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International Journal for Traffic and Transport Engineering, 2017, 7(1): 1 - 18
AIDS TO NAVIGATION SYSTEMS ON INLAND WATERWAYS AS
AN ELEMENT OF COMPETITIVENESS IN ULCV TRAFFIC
Septimio Andrés1, Francisco Piniella2
1 AtoN Service, Port of Seville, Spain
2 Department of Maritime Studies, University of Cádiz, Spain
Received 17 November 2016; accepted 31 January 2017
Abstract: The container has been a key driver of globalization. With the passage of time, this
has led to build larger container ships. The principal issue is the adaptation carried out by
main ports to become ports of call of these Ultra Large Container Vessel (ULCV). These
modifications are irrelevant for seaports with enough depth, but much more complex for
“inside seaports” due to the required approach channel update. Scarce ports that are receiving
ULCV, most of which are seaports, are making a select “hub club”. This paper analyses how
Aids to Navigation systems can help inside seaports to become port of call of ULCV, allowing
them to maintain its competitiveness. For this purpose we will focus on the cases of ports of
Hamburg and Antwerp, and we will also analyse if the general trend of ULCV dimensions
were growing, would allow it to maintain its international maritime traffic role.
Keywords: AtoN, navigable rivers, ULCV, container traffic, competitiveness.
2 Corresponding author: francisco.piniella@uca.es
UDC: 656.614.3.025.4DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7708/ijtte.2017.7(1).01
1. Introduction
As economies and borders have opened
to international trade, the main maritime
transport structures have witnessed a steady
process of deregulation (Alderton et al.,
2002; Silos et al., 2012). Simultaneously,
technological innovations in transport have
facilitated the movement of large volumes
of goods at ever-decreasing costs and with
increasing reliability (Vivas, 1999). In
particular, container ships have proved to
be a key element of globalisation, for ming the
unitised basis of international transactions.
Ports are experiencing increasing
competition, as efforts are made to reduce
costs and a ship’s length of stay in port.
(González, 2007) has identified three main
trends in shipping:
1. The use of container ships. In just
twenty years, container ships have
grown from less than two million TEU
(container ship capacity is measured in
twent y foot equivalent units) to fifteen
million TEU.
2. Corporate concentration through
mergers and alliances, which reduces
costs and improves competitive
positioning. Shipping companies
form part of much larger business
conglomerates: 2M (Maersk Line and
MSC), O3 (CMA CGM, CSCL and
UASC), CKYHE (Cosco, K-Line, Yang
Ming, Hanjin and Evergreen) and G6
(MOL, Hapag Lloyd, OOCL, HMM,
NYK and APL) (Muñoz, 2014).
3. The emergence of port hierarchies,
whereby ports are controlled by
port operators, and linked to their
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Andrés S. et al. Aids to Navigation Systems on Inland Waterways as an Element of Competitiveness in ULCV Traffic
hinterlands, or areas of inf luence. This
has facilitated the formation of hubs,
ports where numerous transhipments
take place, complemented by feeder
services that transport the goods to
other areas of consumption in smaller
ships.
This article focuses on the new generation
of increasingly larger container ships know n
as ultra large container vessels (ULCV).
Their builders guarantee efficienc y on three
fronts: energy (reducing CO2 emissions
by half), economy (generating economies
of scale) and the environment (fewer
atmospheric emissions). As a result, the
shipping company Maersk has named their
ULCV the Triple E class. These specialise
in the route that passes through the Suez
Canal, linking maritime hubs in Northern
Europe, the Mediterranean and Asia
(M aer s k , 201 5).
According to Lloyd’s Register and Ocean
Shipping Consultants (Tozer and Penfold,
2001), ULCV dimensions are as follows:
lengt h; 380 m, beam; 57 m, dept h; 29 m, and a
draug ht of more than 14 m. Th is prevents them
from using the Panama Canal but does allow
them to pass through the Suez Canal. Ships
that can sail through the Panama Canal are
know n as Panam ax vessel s, and their m aximu m
dimensions, determined by those of the locks
they must transit, are: leng th; 294.1 m, beam;
32.3 m and draught; 12 m (up to 5,000 TEU).
Expansion of the Panama Cana l will allow t he
passage of Post-Panamax ships (up to 13,000
TEU), measuring 366 m long with a beam of
49 m and a draught of 15 m (Canal de Panama
2015). In contrast, the Sue z Canal has no locks
and allows the transit of all container ships
worldwide, since there are restrictions on
length and vessels with a beam of 77 m and a
draught of 20 m can pass through (Suez Canal
Authority 2015) (Table 1).
Table 1
Comparison Between the Ships Dimensions of the ULCV and Panama and Suez Canals
Dimensions Length (m) Beam (m) Dr aft (m)
ULCV 380-400 57-59 14-16
Panama Canal 294.1 32.3 12
Panama Canal expansion 366 49 15
Suez Canal No-limitation 77 20
Source: Based on Canal Web Data
The increased capacity of U LCV has reduced
freight costs. Orders for conta iner ships have
doubled in recent years (González, 2008).
In the race to form part of the maritime
“hub club”, seaports such as Shanghai
(ranking first worldwide) and Rotterdam
(Europe’s largest port) wield a considerable
advantage, due to the ease with which they
can adapt their infrastructures to the arrival
of ULCV. In comparison, inside seaports
that face numerous disadvantages: tides
or the need to carry out dredging in order
to deepen their approach channels. The
European inside seaports of Hamburg and
Antwerp are two examples of this struggle
to retain competitiveness in the world
ranking of ports. We have used the term
“inside seaport” to refer to that seaports
located far away from the estuary, with a
narrow channel and it’s necessary to ride
the tide.
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International Journal for Traffic and Transport Engineering, 2017, 7(1): 1 - 18
Our paper essentially focuses on a study of
the theoretical framework of the subject,
and on an analysis of two representative
cases, the inla nd waterway ports of Hamburg
and Antwerp. To this end, we will examine
three aspects that we consider crucial:
ULCV navigation in these two ports; the
challenge that ULCV transit through inland
waterways poses for aids to navigation
systems, analysing the case of the Elbe
and Scheldt rivers; and the efforts of the
Hamburg and Antwerp port authorities
to maintain competitiveness. The basic
question to determine in these cases is
whether the intervention of the German
and Belgian governments and the European
Union will suffice to ensure that these ports
remain in the select club of maritime hubs, or
if the continued trend towards mega-U LCV
will eventually mean that only seaports will
be able to cope with this kind of maritime
traffic.
2. Theoretical Framework
2.1. The Concept of ULCV
They can be divided into two types: one
characterised by having 7 levels and 22 rows
of containers on deck, with another 9 levels
and 18 rows of containers in the hold, which
can transport 12,100 TEU; and the other
characterised by having a greater cargo
capacity in the hold, with one extra row
on each side, which can transport between
12,500 TEU and 13,000 TEU (Figure 1).
Fig. 1.
Conceptual Design – ULCV
Source: Based on (Tozer & Penfold, 2001)
ULC V have been designed to increase cargo
capacity, achieved by changing the position
of the bridge from its traditional location
above the engine room to the centre of the
hull, while still respecting the visibility
criteria stipulated by the International
Maritime Organisation (IMO) (Tozer and
Penfold, 2 001), and these day s they can carr y
over 18,000 TEU.
In order for this type of ship to be able to
dock, ports require sufficient depth of the
approach channel and docks, large areas for
manoeuvres, adapted cranes and a larger yard.
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Andrés S. et al. Aids to Navigation Systems on Inland Waterways as an Element of Competitiveness in ULCV Traffic
2.2. Navigable Inland Waterways
In the past decades considerable changes has
undergone in the maritime transport safety
control. Almost fifty years ago, some papers
in this journal aler ted about the problems of
safety of Navigation on Inland Water ways in
Europe or Japan (Beattie, 1962; NPA, 1968;
Onishi, 1968).
A navigable inland waterway is defined as
any stretch of water, canal or lake, which due
to natural or artificial features, is suitable
for navigation, especially for inland boats
(Directive 80/1119/EEC).
The Permanent International Association
of Navigation Congresses (PIA NC) defines
severa l concepts related to the con figuration
of maritime ports in its report N.121-2014.
First, the approach channel is defined as
a stretch of waterway connecting the port
docks with the open sea, and can be of
two types: an outer channel in open sea,
exposed to the waves and therefore capable
of producing rolling and pitching motions
on vessels; and an inner channel which is
protected from the action of the waves.
A distinction is made between channel and
waterway. The channel is the deepest area,
whether natural or dredged, with sufficient
width and depth to allow the safe passage
of deeper draught vessels. Some countries,
however, define the waterway as suitable
for all types of ship, across its entire width,
including the channel and shallower areas
for the transit of smaller ships. I n both cases,
the boundaries are marked with buoys, as
shown in Figure 2.
Fig. 2.
Channel and Waterway
Source: Based on PIANC. Report nº 121-2014
The ma in aspects of the physica l environ ment
to consider are: tides, which affect the depth
of the channel and may oblige larger vessels
to navigate at high tide; visibility, which
tends to be reduced by fog; currents; wind;
and even ice formation.
Ships initiate transit during the “tidal
window”, which i s the period of ti me between
high tide in the landfall area at open sea and
high tide in the inner harbour docks. This
is when the channel offers maximum depth
and thus ensures under keel clearance. They
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International Journal for Traffic and Transport Engineering, 2017, 7(1): 1 - 18
generally set sail an hour before high tide
in order to leverage the tidal wave (IALA-
AISM, 2014).
2.3. Aids to Navigation (AtoN)
In SOLAS-V/13 (“Safet y of navigation” I MO,
1974), IMO established that each State shall
provide the aids to navigation appropriate
to the level of traffic and the degree of risk.
This requires that contracting States apply
uni formly st andardised aid s to navigation. To
achieve this, the Inter national A ssociation of
Lighthouse Authorities (IALA) was created
in 1957. IALA defines aids to navigation
as systems external to the ship capable of
helping determine its position and course,
warning about dangers and obstacles and
indicating the best route to follow.
In appendices 2 and 3 of Resolution A.915
(22), the IMO indicates that the absolute
horizontal accuracy of aids to navigation
regarding vessel position on inland
waterways should be 10 metres, with a
probability of 95%. The accuracy of nautical
charts is also very important. The national
authority responsible for their publication
must work in coordination with the body
responsible for aids to navigation. In the
particular case of restricted waters, the
nautical chart scale is 1:10 000, requiring
an accuracy of 10 m (IALA-AISM, 2014).
Aids to navigation include visual aids
(lighthouses, beacons, buoys and leading
lines), electronic navigation, which we will
discuss later, a pilotage service and traffic
organisation boats (Figures 3 and 4).
Fig. 3.
Example of River Buoy at the Estuary, Marking the Limits of a Dredged Channel
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Andrés S. et al. Aids to Navigation Systems on Inland Waterways as an Element of Competitiveness in ULCV Traffic
Fig. 4.
LED Sector Lights Marking the Centre Line of the Channel of River (Extremely Precision)
It is important to measure the Risk Assessment for AtoN, not only using the IA LA method,
even the Fuzzy-FSA on Three-Dimensional Simulation System used in the deep-water
channel of the Yangtze River estuary (Chen, 2014). It takes into account traffic volume,
ship traffic conditions, navigational conditions, waterway configuration and accident
conditions. It obtains a score as a result.
2.4. Under Keel Clearance (UKC)
The PIANC defines UKC, as the distance
between the ship’s keel and t he bottom of the
channel. The factors used to calculate this
distance are the reference level of the water,
which depends on t he height of the tide at the
time, and the nominal level of the bottom of
the channel, which is the level above which
no obstacles to navigation should be found
(PIANC, 1985). There are two concepts
of UKC:
• Gross UKC: this is the theoretical value
of the margin between the ship’s keel
and the nominal level of the channel
bottom, measured in calm waters. It
allows for an increase in draught due
to uneven loading, changes in salinity
along the estuary, squat (the effect
of speed on draught: the higher the
speed, t he lower a ship sits i n the water),
response to the wind and waves, and a
safety margin.
• Net UKC: this can be calculated using
a deterministic approach, which is the
minimum margin between the nom inal
level of the bottom and the ship’s keel
in the most unfavourable position. If
all the elements included in the gross
UKC are assigned maximum values,
then the net UKC can be considered an
additional safet y measure. T he UKC can
also be calculated using a probabilistic
approach, taking into account errors,
uncertainties and variations in values.
It is also important to highlight the effect
of the current: this is significantly greater
when the UKC is small, and affects ship
manoeuvrability, which is considerably better
when sailing into the current (Figure 5).
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International Journal for Traffic and Transport Engineering, 2017, 7(1): 1 - 18
Fig. 5.
Under Keel Clearance (UKC)
The minimum safe UKC value that also
guarantees ship manoeuvrability is 1 m
(PIANC, 1985). With a deterministic
approach, the safety criterion established
for the minimum net UKC is that applied in
the ICOR ELS report (PI ANC, 1985), which
recommends a minimum value of 0.5 m,
allowing a value of 1 m when the chances of
touching the bottom a re high (PIA NC 1985).
Alternatively, the IMO Helsinki Committee
has indicated that the UKC should be 10%–
20% of the ship’s draught. This Committee,
also known as HELCOM, works to protect
the Baltic Sea environment. It is based on
regional agreements involving the EU and
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany,
Latvia, Lithuania, Pola nd, Russia a nd Sweden
(Swedish Transport Agency, 2015).
Currently, inland ports employ UKC
management systems based on software
applications that calculate probabilistic
tidal windows and incorporate real-time
monitoring systems during transit (IALA-
AISM, 2014).
These systems employ dynamic data,
including water level and density, the
current, the wind and wave height and
direction, which are measured by devices
installed along the waterway, such as tide
gauges, current meters or wave-measuring
buoys. Static data are also used, such as
the ship’s characteristics (wave response,
draught at bow, mid-length and stern), squat
and actual depth (IALA-AISM, 2014).
When the authorities responsible decide to
implement UKC management systems, the
maximum draught of vessels admitted in
the channel is increased, although the use
of a probabilistic tidal window implies that
the greater the ship’s draught, the greater
the likelihood that it will have to wait one
or more tides (IALA-A ISM, 2014).
2.5. E-navigation
The first decade of the 21st century has
witnessed the development of e-navigation
for tra ffic and t ransport management support
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Andrés S. et al. Aids to Navigation Systems on Inland Waterways as an Element of Competitiveness in ULCV Traffic
services. The river information services
(RIS) system is of particular importance
for inland waterways, and will be discussed
later in the state-of-the-a rt section. However,
other systems are also increasingly being
used to improve safety, surveillance,
reliability and efficiency of maritime and
river transport, although this requires a
more integrated and coordinated approach
to ensure that these technologies represent
added value rather than posing an obstacle.
Thus, as new systems are developed, there
is a growing need for standardisation
and efficient, simplified, interoperable
solutions that reduce the burden for users
and are integrated w ith systems throughout
the transport chain (IALA-AISM, 2014),
highlighting the S-Mode who arranges all
the on-board electronic systems by pressing
one single button (Patraiko, 2007).
In 2008, the IMO Maritime Safety
Committee defined e-navigation as the
harmonised collection, integration,
exchange, presentation and analysis of
marine information on board and ashore by
electronic means to enhance berth to berth
navigation and related services for safety and
security at sea and protection of the marine
environment (IMO. E-navigation).
The objectives of e-navigation are: to
facilitate the safe navigation of vessels with
regard to hydrographical, meteorological
and navigation information, facilitate
maritime traffic management, facilitate
communication and provide opportunities
to improve the efficiency of transport and
logistics. E-navigation is a concept that
incorporates systems and services (Patraiko,
2007). Some of the most important
e-navigation systems are:
• The Automatic Identification System
(AIS): It is used in traffic coordination
centres, tracking vessels in real-time
on digital maps. In 2000, the IMO
adopted the AIS as part of Regulation
19 of Chapter V of the SOLAS
Convention (IMO. AIS Transponders).
Furthermore, virtua l Aids to Navigation
don’t physically exist and they are
provided by AIS stations and they are
showed on ENC. There are a lot of
applications, for example, they can mark
new risks at the time they are known
or they can mark the deepest areas in a
fairway (IALA-AISM, 2010).
• The Differential Global Positioning
System (DGPS): an enhancement to
GPS that improves accuracy to under
3 metres, by means of a ground-based
network of reference stations.
• Radar, racons and radar ref lectors: radar
allows a ship to identify targets such
as racons and ref lectors installed on
buoys and beacons. It also allows traf fic
coordination centres to identify ships.
• Vessel Traffic Ser vices (VTS) systems:
they are usually equipped with radar
sensors, closed circuit television
(CCTV), AIS, V HF and meteorological
and hydrological stations.
• Vessel Traffic Management (VTM)
system: a new, more comprehensive
concept of V TS composed of ha rmonised
media and services to improve safety,
surveillance, navigation efficiency and
protect ion of the mari ne environment in
all navigable waters (IA LA-AISM 2014).
• Electronic Chart Display and
Information System (ECDIS): the new
generation of electronic nautical charts
(ENC) on electronic media, which also
provides additional information such as
bathymetry or hydrological data.
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International Journal for Traffic and Transport Engineering, 2017, 7(1): 1 - 18
• Among the services, e-navigation
provides comprehensive data in s tandard
format, and infrastructure to transfer
the data (Patraiko, 2007).
Anot her recent concept is t hat of e-Mar itime,
through wh ich the Europea n Commission, in
its communication COM92009 8, “Strategic
goals and recommendations for the EU’s
maritime transport policy until 2018”,
aims to improve the efficiency of maritime
transport in Europe and to ensure its long-
term competitiveness. This consists of a
series of policies, strategies and capabilities
to facilitate online or electronic interaction
between the different agents involved in the
development of a sustainable and efficient
maritime transport system throughout
Europe that is fully integrated with logistic
transport chains.
3. The Role of the European Union in
Inland Navigation
The European Union recognises the great
potential of inland waterway navigation
and promotes increased efficiency and
safety through the use of information and
communication technologies.
Directive 2005/44/EC of the European
Parliament a nd of the Council of 7 September
2005, on harmonised river information
services (RIS) on inland waterways in
the Community, is aimed at coordinating
efforts and standardising a model of aids to
navigation systems in order to facilitate the
navigation of vessels on inland waterways.
This directive establishes the requirements
and tech nical spec ification s for implementing
RIS systems, based on the work of the
International Association of Navigation,
the Central Commission for Navigation on
the Rhine and the Economic Commission
for Europe of the United Nations (UNECE).
It is applicable to all inland waterways of
the Member States of class IV and above
(according to the classification of European
inland waterways in Resolution 92/2 of
the European Conference of Ministers
of Transport and in Resolution 30 of the
UNECE, of 12 November 1992) which
are linked by a waterway, even between
Member States, including the ports on
such waterways. Member States, which
have inland waterways falling within this
scope, must transpose this directive into
national law.
The goal of RIS is to enhance safety,
efficiency and respect for the environment
through traffic and transport management
and protection of the environment and
infrastructures. It includes various
previously mentioned technologies,
primarily A IS, DGPS, ECDIS, VTS, radar,
warnings to navigators and hydrological
information. It also includes accident
prevention services, information on
transport management, statistics and
customs ser vices and calculat ion of levies and
fees for the use of waterways and their ports.
All these technologies are interoperable and
integrated.
The associated ECDIS is now called Inland
ECDIS to distinguish it from Maritime
ECDIS, although the two are mutually
compatible. In reality it is similar, but
contains more complete information since
it includes all the necessary information
about the navigation channel (waterway
boundaries, fairway, buoyage, channel
depth, water level, etc.), and the chart can
be superimposed on the radar image. It also
gives information on restrictions for vessels
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Andrés S. et al. Aids to Navigation Systems on Inland Waterways as an Element of Competitiveness in ULCV Traffic
or convoys in terms of leng th, beam, draught
and air draught, operation times of locks
and bridges, and the location of ports and
transhipment points.
Information on the main EU projects and
European legislation on AIS technology
is available at River Information Services
portal (RIS). RIS technology for the
Danube R iver is particularly comprehensive
(Danubian Region Strategy website), and the
Observator y of European Inland navigation
has also publicised RIS technology.
European Union legislation concerning
Directive 2005/44/EC has been established
by the European Commission through
various regulations drawn up by technical
committees.
In addition, the UNECE has also made its
own recommendations on the AIS standard
(U N E CE).
4. Methodology
The first step in the present research was
to select the inside seaports to study. The
top European ports in the world rank ing of
container por ts are Rotterdam, Hamburg a nd
Antwerp. Since these latter two are inside
seaports, they were selected for this case
study. Their variables are summarised in
Table 2 .
Table 2
Characteristics of Antwerp and Hamburg Inland Waterways
Port / River Canal
length
Canal draft
at Low tide
Height
of tide
Allowed
vessels
Idem. Maximum draft
entry/departure
Hamburg/Elbe 115 Km 12.8m 3.66m 12.8m 15.8m/13.8m
Antw erp/Scheldt 80 Km 13.1m – 14.5m 5.3m 13.1m 16m /15.2m
Source: Based on Canal Web Data
The port of Hamburg is located 115 km
from the North Sea and is accessed via the
River Elbe and in 2013 it received 9,302
million TEU, representing a 5% increase on
2006. It has not proved possible to increase
channel depth due to policies that restrict
dredging. Without tidal assistance, ships
with a maximum draught of 12.8 m can
enter the port, while high tide permits the
entry of vessels with a maximum draught
of 15.8 m and the departure of ships with
a maximum draught of 13.8 m. The depth
of the channel at low tide is 12.8 m, and the
river has a tidal ra nge of 3.66 m (TIDE, 2012;
Port of Hamburg, 2015).
The port of Antwerp is located 80 km
from the North Sea and is accessed via the
River Scheldt. In 2013, it received 8,578
million TEU, representing a 22% increase
on 2006. Dredging to increase channel dept h
concluded in 2011, creating a draught at low
tide that ranges between 13.1 m and 14.5 m,
with a tidal range of 5.3 m. Without tidal
assistance, ships with a maximum draught
of 13.1 m can enter the port, while high tide
permits the entr y of vessels with a ma ximum
draught of 16 m and the departure of ships
with a maximum draught of 15.2 m (TIDE,
2013; Port of Antwerp, 2015).
Thus, we analysed the entry of ULCV in
the ports of Hamburg and Antwerp. First,
we selected various ULCV belonging to
different shipping lines, and then tracked
their trajectories using AIS data obtained
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International Journal for Traffic and Transport Engineering, 2017, 7(1): 1 - 18
online for the period January to July 2015.
We also monitored the tidal coefficient
when one of these ships called at Hamburg
or Antwerp.
Subsequently, we sought information about
modifications to aids to navigation or the
implementation of new technologies that
would have facilitated the entry of these
vessels.
In a final step, we compared the results
obtained for the ports of Hamburg and
Antwerp, measured as TEU, with those for
the seaport that we considered representat ive
in the area, the port of Rotterdam.
5. Case Study: Ports of Hamburg and
Antwerp
ULCV tracking revealed that 78% of these
vessels called at the port of Hamburg,
and a considerably lower number, 29%, at
Antwerp. Table 3 gives a list of the selected
ships with their dimensions and calls at the
ports analysed.
Table 3
Dimensions of Selected Ships with their and Calls at the Ports
Name of t he vessel Le ngt h (m) Be am (m) Draught (m) TEUs Ca lls at the por ts
analysed
Maersk Mc-Kinney Moller 399 59 16 18.340 --
Edith Maersk 397 56 16 15.500 Antw./Hamb.
Mary Maersk 399 59 16 18.340 Ant w.
Emma Maersk 397 56 16 15.500 Antw./Hamb.
CMA CGM Marco Polo 396 53,6 16 16.020 Hamb.
CMA CGM Alexander Von
Humboldt 396 53,6 16 16.020 Hamb.
CMA CGM Kerguelen 398 54 16 17.722 Hamb.
CMA CGM Jules Verne 396 53,6 16 16.020 Hamb.
CSCL Globe 400 59 16 19.100 Hamb.
CSCL Pacific Ocean 400 59 16 19.100 Hamb.
CSCL Indian Ocean 400 59 15,6 18.980 Hamb.
Hanjin Sooho 366 48 15 13.102 Hamb.
MSC Oscar 395 59 16 19.224 --
MSC New York 399 54 16 18.270 Antw./Hamb.
Source: Based on AIS data
In the c ase of the Elbe R iver, the water level at
St. Pauli (the heart of the port of Hamburg)
is not higher when the tidal coefficient is
higher (see Table 4). This may be due to the
existence of resonance phenomena in the
tidal wave, indicating the need for a detailed
study of the behaviour of the tidal wave along
the waterway (TIDE, 2011).
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Andrés S. et al. Aids to Navigation Systems on Inland Waterways as an Element of Competitiveness in ULCV Traffic
Fig. 6.
IALA DGPS Reference Stations: Port of Hamburg
Source: Based on Google Earth© and Data from http://www.gnsspro.com
Fig. 7.
IALA DGPS Reference Stations: Port of Antwerp
Source: Based on Google Earth© and Data from http://www.gnsspro.com
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International Journal for Traffic and Transport Engineering, 2017, 7(1): 1 - 18
Table 4
Tidal Coefficient Hamburg Port, St. Pauli (Maximum Recorded High Tide 4.3m)
Tidal coeff icient. Height of H igh Tide (m)
42 3.9
44 3.9
47 4.0
54 4.0
55 3.7
58 3.7
60 3.5
63 4.0
66 3.6
77 3.9
80 3.8
81 3.8
87 4.0
99 4.1
105 4.1
106 4.2
114 4.0
Source: Based on Hamburg Port Data
http://www.tablademareas.com/de/hamburg/hamburg-st-pauli
The same results were not found for the
River Scheldt. As a result of tidal resonance
in estuaries and inland waterways, the tidal
range in estuaries is greater than that in the
open sea. In addition, t he flood tide coincides
with the ebb tide, especially in very long
water ways. This phenomenon causes ir regula r
behaviour in the tidal wave along the length
of the estuary, as shown in any manual (The
World Energy Conference, 1986).
The ULCV studied here entered during
the tidal window, since entr y without
tidal assistance is limited to vessels with a
max imum draught of 13 met res. This restricts
the entrance of ULCV to two tidal windows
a day. ULCV can also enter with the tidal
window almost at their nomina l draught, but
must leave the ports with less cargo; in this
respect, Antwerp offers better possibilities
(15.2 m) than Hamburg (13.8 m).
At both ports, exported goods differed
from imported ones. At Hamburg for
instance, Germany exports machinery, a
very heavy commodity, but imports much
lighter goods such as textiles and electronic
goods. Consequently, ships can carry their
max imum capacity when entering the port,
but must carry a reduced load on departure
due to the limitations on draught when
leaving Hamburg (Port of Hamburg, 2013).
We found no information regarding the
installation of new visual aids to navigation
for ULCV on the Scheldt and Elbe rivers,
probably indicating that they were not
necessary; this is not surprising since
the fairway should already be marked by
existing maritime signals. Furthermore, a
review of the digital cartography revealed
that both fairways are mainly marked by
buoys, which are easily adapted to changes
in the sandbars that are periodically verified
through bathymetry. Both channels, have all
kind of AtoNs, mixing them and providing
the highest accuracy by DGPS, vessels know
where other vessels are by AIS, limits of
14
Andrés S. et al. Aids to Navigation Systems on Inland Waterways as an Element of Competitiveness in ULCV Traffic
the channel are marking for example by
PEL (Port Entry Light), and buoys that are
marking grounds in the channel.
An analysis of e-navigation use in the
two waterways showed that the port of
Hamburg uses information technology
(IT) aids, which are shared with terminal
operators and pilots to ensure that these are
making the most effective use possible of
the tidal window. These include ECDIS,
the Port R iver Information System Elbe
(PRISE, the RIS of the Elbe River) and the
Marine Training Centre (MTC) simulator
at Hamburg-Stellingen, where pilots are
trained to manoeuvre new types of ship on
the Elbe. The simul ator enables pilots to make
accu rate calcu lations for the vessel concerned,
and visualise the impact of currents, strong
winds, ice formation, fog and complicated
encounters with other vessels on the Elbe or
in the port. Together w ith the port aut hority,
pilots process simulation variables to develop
a personalised plan (Port of Hamburg , 2014).
Other measures being taken on the Elbe are
related to infrastructures that opt imise tidal
windows. These include the creation of a
“passing box”, which makes it possible for
ULC V to pass each other wit hout needing to
wait, and wideni ng of the turning circle at the
container terminals. For pilots and tugboat
pilots, turning a ULCV within a minimum
time is a great challenge (Port of Hamburg,
2014). On the other hand, Port of Hamburg
has created a new type of barge vessel called
Port Feeder Barge that includes an innovative
type of efficient barge vessel with a capacity
of 168 TEU, equipped with a crane with an
automatic spreader (Malchow, 2014). This
barge achieves transport the containers far
away where before was no possible because of
shallow water restrictions for ULCV.
A previous study at the port of Antwerp,
conducted by Flanders Hydraulics Research
and the port authority (2003) with the
collaboration of pilots, tugboat pilots
and shipping companies, investigated the
feasibility of navigating Maersk S class
ships on the Scheldt. Regulations at the
time did not allow vessels over 340 m long
to navigate the Scheldt. The study exam ined
two aspects related to the manoeuvrability
of these vessels on inland waterways:
navigation along the Scheldt of ULCV with
a max imum capacity of 14,000 TEU, and
access to the terminals. It also evaluated the
need for dredging, concluding that this was
necessary to deepen the channel. In 2011,
the Scheldt was dredged until obtaining a
depth of 14.5 m, allowing the unrestricted
entrance of ULCV within the tidal window
(Eloot, Verwilligen and Vantorre, 2010).
By way of comparison, the “open” port of
Rotterdam is the main Nor th Sea competitor
of Hamburg and Antwerp and Europe’s
largest port. Although the data for this port
indicate that it has witnessed exponential
grow th (20%), it nevertheless ranks eleventh
in the world rankings (Table 5).
Table 5
Containerization Main European Ports – Millions TEUs
Port / year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Variation
Rotterdam 9655 9900 10800 9743 11145 11876 11865 11621 +20.36%
Hamburg 8862 9360 9737 7007 7900 9014 8863 9302 +4.96%
Antwerp 7019 8355 8664 7309 8468 8664 8633 8578 +22.21%
Source: Based on IAPH Web Data (International Association of Ports and Harbours)
15
International Journal for Traffic and Transport Engineering, 2017, 7(1): 1 - 18
Of the ships analysed, 24 called at the port
of Rotterdam, compared with 17 at the port
of Hamburg (29% fewer) and 9 at the port
of Antwerp (62% fewer), indicating that the
trend towards increasingly larger container
ships has accentuated still further the
ascendancy of this seaport over the inland
ports.
6. Discussion and Conclusions
The increasing size of ULCV has prompted
some ports to specialise in these ships;
however, due to their sheer scale, such
specialisation is much easier for seaports
and has proved a challenge for inside
seaports.
ULVC can only enter inside seaports
during the tidal window, i.e. twice a day.
Undoubtedly, the most effective measure
to ensure access for larger ships would be
to increase approach channel depth, but
environmental organisations often ta ke legal
action to prevent this.
The data presented here suggest that under
the current situation, while d redging project
is under s tudy, Aids to Nav igation systems are
important to achieve ULCV can arrived to
inside seaports where before was impossible,
so to improve competitiveness. We therefore
draw eight basic advices to study whether
they were possible to apply in order to study
how to increase competitiveness in inside
seaports:
1. Visual aids to navigation cannot yield
further improvements to navigation
efficiency, but it is necessar y to ensure
that all kind of visual AtoN mark the
deepest areas of the channel.
2. There is a need to develop existing
software applications for ship
configuration and real-time analyses
of their UKC in relation to the tidal
window.
3. Inside seaports require new
infrastructures, such as passing boxes,
and larger turn ing circles. A lso, if it were
possible, create new Port Feeder Barge.
4. Navigable rivers should be monitored
by installing sensor networks along
waterways. These would make it
possible to obtain real-time data on
tides, currents, salinity, wind, etc., and
to study the behaviou r of these var iables.
5. Bathymetric studies should be
conducted at regular intervals.
6. Close collaboration with pilots is
important, and these should receive
updated training that includes the use
of simulators to analyse the behaviour
of these new ships.
7. The use of the e-navigation is vital to
reduce navigational accidents. Vessels
must include harmonized systems such
as S-Mode.
8. Information technology systems that
exploit and share data are also crucial.
Using a combination of these eight
proposals, and taking full advantage of
tidal windows and passing boxes, ULCV
can enter the Scheldt and Elbe rivers w ithout
compromising security, although great care
must be exercised. We recommend using
them in the channels of the inside seaports if
possible, tak ing into account these successes.
As a result, it is possible the research might
figure out that largest vessels could entry to
the channel tak ing advantage of the deepest
areas and the most safety and more accurate
systems.
16
Andrés S. et al. Aids to Navigation Systems on Inland Waterways as an Element of Competitiveness in ULCV Traffic
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