness, and communication (Cutter et al.,
2008; Kwok, Doyle, Becker, Johnston, & Paton, 2016; Paton & Johnston, 2006). Hotels, seen
through the community resilience lens, are multifaceted groups and need dynamic and
collaborative analysis, preparedness, and communication ideas for handling potential
disasters.
Based on a composite of ideas presented in this discussion the definition of hotel resilience
to disaster in the context of this discussion will be:
A dynamic condition describing the capacity of a hotel, together with its stakeholders,
to assess, innovate, adapt, and overcome possible disruptions that may be triggered by
disaster.
2.3 Disaster Resilience and Vulnerability in the Hotel Sector
Resilience and vulnerability are often linked in research; however, they are not opposite
ends of the same spectrum (Buckle, 2006; Cutter et al., 2008). It is possible to be vulnerable
in some ways, and resilient in others. Vulnerability to disaster describes the extent to which a
person, community, organisation, or system is susceptible to negative effects from a hazard
(Becken et al., 2013). Understanding vulnerabilities to disaster is an integral part of assessing
capacities to overcome potential disastrous situations and implementing risk reduction
measures.
One danger in equating resilience to vulnerability is the resultant circular thinking, “a

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 14
system is vulnerable because it is not resilient; it is not resilient because it is vulnerable”
(Klein et al., 2003, p. 40). Both terms are defined by the specifics (who, when, and what) of
the situation (Buckle, 2006). For example, elderly people are often considered a vulnerable
population, however in some situations they prove to be resilient due to their array of
experiences to draw from and reduced expectations that the government will come to their
rescue (Pooley, Cohen, & O'Conner, 2006). Circumstances can alter resilience and
vulnerability of people and groups and requires careful assessment.
Vulnerability is a condition that is evaluated in a pre-disaster setting, resilience is
evaluated by post-disaster outcomes (Rose, 2006). Understanding vulnerabilities that exist in
a community is fundamental to building resilience in a community, and ultimately steps to
mitigate those vulnerabilities must be taken to build resilience (Kapucu, Hawkins, & Rivera,
2013). Enhancing adaptive capacities in tourism destinations can decrease certain
vulnerabilities and build resilience (Price-Howard & Holladay, 2014). “…the concepts of
vulnerability, adaptive capacity and resilience are linked: enterprises that are less vulnerable
and have more adaptive capacity are likely to be more ‘resilient’ ” (Biggs, Hall, & Stoeckl,
2012, p. 649). Reducing vulnerabilities and embracing sustainable practices are critical to
developing disaster resilience (Cutter et al., 2008). Hotel’s evaluation of their vulnerabilities
can improve their adaptive capacities and build disaster resilience.
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 (SFDRR) highlights
that disaster continues to hamper efforts to improve sustainability in many economies (United
Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR), 2015b). The new framework
reiterates the essential need of public and private enterprise, and refocuses efforts upon
reducing disaster risk and building resilience at all levels.
Specifically the framework challenges the tourism industry to “promote and integrate
disaster risk management approaches…given the …heavy reliance on tourism” in many parts

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 15
of the world (UNISDR, 2015b, pg. 20) . Sawalha, Jraisat, and Al-Qudah (2013) writes that
hotels in Jordan are less likely to allocate resources to activities that do not show an ability to
generate profits short term. Short-term thinking can result in response-oriented approach to
disaster management. Building disaster resilience for the hotel sector is works in tandem to
the objectives and goals of the SFDRR.
2.4 Sustainability and Disaster Resilience in the Hotel Sector
Sustainable tourism considers what tourism, as a part of a bigger system, works toward
sustaining, rather than how to sustain tourism activities (S. McCool, Butler, Buckley,
Weaver, & Wheeller, 2015). In a hotel, actions taken in the course of business that are
unsustainable may ultimately make the operation of the business unstainable too. For
example, a hotel that does not account for the health of the local reef in planning tourist
activities may damage and degrade the reef making their facility less desirable to snorkelers
and reef enthusiasts.
“One way to reduce the susceptibility of communities to loss from hazard consequence
is to create a community that is sustainable and resilient” (Johnston, Becker, & Cousins,
2006, p. 40). A disaster resilient community contributes to that community’s sustainability
(Klein et al., 2003). Resilience and sustainability may use different avenues and
methodologies but they work toward the same goals (Lerch, 2015; Redman, 2014). To
achieve sustainability a community should “maintain and, if possible, enhance environmental
quality” (Schneider, 2006, p. 79). Sustainability can be natural resource centric, but the
objective is continued function with no depreciation of quality of life (Mayunga, 2007). A
shift that emphasizes sustainable practices may ultimately be good for hotels business in the
long term.
While there exists much common ground between sustainability and resiliency,
Redman (2014) suggests that some objectives may be in conflict and the study of these two

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 16
subjects should remain independent. This opposing view considers that the adaptive cycle of
resilient systems may adopt a new norm that is not sustainable long term, in order to continue
functioning in the short term. When building resilience to disasters short-term, non-
sustainable adaptions are often critical for survival and a part of the process. For example, in
a hotel context consider adaptions like petrol powered generators to maintain minimum
critical functionality, while this is a non-sustainable solution it is also often a short-term
solution required to maintain operations.
3. Disasters and the Hotel Sector
The body of literature regarding disasters, tourism, and more specifically hotels, has
increased over the last 20 years, yet improvements in the hotel sector’s disaster preparedness
have not kept pace. Ritchie (2009) outlines the need of all tourism organisations to assess
their vulnerabilities and risks, placing increasing emphasis on planning and prevention, as
opposed to the more common focus on response and recovery strategies. There is a need for
businesses to consider how they are creating and/or enhancing risks and act to minimize these
effects (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP),
2015). Sawalha et al. (2013) studied five star Jordanian hotels and found that disaster
management was considered a response and recovery activity, as opposed to a proactive
management of variables to decrease the possibilities and severities of risks. Faulkner (2001)
brings to light that few tourism organisations recognize the importance of risk reduction,
planning and preparedness.
A history spanning decades of incidents and accidents in the hospitality industry was
published in the Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administrative Quarterly (1985). The account
included many well-publicized disasters such as the 1980 Las Vegas fire in the MGM Hotel
and the 1982 eruption of Mount Saint Helens (tourism effects on the Pacific Northwest). This
1985 journal editorial explained that the hospitality industry was learning from each of these

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 17
events, and hotels (as well as restaurants) were reducing their disaster risk with each event. A
disagreement is evident in the literature regarding improved disaster management. Some
literature reflects that hotels are reviewing past incidents and attempting to learn lessons
(Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administrative Quarterly, 1985), and other literature
contradicts this assertion (Drabek, 1997).
Procedures and plans for handling disasters were found to be non-existent in a 1997
survey conducted by Drabek, where 827 hotel guest who had experienced disastrous
circumstances participated (Drabek, 1997). Kwortnik (2005) argues that the industry seems to
be repeating the same mistakes repeatedly, based on a study of some hotel’s reactions to the
2003 Blackout in the eastern United States. Chien and Law’s (2003) article discussed the
hotel industry’s widespread concern of the spread of SARS, and the lack of guidance for
hotels on epidemic topics. During the 2003 SARS, Hong Kong experienced an 80% decrease
in tourism as a result of this epidemic (Chien & Law, 2003). These examples highlight that
implementing lessons learned in disaster preparedness for the hotel industry may be low
priority.
Preparedness planning helps to ensure resources needed for response and recovery are
available, by deciding in advance who will do what, when, and where in different
circumstances (United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), 2008). Complete
preparedness planning for disasters can also reduce risk (Pennington-Gray, Thapa,
Kaplanidou, Cahyanto, & McLaughlin, 2011). Ritchie (2008, p. 322) writes, “…taking a
more strategic or holistic approach to disaster planning and preparation may reduce the
likelihood of linked events, ‘escalation’ or the ‘ripple effect’ occurring due to the chaotic and
complex inter-relationships within an open tourism system.” Furthermore, preparedness
planning for disasters by the tourism industry should be integrated and viewed as essential in
a world where growing numbers of disasters are impacting tourism (Ritchie, 2009).

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 18
The uncertainty of hazards complicates the ability to develop detailed preparedness
plans (Ritchie, 2008). Even though control over natural forces is rarely possible, the effects of
these events on communities can be mitigated and diminished through preparedness efforts.
“…surprise is an inevitable event whose magnitude and rippling consequences can be
anticipated through knowledge, emerging tools, consensual social collaboration, and
preparations to be flexibly innovative” (Comfort, Boin, & Demchak, 2010a, p. 273). In
recent years, building disaster resilience in organizations and communities has been studied
as one way to combat the unpredictability of disasters.
Disaster related research for the tourism industry tends to be response and recovery
centric, with less attention paid to the preparedness and preventative possibilities (Becken &
Hughey, 2013; Chien & Law, 2003; Faulkner, 2001; Hystad & Keller, 2008; Lamanna et al.,
2012; B. N. McCool, 2012; Ritchie, 2004; Wang & Ritchie, 2010). The academic discourse
on crises and disasters in the tourism sector is often reactive in its approach. Hall (2010)
reviewed the literature concerning economic and financial tourism crises between 1977-2010
and found surges in literature following events like oil shortages and the 2001 attack on the
World Trade Center in New York. Combating the response centric focus, some authors have
worked to develop frameworks that describe pre-disaster emergency response planning and
post-disaster activities.
Frameworks, models, and planning techniques have been explored and developed
for the tourism industry, and to a lesser extent hotels (Becken et al., 2013; Faulkner, 2001;
Hystad & Keller, 2008; Malhotra & Venkatesh, 2009; B. N. McCool, 2012; Paraskevas,
2013; Prideaux, 2004; Ritchie, 2004; Sydnor-Bousso, Stafford, Tews, & Adler, 2011; Wang
& Ritchie, 2010). The tourism industry is encouraged though the growing literature to take
action to improve their ability to survive and even thrive in the aftermath of a disaster. In

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 19
practice, however, a response focused attitude toward disasters seems to continue to be
prevalent in the tourism sector.
The recent Hotel Resilient programme provides guidance to strengthen disaster
resilience for the hotel sector through design and promotion of a certification programme
(United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR), Global Initiative on Disaster
Risk Management (GIDRM), & Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA), 2014) . The
certification is focused on larger properties, with a more guidance-oriented approach for
smaller hotels. The programme, sponsored by the UNISDR, GIDRM, and PATA aims to
build resilience to disaster though encouraging disaster risk reduction strategies in three
categories, with 18 sub-categories (Khazai, 2016). These categories include building location,
design and structural elements, systems design to warn and minimize risk, (e.g. fire
protection and evacuation systems), and management risk reduction planning components,
which include training, drills, communications planning, and continuity planning.
The Hotel Resilient programme is currently piloting in Indonesia, the Maldives,
Myanmar, the Philippines, and Thailand (UNISDR, 2015) . A scoping study, of interviews
with 17 hotel and tourism professionals, explains that a hotel’s disaster risk and resilience is
not currently a priority for guests; however, guest’s general interest in safety is increasing.
The existing barriers to the programme were consistent with the literature; interviewees
identified cost, time, and capacity as potential obstacles to engaging in a certification
programme (UNISDR, PATA, GIDRM, 2015) .
This programme offers a great step forward for hotels; however, focus is on disaster
risk reduction strategies (e.g. infrastructure, warning, and risk reduction planning). While
disaster risk reduction is a component of disaster resilience, this initiative does not seek to
address other possible components of organisational resilience. These include organisational
structure and flexibility (Dahles & Susilowati, 2015; Wang & Ritchie, 2010), adaptive

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 20
capacity (A. V. Lee et al., 2013; Wang & Ritchie, 2010), and less tangible resources such as
social capital (Kwok et al., 2016). Qualities such as sense of community and self-efficacy
improve resiliency (Finnis, Johnston, Becker, Ronan, & Paton, 2007; Kwok et al., 2016), and
may be more influenced by organisational culture than disaster risk reduction strategies.
Unfortunately, the Hotel Resilient programme does not delve into these subjects.
Building preparedness and resilience to disasters in the tourism sector lacks significant
progress (Hystad & Keller, 2008; Malhotra & Venkatesh, 2009). For example, in 2006,
Hystad and Keller (2008) did a follow-up study, three years after a major forest fire affected
tourism businesses near Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada. In the original study, 104
tourism businesses were surveyed regarding their preparedness for disaster. The original 2003
study concluded the businesses were not prepared for a forest fire, although an occurrence of
an event like this fire was highly probable (Hystad & Keller, 2006). The 2006 follow-up
study identified 38% (up from the previous study showing 26%) of those businesses in their
study had a disaster management plan. Further analysis of the data revealed that the majority
of those businesses had only informal planning. The study’s conclusion was that tourism
businesses lack the will to improve and develop their own contingency planning (Hystad &
Keller, 2008, p. 157).
Hotel staffs, along with the organisations, are unprepared to face disasters that may
affect hotels. Staff members were found to be lacking information on disaster practices and
hotels failed to carefully assess their risks (Wang & Ritchie, 2010). Mahon, Becken, and
Rennie (2013) suggest tourism employees may not have confidence that their employer’s
plans are sufficient to be effective in the face of disaster. The inclusion of stakeholders,
including staff, in disaster management activities is important for the success of preparedness
planning and emergency response.

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 21
Disaster planning undertaken by accommodations managers in Australia was reported
to be at 74.9% in a study by Ritchie, Bentley, Koruth, and Wang (2011). However, the
authors recognize the study, while positive trend in increased disaster planning, relied on self-
reporting by accommodations managers and did not detail the extent to which the planning
had been done. The reactive, rather than proactive, management of disasters and that plans
were not necessarily embedded in their organisation was a point Orchiston’s 2013 research
highlighted.
Hotels in New Orleans, post-Hurricane Gustav, were closed for up to 7 days, with the
median being 3 days (Lamanna et al., 2012). Full service, food and housekeeping, was not
restored for 6-12 days following the hurricane (only 6% reported loss of power as reason for
delay). Lack of staff to run the operation was found to be the primary cause. Lamanna et al.
(2012) examined New Orleans hotels’ response to Hurricane Gustav in 2008. The study
showed that while 80% indicated they had a written plan for hurricane evacuation, only 54%
involved their staff in the process and 58% had procedures for training staff. 46% provided an
annual exercise for the staff to participate. New Orleans hotels have capitalized on lessons
learned from previous hurricanes, yet they still have much room for growth and improved
resilience. Based on these reviews it is clear that tourist organisations, including hotels, are
not proactively assessing, and planning, to minimize their risk to disaster.
3.1 Increased Disaster Risk Existing in the Hotel Sector
Communities must consider carefully the role they play in creating some of the billion
dollar losses attributed to disasters (Mileti, 1999). This idea, viewed through a tourism lens,
serves to illustrate that hotels may play a role in creating their risk. High-risk locations and
attraction of guest unfamiliar with the area combined with inattention to staff training and
preparedness planning can be an expansive and lethal combination. The accommodation
sector is vulnerable to disaster based on its 24/7 model and sensitivity to external factors

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 22
(Ritchie et al., 2011). Hotels are often located in high-risk locations based on guest
preference to vacation in coastal or alpine environments (Méheux & Parker, 2006; Orchiston,
2012; Ritchie, 2009).
As an industry, the tourism sector has been found to avoid openly discussing hazards of
any sort (Cohen, 2009). The marketing literature of hotels is designed to entice guests, thus
chooses to minimize any risk potential while highlighting local activities and positive
features. Tourist can be particularly vulnerable in a disaster due to their lack of familiarity
with the region, customs, hazards, and local language (Johnston et al., 2007; Lamanna et al.,
2012; Mantyniemi, 2012; Méheux & Parker, 2006; North-Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean
Tsunami Information Centre (NEAMTIC), 2012). This lack of familiarity and knowledge can
inhibit their ability to take protective actions. It has been argued that lack of community and
business preparedness, and official tsunami warnings exacerbated the effects of the 2004
Indian Ocean Tsunami (Malhotra & Venkatesh, 2009). Guests and locals alike simply did not
recognize the immediate danger (as the water receded unexpectedly) and the critical need to
head to higher ground.
Beyond commercial enterprise, caring for communities, environments, or assist in
social development is an organisations responsibility, often termed corporate social
responsibility (Henderson, 2007; S. Lee & Park, 2009). In addition to the above
responsibilities, Henderson expands on this concept, stating that visitors to an area need to be
supported and oriented to their new environment. Hotels have a corporate social
responsibility to have plans to care for, and keep safe, their staff and guests (Henderson,
2007).
A study of hotels in Thailand, following the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami, looks further
into corporate social responsibility. Common traits of socially responsible organisations
included, “…investment and involvement in social welfare… compliance with official

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 23
regulations and a willingness to exceed these…education and engagement of customers and
staff about social and environmental issues of concern (Henderson, 2007, p. 232). The hotel
sector’s responsibility must include placing high value on ensuring the safety of their staff
and guests, while also improving their organisation’s ability to come through disastrous
events and continue to be operational and profitable (Henderson, 2007).
Hotels have a responsibility to understand their risk and vulnerabilities- and create
strategies to prevent or mitigate events stemming from predictable disasters (Mahon et al.,
2013). The expansion of the tourism industry gives rise to the need for disaster preparedness
and investigation of ways to return to operative capacity (UNEP & CAST, 2008) . Disaster
resilience building can decrease effects of events, improve life safety, and get hotels back to
operational status.
3.2 Building Disaster Resilience in the Hotel Sector
The hotel sector’s around the clock, 365 day a year model elevates the importance of
disaster resiliency. Guests will always be present, as will staff. Disaster resiliency for hotels
may translate into lives saved, as well as business reputation. However, the idea that disaster
preparedness plans, disaster risk reduction activities, and disaster resilience building are
separate activities from commercial concerns is reflected in the literature. An example of this
disconnect may include managing a profitable hotel business; yet, managers do not prioritize
planning for continued operations following a disaster. Competition for support and funds
can be difficult as preparedness planning and resilience building are hard to quantify in
regards to return on time and investment (A. V. Lee et al., 2013; McManus et al., 2008).
Furthermore, tourism operators may not be making headway due to the already voluminous
workload, leaving little time to pursue new planning avenues (Orchiston, 2013).

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 24
Promoting benefits to building disaster resilience that also work toward improved
profitability and functionality may improve the buy-in from management. One study of hotel
stock prices indicated socially responsible actions can improve a hotel company’s short and
long term profitability (S. Lee & Park, 2009). Illuminating the value of building resilience-
for both day to day operations and in times of disaster may also promote a greater
understanding of what a resilient organisation truly looks like (McManus et al., 2008).
“…elements of resilience and competitive excellence share many of the same features…”, for
example, organisations with these characteristics constantly scan for and interpret changes or
risks in the environment and develop adaptations as needed (A. V. Lee et al., 2013, p. 31).
Disaster resilience building may be a tandem feature of competitive business practice.
The academic literature on resilient organisations suggests that business continuity
plans are essential and should provide a range of functions: 1) management and information
systems to continue as needed for core business functions; 2) management’s ability to
transition from routine to crisis mode; and 3) preparedness plans that are designed to ensure
operating capacity and capability even under extreme conditions created by a disaster (Paton
& Hill, 2006, p. 251). Business continuity planning is focused on establishing a strategic plan
to re-establish key business operations to ensure business survival (Moore & Lakha, 2006).
Business continuity planning may include such things as audits of facilities, identifying key
persons, developing prevention strategies, and acquiring insurance to cover potential losses
(Moore & Lakha, 2006). In addition, preparedness planning for organisations must include
how to operate in unusual conditions, such as lack of water or power. Resilient enterprises
analyse disruptions to find positive actions that will carry the business forward.
The ability to plan for and manage disastrous situations ought to be integral to
management training for tourism professionals (Wang & Ritchie, 2010). Disaster planning
may be integrated into a business’s strategic management and planning as the two concepts

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 25
share the objective of long term survival of an organisation (Wang & Ritchie, 2010).
Strategic plans allow for quicker reaction. Lack of planning can result in slow decision-
making and slow action plan formulation following an incident. Delays can exacerbate the
impact. At the same time planning can be challenged by the chaotic nature of an unfolding
disaster (Ritchie, 2004).
There is an overlap between business continuity planning, strategic management, and
resilience building. However, building resilience also considers flexibility, social capital, and
innovation in ways that business continuity planning and strategic management may not.
Clearly if managers are building disaster resilience in their continuity and/or strategic
planning, an opportunity to shift the paradigm toward improved disaster resilience exists.
Tourism’s essential and integral ties to the community require a level of responsibility to
maintain operative capacity (Henderson (2007). The ability for a business within a
community to continue to operate during a disaster is foundational to the overarching
recovery of the wider community (McManus et al., 2008).
4. Conclusion
A synthesis of the literature points to the importance of prioritizing disaster resilience
building for the hotel sector. As the numbers of tourists affected by disasters grows, the
importance of providing actionable information to limit the severity of these events on
communities, including hotels, also escalates in pace. The literature discussion above
scrutinizes how disaster and resilience are framed for the tourism sector, and how these
concepts apply to the hotel sector.
Resilience to disasters for the hotel sector is a dynamic condition describing the
capacity of the organisation, together with its stakeholders, to assess, innovate, adapt, and
overcome possible disruptions triggered by disaster. Integrated into building disaster
resilience for hotels is disaster risk reduction activities (including structural and non-

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 26
structural analysis that looks at operational and service factors from an all hazards
perspective), and preparedness. Sustainability of hotel policies and actions need scrutiny.
Improving resilience requires building adaptive capacity, creating flexible
organisations and fostering an organisational culture that promotes self-efficacy, innovation
and questions the status quo. To promote building resilience, all stakeholders at every level of
the process must be involved. An interactive exchange of ideas promotes growth of social
capital and builds resilience. Clarified framing and simple tools can promote a hotel’s ability
to understand, measure, and build resilience, moving more hotels toward embracing disaster
resilience as an objective of value- worth the time, effort, and resources required.

Exploring Disaster Resilience for the Hotel Sector 27
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