ArticlePDF AvailableLiterature Review

Executive function in weight loss and weight loss maintenance: a conceptual review and novel neuropsychological model of weight control

Authors:

Abstract and Figures

Weight loss maintenance is a complex, multifaceted process that presents a significant challenge for most individuals who lose weight. A growing body of literature indicates a strong relationship between cognitive dysfunction and excessive body weight, and suggests that a subset of high-order cognitive processes known as executive functions (EF) likely play an important role in weight management. Recent reviews cover neuropsychological correlates of weight status yet fail to address the role of executive function in the central dilemma of successful weight loss maintenance. In this paper, we provide an overview of the existing literature examining executive functions as they relate to weight status and initial weight loss. Further, we propose a novel conceptual model of the relationships between EF, initial weight loss, and weight loss maintenance, mapping specific executive functions onto strategies known to be associated with both phases of the weight control process. Implications for the development of more efficacious weight loss maintenance interventions are discussed.
This content is subject to copyright. Terms and conditions apply.
Executive function in weight loss and weight loss maintenance:
a conceptual review and novel neuropsychological model of weight
control
Katelyn M. Gettens
1
Amy A. Gorin
1
Received: August 10, 2016 / Accepted: January 18, 2017 / Published online: February 3, 2017
ÓSpringer Science+Business Media New York 2017
Abstract Weight loss maintenance is a complex, multi-
faceted process that presents a significant challenge for
most individuals who lose weight. A growing body of lit-
erature indicates a strong relationship between cognitive
dysfunction and excessive body weight, and suggests that a
subset of high-order cognitive processes known as execu-
tive functions (EF) likely play an important role in weight
management. Recent reviews cover neuropsychological
correlates of weight status yet fail to address the role of
executive function in the central dilemma of successful
weight loss maintenance. In this paper, we provide an
overview of the existing literature examining executive
functions as they relate to weight status and initial weight
loss. Further, we propose a novel conceptual model of the
relationships between EF, initial weight loss, and weight
loss maintenance, mapping specific executive functions
onto strategies known to be associated with both phases of
the weight control process. Implications for the develop-
ment of more efficacious weight loss maintenance inter-
ventions are discussed.
Keywords Obesity Review Weight loss maintenance
Executive function Behavioral intervention Conceptual
maintenance model
Obesity is one of the predominant healthcare concerns in
the United States (Finkelstein et al., 2010; Fryar et al.,
2015; Ogden et al., 2012) with recent reports suggesting
that 38% of adults and 17% of youth are living with obesity
(Ogden et al., 2014,2016; Flegal et al., 2016). Compared to
normal or healthy weight individuals, those with obesity
are at higher risk for many serious health conditions
including all causes of morbidity and mortality, heart dis-
ease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, certain types of cancer, and
dementia (Fryar et al., 2015). The economic, medical, and
social costs of excessive weight are well documented and
predicted to increase by $48–66 billion per year by 2030
(Finkelstein et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2011). Reflecting
these significant health and economic concerns, the United
States’ Surgeon General has identified the obesity crisis
among his top priorities.
Modest weight loss (5–10% of body weight) can be
reliably achieved through several evidence-based methods
and is associated with significant health benefits (MacLean
et al., 2015; Wing & Hill, 2001). Maintaining weight loss,
however, has proven to be a more elusive accomplishment;
most weight is regained within 3–5 years (MacLean et al.,
2015; Wadden & Stunkard, 1986; Wadden et al., 1988). As
noted by a recent workgroup of weight management
experts convened by the National Institutes of Health, the
challenge of weight loss maintenance (WLM) is one of the
field’s most significant dilemmas (MacLean et al., 2015).
Data from several sources suggests that the processes that
drive and support initial weight loss are theoretically and
empirically distinct from those associated with weight loss
maintenance (Williams et al. 1996; Rothman, 2000; Elfhag
&Ro
¨ssner, 2005). In a large, cross-sectional survey of
1165 U.S. adults, only 8 of 36 weight-control strategies
(22%) were found to be associated with both weight loss
and WLM, while 4 were associated uniquely with main-
tenance. Notably, poor agreement (kappa =0.22) was
reported between practices uniquely associated with weight
&Katelyn M. Gettens
Katelyn.gettens@uconn.edu
Amy A. Gorin
Amy.gorin@uconn.edu
1
University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
123
J Behav Med (2017) 40:687–701
DOI 10.1007/s10865-017-9831-5
loss and WLM, indicating each process likely requires a
distinct set of skills and behaviors (Sciamanna et al., 2011).
Attempts to understand the process of successful
weight-related behavior change have traditionally focused
on behavioral or social-cognitive predictors of success
(McGuire et al., 1999; Wadden et al., 2009; Wing et al.,
1998; Wing et al., 2006). More recently, advances in
neuroscience and neuropsychology have fueled increased
interest in neurocognitive processes underlying obesity and
weight management. The field is still nascent – relatively
few studies have explored neurocognitive correlates of
weight loss, and even fewer have examined neurocognitive
correlates of long-term maintenance. This is an area ripe
for investigation as work in other health-related domains
(e.g., physical activity, smoking cessation, and stress reg-
ulation) suggest neuropsychological variables are intri-
cately involved in health-behavior change and health-
maintaining behavior (Hall et al., 2006,2008; Loprinzi
et al., 2015; Williams et al., 2009; Williams & Thayer,
2009). Given the complex and multifaceted nature of
weight loss and WLM, a specific subset of processes
known as executive functions, involved in high-order or
top-down functioning, are likely among the most highly
implicated cognitive systems in successful weight man-
agement. The pivotal role that executive function might
play in long-term weight loss success requires attention in
conceptual models of weight management that can guide
future research, and ultimately, integrate executive func-
tion training strategies into our existing framework of
behavioral weight loss intervention.
Executive function, obesity, and weight
management
Defining and measuring core constructs
Debate exists regarding which functions comprise the core
elements of executive function. However, several key
executive skills are consistently cited in research and
clinical domains of neuropsychology including inhibition,
working memory, planning, organization, and task-
switching (Alvarez & Emory, 2006; Miyake et al., 2000;
Suchy, 2009).
In an influential paper exploring the unity and diversity
of executive function, Miyake et al. (2000) examined the
extent to which functions attributed to executive ability
reflect a single underlying ‘‘executive system’’ or truly
distinct subcomponents. Three central components of
executive function emerged as central to the model: shift-
ing between tasks or mental sets (i.e. ‘‘shifting’’), updating
and monitoring of working memory (i.e. ‘‘updating’’), and
inhibition. Results indicate that these components of
executive function are clearly distinguishable, however
moderate correlations also exist between the three factors,
representing shared underlying cognitive mechanisms
(Miyake et al., 2000). Regardless of how executive func-
tions are defined, the distinction between general cognitive
function and executive function is important to note.
Executive functions are defined as a subset of general
cognitive function, involved specifically in high-order,
self-regulatory, and volitional processes (Baumeister &
Vohs, 2003). Additionally, executive functions are typi-
cally described in terms of ‘‘how’’ behavior is expressed,
while general cognitive function is discussed in terms of
‘what’’ behavior or ‘‘how much’’ a behavior is exhibited
(Lezak et al., 2012).
Weight-related health behavior change and WLM are
sufficiently complex processes to necessitate the recruit-
ment of executive skills. Understanding these complex
processes from an integrated perspective requires mapping
executive functions (rather than general cognitive functions
alone) onto known behavioral correlates of successful
weight management. While executive functions are com-
monly measured using computer and task-based assess-
ment measures (e.g., Stroop color-word task, Go-No-Go,
Trail-Making, Wisconsin Card Sort Task, Tower of Lon-
don, and Iowa Gambling Task) or administered concor-
dantly with scanning methods such as fMRI or EEG,
1
it is
often difficult to conceptualize how outcome variables
provided by standardized cognitive test batteries might
translate into behavioral outputs. Intervention design and
implementation focused on training and strengthening
executive performance depends, fundamentally, on a
clearer understanding of how task-based assessment mea-
sures of executive performance translate into real world
behaviors. To fully understand the complex relationship
between executive function and weight maintenance, and
how executive functions might contribute to improved
long-term health change, it is crucial to link high-order
cognitive performance to specific weight-related behav-
ioral constructs. Furthermore, elucidating cognitive mod-
erators of successful maintenance will allow clinicians and
researchers to determine who is at highest risk for regain
following initial weight loss, and to develop novel treat-
ment strategies to support these individuals in long-term
maintenance. In developing this model, we will review the
extant literature that has primarily focused on executive
1
The scope of this paper does not allow for an adequate review of
fMRI and EEG findings regarding executive function and weight loss
maintenance. It should be noted that executive and prefrontal func-
tions do not operate in isolation. Neuroimaging data serve to highlight
the vastly complex and integrated nature of correspondence between
PFC and many other neural networks implicated in eating behavior
and weight management broadly (Jansen et al., 2013, Murdaugh et al.,
2012; Szabo-Reed et al., 2015).
688 J Behav Med (2017) 40:687–701
123
function ability in adults with obesity, as well as the
potential bidirectional association between weight loss and
executive function. Far fewer studies have explored
potential implications of executive function beyond the
initial weight loss phase.
Executive functioning in overweight and obesity
Evidence suggests that obesity is a risk factor for the
development of neurocognitive deficits, including poor
performance on tests of general cognitive functioning and
executive functioning (Cserjesi et al., 2009; Fitzpatrick
et al., 2013; Gunstad et al., 2007; Prickett et al., 2015).
Cross-sectional designs indicate that executive impair-
ments most consistently found in adults with obesity,
compared to normal weight controls, include inhibition,
decision-making, concept formation, and set shifting.
These deficits are observed independent of age, general
cognitive ability, education, and health factors including
diabetes and hypertension (Boeka & Lokken, 2008; Brogan
et al., 2011; Cserjesi et al., 2009; Davis et al., 2004;
Fagundo et al., 2012; Fergenbaum et al., 2009; Gunstad
et al., 2007; Smith et al., 2011; Roberts et al., 2007),
although there is some evidence to suggest that the obesity-
executive function link may be more pronounced in adults
with more complicated obesity profiles (e.g., metabolic
syndrome, experiences of loss of control eating) (Fergen-
baum et al., 2009). For example, in those who experience
loss of control (LOC) eating, it is hypothesized that deficits
in executive function (including cognitive inflexibility,
poor self-regulation, planning deficits, and difficulty with
inhibition and delayed reward) likely lead to loss of control
or binge eating episodes; significant risk factors for the
development of obesity (Manasse et al., 2014; Manasse
et al., 2015a,b). Cross-sectional analyses indicate adults
with obesity meeting criteria for LOC eating, regardless of
frequency or size of episode, show significantly greater
executive deficits, specifically in self-regulatory control
and planning, than non-LOC participants with obesity
(Manasse et al., 2014). More recently, the same group
reported select deficits in executive function among over-
weight women diagnosed with binge eating disorder
(BED), compared to overweight women without BED.
Differences emerged in the areas of problem solving,
inhibition, and delayed gratification, but not in set shifting,
working memory, or risk taking (Manasse et al., 2015a).
While most studies in this area are cross-sectional in
nature, longitudinal associations (follow-up ranging from 5
to 27 years) between midlife obesity and risk for poor
neurocognitive and executive outcomes have been reported
(Cournot et al., 2006; Fitzpatrick et al., 2009; Gunstad
et al., 2010; Gustafson, 2008; Kivipelto et al., 2005;
Whitmer et al., 2005,2008). Specifically, Cournot et al.
(2006) report higher baseline BMI is associated with cog-
nitive decline over 5 years. Additionally, findings from
Gunstad et al. (2010) suggest that higher body composition
at baseline is associated with more rapid decline in general
cognitive and executive function. Notably, longitudinal
outcomes also indicate that midlife obesity may be a risk
factor for the development of dementia and Alzheimer’s
disease, adjusting for demographics and cardiovascular risk
factors (Gustafson, 2008; Fitzpatrick et al., 2009; Kivipelto
et al., 2005; Whitmer et al., 2005,2008). Together these
results suggest that adults with obesity may not only be
prone to experience a range of executive function impair-
ments, but may also be at increased risk for neurocognitive
deficits later in life. The temporal direction of these rela-
tionships remains controversial however, executive func-
tion deficits appear to map onto several potential
behavioral risk factors for the development of excessive
weight, including difficulty planning regular eating pat-
terns, inability to delay gratification or inhibit prepotent
responses to highly palatable foods, and difficulty updating
goal-relevant information related to weight loss. Additional
research is needed to fully elucidate underlying neuro-
physiological and neurocognitive mechanisms leading to
increased risk for obeseogenic behavior and long-term
neurocognitive consequences. An important next step is to
examine the impact that executive function in adulthood
may have on weight loss outcomes.
Impact of executive functioning on weight loss
Self-regulation, comprised of planning ability, inhibitory
control, initiation, and updating goal-directed behavior, is a
significant predictor of successful health behavior change.
Given the obvious overlap between behaviors defined as
‘self-regulatory’ and those defined as executive functions,
it is reasonable to hypothesize that individual differences in
executive function might also predict individual differ-
ences in health-behavior outcomes, including weight
maintenance success. In fact, compelling evidence from
childhood and adolescent health research suggests that
executive function, measured in early childhood, is corre-
lated with eating behavior in cross-sectional analyses
(Pieper & Laugero, 2013), and predictive of a range of
health outcomes later in life, including body mass index
(BMI) and physical activity (Guxens et al., 2009; Marteau
& Hall, 2013; Moffitt et al., 2011). Preschool children with
higher cognitive function scores had a lower likelihood of
being overweight at 2-year follow-up (Guxens et al., 2009).
Poor cognitive control, measured in children age 3 to 11,
was associated with greater health concerns (including
metabolic and weight-related problems) at 32-year follow-
up (Moffitt et al., 2011). Adjusting for demographics, IQ,
and education level, executive functions have also been
J Behav Med (2017) 40:687–701 689
123
shown to be associated with non-weight specific health
behaviors including smoking, alcohol use, and sleep
hygiene in adults using cross-sectional (Hall et al., 2006),
and prospective designs (Booker & Mullan, 2013; Moffitt
et al., 2011). Although these studies did not examine the
impact of executive function performance on weight loss or
WLM specifically, the findings are noteworthy as they
suggest a unique contribution of executive function on
general health behavior beyond that of IQ, socioeconomic
status, or educational attainment.
Converging findings suggest that various executive
functions may act as moderators in the relationship
between eating intention and eating behavior (Hall et al.,
2008; Kuijer et al., 2008; Nederkoorn et al., 2010). Hall
et al. (2008) report that executive control moderates the
effect of intention to make healthy dietary choices and
actual eating behavior at 1-week follow-up, such that
individuals with strong intention made significantly fewer
healthy food choices if they had poor executive function,
compared to participants with weak intention and strong
executive skills. Individuals with implicit biases for snack
foods and poor eating restraint were also more likely to
exhibit poor decision-making and weight gain at 1-year
follow-up if they had low executive control (Nederkoorn
et al., 2010). It is also reported that inhibition is a stronger
predictor of healthy dietary choice for those exhibiting
better executive function skills (Hall et al., 2008), sug-
gesting that the intention-behavior relationship is not uni-
form, but likely moderated by specific executive functions
and individual executive ability. Recently, the same group
reported that, in follow-up analyses, executive function
was the only significant predictor of high fat intake, as well
as fruit and vegetable consumption at 1 year, when inclu-
ded in a model with conscientiousness and many other
personality characteristics (Hall & Fong, 2013). These
results demonstrate that executive function may be a more
powerful explanatory variable for weight-related health
behaviors than other characteristics typically studied.
Distinct components of executive function also appear
to be predictive of distinct weight-related behaviors. Lon-
gitudinal designs have demonstrated that engagement in
healthy choices, such as increased physical activity and
consumption of fruits and vegetables, utilizes a unique set
of executive functions, including executive control,
updating, and initiating, while avoidance of health-risk
behaviors (e.g. consumption of high fat foods, snacking,
and disinhibited eating), utilizes a separate set of executive
functions, including task-switching, inhibitory control, and
flexibility (Allan et al., 2011; Allom & Mullan, 2014; Hall
et al., 2006). Similar associations were reported among
young adults in a cross-sectional analysis using self-report
measures of executive function (Limbers & Young, 2015).
Each of these behaviors are crucial to the initial weight loss
phase (Rothman, 2000; Wing & Hill, 2001), however,
successful weight loss maintenance introduces significant
challenges unique from initial weight loss.
These results highlight several important points. First,
specific executive functions may be associated with the ini-
tiation and inhibition of health behaviors known to directly
impact weight outcomes. Second, executive functions that
predict healthy eating patterns appear to be distinct from
those that predict unhealthy eating. Findings suggest that
initiation of healthy behaviors has separate executive func-
tion determinants from unhealthy behaviors that must be
avoided or inhibited to lose or maintain weight loss. These
distinctions will allow researchers to map executive func-
tions onto specific weight-related outcomes, and to generate
more informed hypotheses regarding executive function-
WLM relationships. From a clinical perspective, longitudi-
nal studies implementing standardized executive function
batteries are necessary to more thoroughly examine the
impact of executive function on long-term maintenance
success. Results of such studies will serve to inform the
design and implementation of executive-focused modules
into existing behavioral weight loss programs, with the goal
of targeting maintenance-related health behaviors that
require the greatest executive resources.
Finally, literature indicates that change in executive
function may be an important, and more consistent, pre-
dictor of weight-related behavior and weight change than
executive function measured at a single time point (Best
et al., 2014; Bryant et al., 2012; Dalle Grave et al., 2014;
Murawski et al., 2009). For example, Best et al. (2014)
report that although baseline executive function predicted
physical activity at program completion, improvements in
executive function predicted sustained behavior change,
specifically better adherence to physical activity over the
following year. In several other interventions, increased
restraint and decreased disinhibition were the only vari-
ables associated with weight loss at 12 weeks (Bryant
et al., 2012; Butryn et al., 2009), and change in inhibition is
reported as the strongest predictor of weight loss from 4 to
12 months (Butryn et al., 2009). These results hold
important clinical implications, demonstrating the potential
utility of executive function training in the context of
health-behavior interventions.
While the evidence base is still small, a complex bidi-
rectional relationship between executive function and
weight-related health behaviors appears likely (Allan et al.,
2011; Hall & Fong, 2013). Surprisingly few studies have
implemented prospective designs to draw clear causal
conclusions, therefore the mechanisms and directionality
underlying this relationship remain somewhat unclear.
Certain executive functions predict initiation of healthy
behaviors, other executive functions moderate the rela-
tionship between intention and health behavior, and chan-
690 J Behav Med (2017) 40:687–701
123
ges or improvements in executive performance, that may
subsequently predict weight loss outcomes, are reported.
Unfortunately, many of these studies were not conducted in
the context of a weight loss intervention, therefore changes
in weight or BMI were not measured as outcome variables.
Given, however, that many of the eating patterns discussed
above are associated with weight change, it is reasonable to
posit that maintaining a healthy weight requires inhibition
of desires to consume high-fat foods, and a consistent
assessment of information relevant to the weight-loss goal
at hand. To further explore the complexities of this rela-
tionship, we turn to an overview of the literature examining
the impact of weight loss on executive function.
Impact of weight loss on executive functioning
Several studies have investigated whether interventions
targeting caloric intake and weight loss might reduce the
risk of cognitive decline typically observed in mid to late
life, and lead to improvements in executive function as a
result of decreased BMI. This line of research also raises
interesting and important questions regarding the extent to
which executive function is a viable target for intervention
and whether brain structure or function might change as
executive function skills are strengthened (Alvarez &
Emory, 2006; Suchy, 2009).
Findings regarding the impact of weight loss on exec-
utive function are mixed. Few studies have implemented
prospective designs to examine the impact of decreased
calorie intake or weight loss on cognitive function,
specifically executive performance, in obese samples.
Several studies report significant negative associations
between baseline BMI and cognitive function at follow-up
(Cournot et al., 2006; Gunstad et al., 2010; Sabia et al.,
2009; Wolf et al., 2007). In an observational prospective
cohort study, Cournot et al. (2006) report that higher
baseline BMI is associated with cognitive decline at 5-year
follow-up, however no significant relationship is reported
between change in BMI and change in cognitive ability,
including measures of executive function.
Significant positive associations between weight loss
and executive function have also been reported (Bryan &
Tiggemann, 2001; Butryn et al., 2009; Green et al., 2005;
Gunstad et al., 2010; Halyburton et al., 2007; Siervo et al.,
2012; Veronese et al., 2017; Wing et al., 1995). Findings
from longitudinal behavioral weight loss interventions
generally suggest significant improvements to overall
executive function as a result of weight loss (ranging from
28-days to 12-week follow-up), however due to the range
of functions measured (e.g., inhibition, set shifting ability),
executive function variables impacted by successful weight
loss are not uniform across studies (Bryan & Tiggemann,
2001; Siervo et al., 2012; Wing et al., 1995).
Finally, evidence of null or negative effects of weight
loss on executive function, in longitudinal behavioral
weight loss and dietary interventions, is reported through-
out the literature (Bryan & Tiggemann, 2001; Cheatham
et al., 2009; Espeland et al., 2014; Green et al., 2005;
Halyburton et al., 2007; Martin et al., 2007). Negative
impacts of weight loss on executive function are often
attributed to the finite availability of cognitive resources,
and the significant amount of cognitive control utilized
during caloric restraint and preoccupation with weight loss
and/or body image (Siervo et al., 2011). For example, as
participants allocate cognitive resources to initiating heal-
thy behaviors like physical activity, and daily self-moni-
toring of food intake, they may have fewer cognitive
resources to allocate towards restraint or avoidance when
presented highly palatable snack options. Some studies
report that working memory and planning ability are neg-
atively impacted by weight loss (Cheatham et al., 2009;
Green et al., 2005), while others report no significant
impact of weight loss on executive function ability
(Espeland et al., 2014; Halyburton et al., 2007; Siervo
et al., 2012).
While the scope of this review does not allow for a
comprehensive summary of findings from the extant bar-
iatric literature, the magnitude and rate of weight loss
outcomes observed post-operatively may serve to eluci-
date, and perhaps augment, potential remediating effects of
weight loss on executive dysfunction that non-surgical
interventions have yet to demonstrate (Handley et al.,
2016; Spitznagel et al., 2015). Findings indicate that bar-
iatric surgery is associated with improved neurocognitive
outcomes, including executive function, at short-term
(12 weeks) and long-term (3 years) follow-up (Alosco
et al., 2014; Handley et al., 2016). Furthermore, executive
function performance has been shown to predict BMI
12 months post-surgery (Spitznagel et al., 2013b) and,
adjusting for baseline cognitive function scores, poorer
cognitive performance at 12 weeks post-surgery predicted
reduced weight loss at 36-month follow-up (Spitznagel
et al., 2014,2013a,2013b). Finally, a recent review of 18
bariatric studies reported change in brain activation fol-
lowing surgical weight loss, specifically associated with
improved cognitive control (Handley et al., 2016).
This body of literature also addresses potential physio-
logical mechanisms underlying the relationship between
weight loss success and executive function. Specifically,
the resolution of comorbidities associated with executive
dysfunction (e.g., sleep apnea, type 2 diabetes, and
hypertension), metabolic regulation (e.g., reduction in
insulin resistance), and changes in neurohormone levels
(e.g., leptin and ghrelin) significantly predict improved
executive function performance 1 year post-surgery
(Spitznagel et al., 2015). Additional research is needed to
J Behav Med (2017) 40:687–701 691
123
examine whether the executive function benefits exhibited
following initial weight loss, whether surgically- or
behaviorally-induced, are better sustained when weight
regain is avoided.
Overall, findings on the impact of dietary content,
weight loss, and decreased BMI on executive function
among individuals living with overweight or obesity are
somewhat equivocal. Several important limitations to the
aforementioned findings should be noted. First, the length
of interventions varied significantly from approximately
8 weeks to 8 years (Espeland et al., 2014; Halyburton
et al., 2007). A variety of diets are also prescribed for
weight loss purposes including low fat/low calorie diets
(Butryn et al., 2009; Espeland et al., 2014; Siervo et al.,
2011; Siervo et al., 2012; Wing et al., 1995), low carbo-
hydrate diets (Halyburton et al., 2007), and low glycemic
diets (Cheatham et al., 2009) that may differ in their cog-
nitive complexity. It is unclear if and how different types of
dietary restriction may impact executive function. Addi-
tionally, the stability of observed changes in executive
function due to weight loss is unknown and has not been
studied longitudinally. Whether these changes are perma-
nent or transient will be an important point of future
research and particularly crucial to intervention develop-
ment.
No studies to date have used prospective or longitudinal
designs to adequately examine executive function as a
predictor of successful long-term weight loss maintenance
in adults. Additionally, few studies have included a full,
comprehensive executive function battery, but instead have
focused on selective executive functions as they relate to
weight-specific behavior. Given the literature reviewed
thus far, and what is known regarding behavioral and
lifestyle characteristics of successful ‘‘maintainers’’ (Peir-
son et al., 2015; Phelan et al., 2009; Teixeira et al., 2010,
2015; Thomas et al., 2014; Wing & Phelan, 2005)itisnot
only reasonable, but necessary, to construct a conceptual
model of the impact executive function might have on
successful weight maintenance.
A new conceptual framework for an executive
function-weight loss maintenance model
Several models hypothesizing the role of executive func-
tioning in obesity or initial weight loss have been published
(Jauch-Chara & Oltmanns, 2014; Raman et al., 2013;
Sellbom & Gunstad, 2012) however, these models do not
map executive functions onto the specific behaviors asso-
ciated with WLM success and/or the known barriers to
WLM. Developing such a model is imperative in guiding
future research, particularly longitudinal designs, that
addresses the nature and directionality of the executive
function-WLM relationship using well-informed hypothe-
ses. Additionally, such a model provides a framework from
which researchers and clinicians might begin to consider
the impact of executive ability beyond neuropsychological
assessment, as it applies to the treatment and challenges of
successful and sustained health behavior change.
The aforementioned findings by Miyake et al. (2000)
outlining distinct core executive functions are crucial in
developing and conceptualizing a novel executive func-
tion-WLM model, as they not only demonstrate that
executive function has the potential to impact WLM in at
least three distinct ways, but that cognitive processes
underlying these relationships are likely interrelated and
may uniquely impact one another. It is clear that behavioral
and psychosocial variables associated with initial weight
loss are distinct from those associated with WLM, and that
the influence of executive function on weight loss differs
based on the specific weight-related behavior in question
(Allan et al., 2011; Allom & Mullan, 2014). It is therefore
conceivable that, in a similar fashion, executive functions
might differentially impact one’s ability to engage in and
sustain behaviors associated with successful weight loss
maintenance versus those associated with initial weight
loss. Furthermore, the impact of specific executive func-
tions may differ between different weight maintenance
behaviors.
Fundamentally, a conceptual executive function-WLM
model might propose that executive function, as a resource
that facilitates self-regulatory processes (Hofmann et al.,
2012), impacts or predicts health outcomes via distinct
health-related behaviors (see Fig. 1). Specific behaviors
associated with successful weight loss or WLM may act as
mediators through which executive function impacts indi-
vidual differences in the ability to maintain weight loss
over time. In order to outline such a model, it is important
to first consider the three core components of executive
function previously mentioned: shifting, updating, and
inhibition (Miyake et al., 2000), and subsequently consider
the specific health behaviors, or mediators, uniquely asso-
ciated with WLM (Byrne, 2002; Elfhag & Ro
¨ssner, 2005;
Svetkey et al., 2008; Teixeira et al., 2010,2015; Thomas
et al., 2014; Williams et al., 1996; Wing & Phelan, 2005).
Updating is defined as the ability to code and monitor
new information as it becomes relevant to the goal at hand.
Updating allows for active manipulation of relevant
information in working memory (Miyake et al., 2000).
Planning is a behavior associated with successful WLM
and likely to be impacted by updating ability. Planning
ability ensures dietary, exercise, and other weight man-
agement goals are more likely to be met in novel situations
when advanced preparation of healthy meals is not feasible
(e.g. restaurant eating or attending social events with novel
food choices). Individuals who set goals in advance, or
692 J Behav Med (2017) 40:687–701
123
have practice in spontaneous action planning, are likely
better suited to make dietary choices that are concordant
with WLM goals. Meals must also be planned to meet
specific nutritional needs while fitting specific dietary
restraints. Additionally, successful maintenance requires
significant and consistent monitoring of potential dietary
EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS MAINTENANCE BEHAVIORS OUTCOME
(Miyake et al., 2000) (Mediators)
(Moderators)
Shifting
Updating
Inhibition/Initiation
Initial Weight Loss
Long-Term Weight
Loss Maintenance
Incorporate variety in exercise
routine
Shift to smaller portions
Increased decisional balance
(pros/cons)
Self-Monitoring*
Thinking about progress
Planning meals in
advance/avoid skipping meals
Decreased disinhibited eating
Initiate research on weight loss,
nutrition & exercise
Initiate participation in a weight
loss program
Override impulse for unhealthy
choices
Flexible dietary restraint
Intention-behavior gap for
snacking
Hunger vs. Satiety
Setting realistic goals
Delay of gratification
Self-Monitoring*
Reminding yourself of weight
goals
Adaptive and Spontaneous
action planning (Restaurant &
Social Eating)
Habituation decreased
effortful inhibition
Physical activity routine
Initial weight loss success
Inhibition of unhealthy behavior
(e.g., TV watching)
Initiation of healthy behaviors
(e.g., exercise)
Fig. 1 A preliminary conceptual model of the impact of executive functions on successful weight control. The model outlines the potential role
of executive functions as moderators of specific behaviors implicated in two distinct phases of the weight management process: (1) initial weight
loss and (2) long-term weight loss maintenance. *Behaviors implicated in both initial weight loss and weight loss maintenance
J Behav Med (2017) 40:687–701 693
123
slips to detect and compensate for small weight fluctuations
before they become significant regains. Consistent self-
monitoring practices have been documented as one of the
strongest predictors of WLM, including daily self-weigh-
ing, calorie tracking, and physical activity (Anderson et al.,
2001; Barte et al., 2010; Bond et al., 2009; Butryn et al.,
2007; Dombrowski et al., 2014; Peirson et al., 2015; Phelan
et al., 2009; Teixeira et al., 2010). Self-monitoring can
reasonably be considered a process closely related to
updating ability. Goal-relevant information obtained
through the monitoring process is precisely the information
that must be actively manipulated to help individuals assess
which health behaviors promote weight maintenance, and
which behaviors lead to weight fluctuations or gains.
Shifting, also referred to as ‘‘task shifting’’ or attention
shifting, is defined as the ability to disengage from goal-
irrelevant tasks or activities and subsequently engage in a
new, relevant task set. Shifting from one task to the next
also requires overcoming interference from the previous
task, and avoiding perseverations or repeating behaviors
that no longer fit the new goal (Miyake et al., 2000). As it
relates to WLM, task shifting allows individuals to tem-
porarily disengage from self-regulatory behaviors that are
consistently enacted to flexibly accommodate changing
environmental or social influences. In other words, shifting
may allow those attempting maintenance to manage short-
term and long-term weight-related goals by making adap-
tive decisions as their environment and goals fluctuate over
time. Research indicates that individuals engaging in
weight loss or weight loss maintenance, who allow them-
selves to temporarily disengage from strict dietary restraint
without feeling remorse, thereby approaching the WLM
process with ‘‘flexible dietary restraint’’, are more suc-
cessful maintainers than those with ‘‘rigid restraint’’ pat-
terns (Hofmann et al., 2012; Kiernan et al., 2013; Teixeira
et al., 2010). As noted previously, research also suggests
that task switching and flexibility predict intention-behav-
ior gaps in snacking behavior (Allan et al., 2011). It should
be noted that there is a fine line between adaptive methods
of shifting and complete disengagement from the goal at
hand (i.e. regain). Therefore, employing balanced flexibil-
ity likely recruits a host of cognitive resources that
undoubtedly overlap with other executive functions such as
inhibition, control, and planning.
Finally, inhibition, formally defined as the ability to
override a dominant, automatic, or prepotent response, is
highly implicated in initial weight loss, and certainly
contributes significantly to sustained WLM. Despite an
abundance of evidence that inhibition and initiation predict
distinct dietary behaviors, it is crucial to consider how
inhibition and initiation might predict WLM. Inhibition
plays an important role in overriding habits and impulses to
consume high-fat palatable foods (Hofmann et al., 2012).
Elfhag and Ro
¨ssner (2005) report that compared to indi-
viduals who regain, successful maintainers demonstrate
less dietary fat intake, reduced frequency of snacking, and
adaptive management of cravings. Successful maintainers
initiate more health behaviors, including consistent physi-
cal activity, and consumption of fruits and vegetables.
Notably, initiation appears to be one of the most frequently
studied executive functions in the obesity literature, yet
many studies have measured dietary restraint and disinhi-
bition using the self-report Three Factor Eating Question-
naire. When studies have measured executive function with
neuropsychological tests the Stroop or Go-No-Go tasks are
cited most frequently. Several studies report that successful
weight loss maintainers exhibit slowed reaction time and
greater interference on Stroop paradigms using high-fat
food cues compared to participants with obesity and nor-
mal weight controls (Allan et al., 2011; Phelan et al.,
2011). These findings suggest that maintainers may be
employing greater executive resources to resist high fat
foods, leading to increased salience of palatable food cues,
however the directionality and predictive nature of inhi-
bition on maintenance cannot be established from cross-
sectional designs. The interaction between implicit pref-
erence for snack foods and baseline response inhibition
also predicts weight regain over 1 year, such that partici-
pants with lower response inhibition gain more weight
(Daly et al., 2015; Nederkoorn et al., 2010). The impact of
inhibition on successful maintenance over time remains to
be studied.
Mapping core executive functions onto behaviors
known to be associated with, and predictive of WLM, is a
necessary step in further understanding the cognitive
underpinnings of long term weight loss maintenance from a
neuropsychological perspective. Research by Wing and
Phelan (2005) suggests that successful maintainers engage
in the aforementioned behaviors (or mediators) to a greater
extreme than their always normal-weight counterparts,
indicating that these behaviors are a crucial focus for future
executive function research. Evidence of shared variance
between the components of executive function indicates
that future research in this area must also consider the
extent to which executive functions might interact or
impact one another, and the influence such interactions
might have on WLM outcomes.
Treatment implications and future directions
Integration of health and neuropsychological approaches to
weight control holds undeniable implications for clinical
practice. The challenge of understanding successful weight
loss maintenance requires a closer look at the cognitive
underpinnings associated with the weight management
694 J Behav Med (2017) 40:687–701
123
process. The literature outlined thus far provides sufficient
evidence to suggest that adults with obesity exhibit deficits
in executive function, and that executive performance has
clear connections to skills that are necessary to succeed in
weight management and long-term maintenance.
Weight loss maintenance has become an important focus
for intervention design and implementation. Behavioral
weight loss programs focusing on both diet and physical
activity resulted in a -1.56 kg difference at 12-month
follow-up compared to controls (Dombrowski et al., 2014),
however these interventions clearly lack elements of cog-
nitive or executive function training. In part, this may be
due to difficulty appropriately incorporating individual-
level, biological, or neurocognitive correlates of health
behavior (e.g., executive function), into large-scale treat-
ment studies. If executive function can be trained in adults
with obesity, and training in one realm of executive func-
tion may generalize to other executive functions, there
exists immense clinical potential that will directly impact
the development and design of WLM interventions. In fact,
preliminary evidence suggests that cognitive training, and
some executive function-specific interventions, have suc-
cessfully promoted health behavior change in other clinical
populations, including binge eating disorder (BED), breast
cancer patients, pediatric overweight and obesity, and
ADHD patients (Grilo & Masheb, 2005; Halperin et al.,
2013; Hannesdottir et al., 2014; Juarascio, et al., 2015;
Kesler et al., 2013; Tamm et al., 2014; Verbeken et al.,
2013).
Aforementioned findings from the bariatric literature,
and low rates of successful weight loss maintenance
demonstrated in standard behavioral interventions, speak to
the importance of incorporating sensitive standardized
measures of executive function to capture changes in
executive function over time. Neuropsychological batteries
that tap multiple executive functions and allow for both
fixed and flexible testing approaches, include the Neu-
ropsychological Assessment Battery (NAB) (White &
Stern, 2003), the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System
(DKEFS) (Delis et al., 2004), and the NIH Toolbox Cog-
nition Battery (Weintraub et al., 2013). Careful consider-
ation should also be given to the idea that engagement of
executive function may be context specific, such that high
executive function scores on standardized neuropsycho-
logical measures may not translate directly to successful
implementation of weight management behaviors. A true
understanding of the impact of executive function on suc-
cessful weight loss maintenance should include measures
of executive skills as they apply specifically to the behavior
of interest, and may require the development of novel
measures tapping specific weight loss maintenance skills
(e.g., eating-specific impulsivity) (Liang et al., 2014). Our
model may provide a preliminary foundation on which to
conceptualize and further develop weight management-
specific measures of executive function.
Several studies suggest training cognitive behavioral
(CBT) and cognitive remediation (CRT) strategies assist
in weight management and improve symptoms of BED
(Cooper et al., 2010; Grilo & Masheb, 2005; Raman
et al., 2014). Family members of participants enrolled in a
CBT-based weight loss program have also exhibited
improved food choices and increased motivation for
physical activity (Grilo & Masheb, 2005; Rossini et al.,
2011). Such findings indicate that targeting cognitive
processes more generally, such as cognitive restructuring,
as they relate specifically to weight-control behaviors,
may be an important and viable treatment strategy to
fortify behaviors implicated in successful maintenance
(e.g., increased physical activity). These findings also
indicate that targeting behaviors that engage executive
functions specifically, within the context of a traditional
weight loss program, may be equally promising. In fact,
there is interesting, though preliminary, evidence to sug-
gest that executive functions can be improved if trained
early in children. Particularly among children exhibiting
the greatest difficulties in executive skills, early training
holds the potential to significantly impact a child’s aca-
demic success, mental health, and physical health trajec-
tories later in life (Diamond & Lee, 2011; Diamond et al.,
2016). Perhaps most encouraging are findings from a
recent study conducted with adolescents receiving inpa-
tient treatment for morbid obesity. Results demonstrate
that children with obesity who participate in a computer-
based executive function training game show significantly
greater improvements in WLM and executive function
skills up to 8-weeks post-inpatient treatment compared to
children with obesity in the non-executive function
training group. Notably, WLM benefits were no longer
observed at 12-week follow-up (Verbeken et al., 2013).
Few studies to date have examined the impact of execu-
tive function training over time in a population with
overweight or obesity, however recent longitudinal inter-
ventions and ongoing trials have begun to focus on
training self-regulatory skills specific to the weight loss
process (Forman et al., 2016; Miller et al., 2012;
Warschburger, 2015; Wing et al., 2016).
Paucity of executive function-training interventions for
adults, particularly in the context of weight control inter-
ventions, leaves many questions for future research
regarding the efficacy of such training in the context of
standard behavioral weight loss programs. One crucial
question for future intervention design is whether executive
functions are malleable among adults, and if so, whether
there are critical windows for intervention across the
lifespan. It may also be important to consider whether
variability in mid-life executive performance impacts
J Behav Med (2017) 40:687–701 695
123
individual efforts towards successful weight loss mainte-
nance.
As executive function-training interventions are
designed with the goal of improving weight loss mainte-
nance outcomes, participants might also be encouraged to
practice specific cognitive skills that strengthen aspects of
executive function closely tied to the WLM process. Par-
ticipants should be aware that situations in which executive
resources are in high demand or become depleted might
lead to plateaus or changes in weight loss or WLM pro-
gress. Appelhans et al. (2016) recently proposed a neu-
robehavioral intervention model for targeting and curbing
temptation in the context of weight control programs.
Importantly, the neurobehavioral model outlined by
Appelhans et al. (2016), serves to highlight the crucial role
that executive functions play in temptation prevention and
temptation resistance by organizing intervention strategies
by how taxing or demanding each strategy is on executive
capacity. Such a model is complementary to our own
executive function-WLM model, as it lends strong evi-
dence for the need to map specific WLM behavioral
strategies onto specific executive skills, in order to design
and implement similar interventions, not only for tempta-
tion avoidance, but specifically tailored towards improved
long-term weight loss. As research in the field progresses,
and novel intervention approaches consider incorporating
executive function training, understanding and distin-
guishing executive functions that are most responsive to
training and those executive functions most essential for
successful WLM will be crucial. As noted by Allom and
Mullan (2014), superior executive function does not nec-
essarily lead to expertise and ease across all health-related
behavior change.
Our model attempts to bridge important gaps between
neuropsychological and behavioral approaches to the
weight loss maintenance dilemma, in the hopes of pro-
viding novel perspectives and provide a framework for the
development and implementation of novel treatment
approaches. Given the purpose and extent of this model,
there are several important areas of successful weight
maintenance that fall beyond the scope of this framework.
We acknowledge that there are strategies proven to predict
and assist in successful WLM, including strong social
support networks, psychosocial stressors, and individual
coping strategies that are not addressed or accounted for in
our model. For example, research suggests that adults liv-
ing with obesity are more likely to be depressed than non-
obese adults, 43% of U.S adults with depression are living
with obesity, and in every age group, women with
depression are more likely to have obesity than women
without depression (Pratt & Brody, 2014). This is prob-
lematic given that the majority of weight-related inter-
ventions implement strict exclusion criteria including
history of psychiatric comorbidity, and therefore results
may not generalize to community samples. From a cogni-
tive perspective, assessing depression history in patients
entering a WLM intervention is essential given the well-
documented impact of major depressive disorder (MDD)
on cognitive and executive function (Lam et al., 2014;
Snyder, 2013). Psychiatric comorbidities will likely influ-
ence individuals’ executive function performance, but the
exact nature of such influences, combined with initial
weight loss, on maintenance success, is unclear.
Additionally, the interaction and relationship between
other health behavior changes, like physical activity, that
are known to impact both cognitive function and contribute
to successful long term maintenance should be carefully
considered. In adults, the positive impact of physical
activity on executive function and general cognitive func-
tion is well documented (Chan et al., 2013; Daly et al.,
2015; Hayes, et al., 2014; McAuley et al., 2013). The vast
majority of weight loss and WLM programs implement
physical activity regimens, therefore the influence of
exercise on executive function and WLM should be clearly
distinguished and separately examined from influences of
physical activity and executive function on WLM concor-
dantly.
Conclusion
True integration of behavioral and neuropsychological
approaches to weight management will first require the
establishment of field-unifying theories in guiding future
research on executive function and WLM. Despite evi-
dence linking executive function to general health out-
comes, cognitive models of health behavior change are
largely dominated by social-cognitive approaches, and few
neuropsychological theories have guided weight manage-
ment research. Weight-related health behavior change,
particularly WLM, is inarguably a complicated process
with many biopsychosocial contributors. As evidenced by
this review, WLM may be uniquely challenging due to the
significant amount of high-order neurocognitive resources
recruited over extended periods of time. Despite increased
awareness of the difficulties associated with WLM, a true
understanding of successful, long-term change continues to
elude the obesity field. The challenge of improving main-
tenance outcomes calls for novel research and clinical
approaches. Acknowledging neuropsychological mediators
and moderators of WLM is crucial in moving the obesity
field toward increased integration and impactful treatment
designs. Cognitive processes defined as executive function
appear to be particularly integral to the weight control
process, and are therefore an excellent target for future
WLM research.
696 J Behav Med (2017) 40:687–701
123
A focus on neuropsychological factors in weight control
and WLM, using a compilation of self-report, task-based,
and neuroimaging measures will allow for neuropsycho-
logical approaches to be incorporated into traditional gold-
standard behavioral treatment. Increased collaboration will
also allow health psychologist and neuropsychologists to
answer many of the remaining questions regarding the
immense potential of executive function-based training on
sustained health-behavior change.
Currently, research on the executive function-WLM
relationship is sparse. Few attempts have been made to
implement task-based measures of executive function in
prospective, longitudinal obesity studies, and discussion of
executive function-based training in the context of weight
loss and WLM intervention is newly emerging. Current
cross-sectional designs allow for conclusions that are, at
best, suggestive of causal executive function-WLM rela-
tionships. Innovative approaches are necessary to progress
our knowledge of successful weight loss maintenance in
the obesity field, but will require a willingness to integrate
diverse and novel perspectives into current weight control
treatment and research.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Grant
NCT02570009 from National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. The
authors also thank Deborah Fein, Ph.D., Dean Cruess, Ph.D., Kate
Boudreau, and Arielle Sherman-Golembeski.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest Katelyn M. Gettens, and Amy A. Gorin declares
that they have no conflict of interest.
Human and animal rights and Informed consent All procedures
followed were in accordance with ethical standards of the responsible
committee on human experimentation (institutional and national) and
with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000. Informed
consent was obtained from all patients for being included in the study.
References
Allan, J. L., Johnston, M., & Campbell, N. (2011). Missed by an inch
or a mile? Predicting the size of intention-behaviour gap from
measures of executive control. Psychology & Health, 26,
635–650.
Allom, V., & Mullan, B. (2014). Individual differences in executive
function predict distinct eating behaviours. Appetite, 80,
123–130.
Alosco, M. L., Galioto, R., Spitznagel, M. B., Strain, G., Devin, M.,
Cohen, R., et al. (2014). Cognitive function following bariatric
surgery: Evidence for improvement 3 years post-surgery. Amer-
ican Journal of Surgery, 207, 870–876.
Alvarez, J. A., & Emory, E. (2006). Executive function and the frontal
lobes: A meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology Review, 16, 17–42.
Anderson, J. W., Konz, E. C., Frederich, R. C., & Wood, C. L. (2001).
Long-term weight-loss maintenance: A meta-analysis of US
studies. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 74,
579–584.
Appelhans, B. M., French, S. A., Pagoto, S. L., & Sherwood, N. E.
(2016). Managing temptation in obesity treatment: A neurobe-
havioral model of intervention strategies. Appetite, 96, 268–279.
Barte, J. C. M., Ter Bogt, N. C. W., Bogers, R. P., Teixeira, P. J.,
Blissmer, B., Mori, T. A., et al. (2010). Maintenance of weight
loss after lifestyle interventions for overweight and obesity, a
systematic review. Obesity Reviews, 11, 899–906.
Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Self-regulation and the
executive function of the self. Handbook of self and identity, 1,
197–217.
Best, J. R., Nagamatsu, L. S., & Liu-Ambrose, T. (2014). Improve-
ments to executive function during exercise training predict
maintenance of physical activity over the following year.
Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 353.
Boeka, A. G., & Lokken, K. L. (2008). Neuropsychological perfor-
mance of a clinical sample of extremely obese individuals.
Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 23, 467–474.
Bond, D. S., Phelan, S., Leahey, T. M., Hill, J. O., & Wing, R. R.
(2009). Weight-loss maintenance in successful weight losers:
Surgical vs non-surgical methods. International Journal of
Obesity, 33, 173–180.
Booker, L., & Mullan, B. (2013). Using the temporal self-regulation
theory to examine the influence of environmental cues on
maintaining a healthy lifestyle. British Journal of Health
Psychology, 18, 745–762.
Brogan, A., Hevey, D., O’Callaghan, G., Yoder, R., & O’Shea, D.
(2011). Impaired decision making among morbidly obese adults.
Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 70, 189–196.
Bryan, J., & Tiggemann, M. (2001). The effect of weight-loss dieting
on cognitive performance and psychological well-being in
overweight women. Appetite, 36, 147–156.
Bryant, E. J., Caudwell, P., Hopkins, M. E., King, N. A., & Blundell,
J. E. (2012). Psycho-markers of weight loss. The roles of TFEQ
disinhibition and restraint in exercise-induced weight manage-
ment. Appetite, 58, 234–241.
Butryn, M. L., Phelan, S., Hill, J. O., & Wing, R. R. (2007).
Consistent self-monitoring of weight: A key component of
successful weight loss maintenance. Obesity, 15, 3091–3096.
Butryn, M. L., Thomas, J. G., & Lowe, M. R. (2009). Reductions in
internal disinhibition during weight loss predict better weight
loss maintenance. Obesity, 17, 1101–1103.
Byrne, S. M. (2002). Psychological aspects of weight maintenance
and relapse in obesity. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53,
1029–1036.
Chan, J. S., Yan, J. H., & Payne, V. G. (2013). The impact of obesity
and exercise on cognitive aging. Frontiers in Aging Neuro-
science, 5, 97.
Cheatham, R. A., Roberts, S. B., Das, S. K., Gilhooly, C. H., Golden,
J. K., Hyatt, R., et al. (2009). Long-term effects of provided low
and high glycemic load low energy diets on mood and cognition.
Physiology & Behavior, 98, 374–379.
Cooper, Z., Doll, H. A., Hawker, D. M., Byrne, S., Bonner, G., Eeley,
E., et al. (2010). Testing a new cognitive behavioural treatment
for obesity: A randomized controlled trial with three-year
follow-up. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48, 706–713.
Cournot, M., Marquie, J. C., Ansiau, D., Martinaud, C., Fonds, H.,
Ferrieres, J., et al. (2006). Relation between body mass index and
cognitive function in healthy middle-aged men and women.
Neurology, 67, 1208–1214.
Cserjesi, R., Luminet, O., Poncelet, A. S., & Lenard, L. (2009).
Altered executive function in obesity. Exploration of the role of
affective states on cognitive abilities. Appetite, 52, 535–539.
Dalle Grave, R., Calugi, S., & Marchesini, G. (2014). The influence of
cognitive factors in the treatment of obesity: Lessons from the
QUOVADIS study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 63,
157–161.
J Behav Med (2017) 40:687–701 697
123
Daly, M., McMinn, D., & Allan, J. L. (2015). A bidirectional
relationship between physical activity and executive function in
older adults. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 1044.
Davis, C., Levitan, R. D., Muglia, P., Bewell, C., & Kennedy, J. L.
(2004). Decision-making deficits and overeating: A risk model
for obesity. Obesity Research, 12, 929–935.
Delis, D. C., Kramer, J. H., Kaplan, E., & Holdnack, J. (2004).
Reliability and validity of the Delis–Kaplan executive function
system: An update. Journal of the International Neuropsycho-
logical Society: JINS, 10, 301–303.
Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive
function development in children 4–12 years old. Science (New
York, NY), 333, 959–964.
Diamond, A., McCardle, P., Freund, L., & Griffin, J. (2016). Why
improving and assessing executive functions early in life is critical.
In Executive function in preschool age children: Integrating
measurement, neurodevelopment and translational research. Wash-
ington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Dombrowski, S. U., Knittle, K., Avenell, A., Arau
´jo-Soares, V., &
Sniehotta, F. F. (2014). Long term maintenance of weight loss
with non-surgical interventions in obese adults: Systematic
review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials. BMJ,
348.
Elfhag, K., & Ro
¨ssner, S. (2005). Who succeeds in maintaining
weight loss? A conceptual review of factors associated with
weight loss maintenance and weight regain. Obesity Reviews, 6,
67–85.
Espeland, M. A., Rapp, S. R., Bray, G. A., Houston, D. K., Johnson,
K. C., Kitabchi, A. E., et al. (2014). Long-term impact of
behavioral weight loss intervention on cognitive function. The
Journals of Gerontology: Series A: Biological Sciences and
Medical Sciences, 69A, 1101–1108.
Fagundo, A. B., de la Torre R, Jime
´nez-Murcia, S., Agu
¨era, Z.,
Granero, R., Ta
´rrega, S., & Ferna
´ndez-Aranda, F. (2012).
Executive functions profile in extreme eating/weight conditions:
From anorexia nervosa to obesity. PLoS ONE, 7
Fergenbaum, J. H., Bruce, S., Lou, W., Hanley, A. J., Greenwood, C.,
& Young, T. K. (2009). Obesity and lowered cognitive
performance in a Canadian first nations population. Obesity
(Silver Spring, Md.), 17, 1957–1963.
Finkelstein, E. A., Brown, D. S., Wrage, L. A., Allaire, B. T., &
Hoerger, T. J. (2010). Individual and aggregate years-of-life-lost
associated with overweight and obesity. Obesity (Silver Spring,
Md.), 18, 333–339.
Finkelstein, E. A., Khavjou, O. A., Thompson, H., Trogdon, J. G.,
Pan, L., Sherry, B., et al. (2012). Obesity and severe obesity
forecasts through 2030. American Journal of Preventive
Medicine, 42, 563–570.
Fitzpatrick, S., Gilbert, S., & Serpell, L. (2013). Systematic review:
Are overweight and obese individuals impaired on behavioural
tasks of executive functioning? Neuropsychology Review, 23,
138–156.
Fitzpatrick, A. L., Kuller, L. H., Lopez, O. L., et al. (2009). Midlife
and late-life obesity and the risk of dementia: Cardiovascular
health study. Archives of Neurology, 66, 336–342.
Flegal, K. M., Kruszon-Moran, D., Carroll, M. D., Fryar, C. D., &
Ogden, C. L. (2016). Trends in obesity among adults in the
united states, 2005 to 2014. Journal of the American Medical
Association, 315, 2284–2291.
Forman, E. M., Butryn, M. L., Manasse, S. M., Crosby, R. D.,
Goldstein, S. P., Wyckoff, E. P., et al. (2016). Acceptance-based
versus standard behavioral treatment for obesity: Results from
the mind your health randomized controlled trial. Obesity, 24,
2050–2056.
Fryar, C. D., Carroll, M. D., & Ogden, C. L. (2015). Prevalence of
overweight, obesity, and extreme obesity among adults: United
States, trends 19601962 through 20092010. Centers for
disease control and prevention, September 2012.
Green, M. W., Elliman, N. A., & Kretsch, M. J. (2005). Weight loss
strategies, stress, and cognitive function: Supervised versus
unsupervised dieting. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30, 908–918.
Grilo, C. M., & Masheb, R. M. (2005). A randomized controlled
comparison of guided self-help cognitive behavioral therapy and
behavioral weight loss for binge eating disorder. Behaviour
Research and Therapy, 43, 1509–1525.
Gunstad, J., Lhotsky, A., Wendell, C. R., Ferrucci, L., & Zonderman,
A. B. (2010). Longitudinal examination of obesity and cognitive
function: Results from the baltimore longitudinal study of aging.
Neuroepidemiology, 34, 222–229.
Gunstad, J., Paul, R. H., Cohen, R. A., Tate, D. F., Spitznagel, M. B.,
& Gordon, E. (2007). Elevated body mass index is associated
with executive dysfunction in otherwise healthy adults. Com-
prehensive Psychiatry, 48, 57–61.
Gustafson, D. (2008). A life course of adiposity and dementia.
European Journal of Pharmacology, 585, 163–175.
Guxens, M., Mendez, M. A., Julvez, J., Plana, E., Forns, J., Basagan
˜a,
X., et al. (2009). Cognitive function and overweight in preschool
children. American Journal of Epidemiology. doi:10.1093/aje/
kwp140
Hall, P. A., Elias, L. J., & Crossley, M. (2006). Neurocognitive
influences on health behavior in a community sample. Health
Psychology, 25, 778–782.
Hall, P. A., & Fong, G. T. (2013). Conscientiousness versus executive
function as predictors of health behaviors and health trajectories.
Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 45, 398–399.
Hall, P. A., Fong, G. T., & Epp, L. J. (2008). Executive function
moderates the intention–behavior link for physical activity and
dietary behavior. Psychology & Health, 23, 309–326.
Halperin, J. M., Marks, D. J., Bedard, A. C., Chacko, A., Curchack, J.
T., Yoon, C. A., et al. (2013). Training executive, attention, and
motor skills: A proof-of-concept study in preschool children with
ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 17, 711–721.
Halyburton, A. K., Brinkworth, G. D., Wilson, C. J., Noakes, M.,
Buckley, J. D., Keogh, J. B., et al. (2007). Low- and high-
carbohydrate weight-loss diets have similar effects on mood but
not cognitive performance. The American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition, 86, 580–587.
Handley, J. D., Williams, D. M., Caplin, S., Stephens, J. W., & Barry,
J. (2016). Changes in cognitive function following bariatric
surgery: A systematic review. Obesity Surgery, 26, 2530–2537.
Hannesdottir, D. K., Ingvarsdottir, E., & Bjornsson, A. (2014). The
OutSMARTers program for children with ADHD: A pilot study
on the effects of social skills, self-regulation, and executive
function training. Journal of Attention Disorders. doi:10.1177/
1087054713520617.
Hayes, S. M., Alosco, M. L., & Forman, D. E. (2014). The effects of
aerobic exercise on cognitive and neural decline in aging and
cardiovascular disease. Current Geriatrics Reports, 3, 282–290.
Hofmann, W., Schmeichel, B. J., & Baddeley, A. D. (2012).
Executive functions and self-regulation. Trends in Cognitive
Sciences, 16, 174–180.
Jansen, J. M., Daams, J. G., Koeter, M. W. J., Veltman, D. J., van den
Brink, W., & Groudiaan, A. E. (2013). Effects of non-invasive
neurostimulation on craving: a meta-analysis. Neuroscience and
Biobehavioral Reviews, 37, 2472–2480.
Jauch-Chara, K., & Oltmanns, K. M. (2014). Obesity—A neuropsy-
chological disease? systematic review and neuropsychological
model. Progress in Neurobiology, 114, 84–101.
Juarascio, A. S., Manasse, S. M., Espel, H. M., Kerrigan, S. G., &
Forman, E. M. (2015). Could training executive function
improve treatment outcomes for eating disorders? Appetite, 90,
187–193.
698 J Behav Med (2017) 40:687–701
123
Kesler, S., Hadi Hosseini, S. M., Heckler, C., Janelsins, M., Palesh,
O., Mustian, K., et al. (2013). Cognitive training for improving
executive function in chemotherapy-treated breast cancer sur-
vivors. Clinical Breast Cancer, 13, 299–306.
Kiernan, M., Brown, S. D., Schoffman, D. E., Lee, K., King, A. C.,
Taylor, C. B., et al. (2013). Promoting healthy weight with
‘stability skills first’: A randomized trial. Journal of Consulting
and Clinical Psychology, 81, 336–346.
Kivipelto, M., Ngandu, T., Fratiglioni, L., et al. (2005). OBesity and
vascular risk factors at midlife and the risk of dementia and
alzheimer disease. Archives of Neurology, 62, 1556–1560.
Kuijer, R., de Ridder, D., Ouwehand, C., Houx, B., & van den Houx,
B. (2008). Dieting as a case of behavioural decision making:
Does self-control matter? Appetite, 51, 506–511.
Lam, R. W., Kennedy, S. H., McIntyre, R. S., & Khullar, A. (2014).
Cognitive dysfunction in major depressive disorder: Effects on
psychosocial functioning and implications for treatment. Cana-
dian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie,
59, 649–654.
Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., Loring, D. W., Hannay, H. J., &
Fischer, J. S. (2012). Neuropsychological assessment (4th ed.).
New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Liang, J., Methson, B. E., Kaye, W. H., & Boutelle, K. N. (2014).
Neurocognitive correlates of obesity and obesity-related behav-
iors in children and adolescents. International Journal of
Obesity, 38, 494–506.
Limbers, C. A., & Young, D. (2015). Executive functions and
consumption of fruits/vegetables and high saturated fat foods in
young adults. Journal of Health Psychology, 20, 602–611.
Loprinzi, P. D., Herod, S. M., Walker, J. F., Cardinal, B. J., Mahoney,
S. E., & Kane, C. (2015). Development of a conceptual model
for smoking cessation: physical activity, neurocognition, and
executive functioning. Research Quarterly or Exercise and
Sport, 86, 338–346.
MacLean, P. S., Wing, R. R., Davidson, T., Epstein, L., Goodpaster,
B., Hall, K. D., et al. (2015). NIH working group report:
Innovative research to improve maintenance of weight loss.
Obesity, 23, 7–15.
Manasse, S. M., Espel, H. M., Forman, E. M., Ruocco, A. C.,
Juarascio, A. S., Butryn, M. L., et al. (2015a). The independent
and interacting effects of hedonic hunger and executive function
on binge eating. Appetite, 89, 16–21.
Manasse, S. M., Forman, E. M., Ruocco, A. C., Butryn, M. L.,
Juarascio, A. S., & Fitzpatrick, K. K. (2015b). Do executive
functioning deficits underpin binge eating disorder? A compar-
ison of overweight women with and without binge eating
pathology. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 48,
677–683.
Manasse, S. M., Juarascio, A. S., Forman, E. M., Berner, L. A.,
Butryn, M. L., & Ruocco, A. C. (2014). Executive functioning in
overweight individuals with and without loss-of-control eating.
European Eating Disorders Review, 22, 373–377.
Marteau, T. M., & Hall, P. A. (2013). Breadlines, brains, and
behaviour. BMJ,347, 1–2.
Martin, C. K., Anton, S. D., Han, H., York-Crowe, E., Redman, L. M.,
Ravussin, E., et al. (2007). Examination of cognitive function
during six months of calorie restriction: Results of a randomized
controlled trial. Rejuvenation Research, 10, 179–189.
McAuley, E., Mullen, S. P., & Hillman, C. H. (2013). Physical
activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, and cognition across the
lifespan. In P. A. Hall (Ed.), Social neuroscience and public
health: Foudnations for the science of chronic disease preven-
tion (pp. 235–252). New York, NY: Springer.
McGuire, M. T., Wing, R. R., Klem, M. L., Lang, W., & Hill, J. O.
(1999). What predicts weight regain in a group of successful
weight losers? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,
67, 177–185.
Miller, A. L., Horodynski, M. A., Herb Brophy, H. E., Peterson, K. E.,
Contreras, D., Kaciroti, N., et al. (2012). Enhancing self-
regulation as a strategy for obesity prevention in head start
preschoolers: The growing healthy study. Biomed Central Public
Health, 12, 1040.
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H.,
Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of
executive functions and their contributions to complex ‘‘Frontal
lobe’’ tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology,
41, 49–100.
Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J.,
Harrington, H., et al. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control
predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, 108, 2693–2698.
Murawski, M. E., Milsom, V. A., Ross, K. M., Rickel, K. A.,
DeBraganza, N., Gibbons, L. M., et al. (2009). Problem solving,
treatment adherence, and weight-loss outcome among women
participating in lifestyle treatment for obesity. Eating Behaviors,
10, 146–151.
Murdaugh, D. L., Cox, C. E., Cook, E. W., & Weller, R. E. (2012).
fMRI reactivity to high-calorie food pictures predicts short- and
long-term outcome in a weight-loss program. Neuroimage, 58,
2709–2721.
Nederkoorn, C., Houben, K., Hofmann, W., Roefs, A., & Jansen, A.
(2010). Control yourself or just eat what you like? Weight gain
over a year is predicted by an interactive effect of response
inhibition and implicit preference for snack foods. Health
Psychology, 29, 389–393.
Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Kit, B. K., & Flegal, K. M. (2012).
Prevalence of obesity and trends in body mass index among us
children and adolescents, 1999–2010. JAMA, 307, 483–490.
Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Kit, B. K., & Flegal, K. M. (2014).
Prevalence of childhood and adult obesity in the united states,
2011–2012. JAMA, 311, 806–814.
Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Lawman, H. G., Fryar, C. D., Kruszon-
Moran, D., Kit, B. K., et al. (2016). Trends in obesity prevalence
among children and adolescents in the united states, 1988–1994
through 2013–2014. JAMA, 315, 2292–2299.
Peirson, L., Fitzpatrick-Lewis, D., Ciliska, D., Usman Ali, M., Raina,
P., & Sherifali, D. (2015). Strategies for weight maintenance in
adult populations treated for overweight and obesity: A system-
atic review and meta-analysis. CMAJ Open, 3, E47–54.
Phelan, S., Hassenstab, J., McCaffery, J. M., Sweet, L., Raynor, H. A.,
Cohen, R. A., et al. (2011). Cognitive interference from food
cues in weight loss maintainers, normal weight, and obese
individuals. Obesity, 19, 69–73.
Phelan, S., Liu, T., Gorin, A., Lowe, M., Hogan, J., Fava, J., et al.
(2009). What distinguishes weight-loss maintainers from the
treatment-seeking obese? Analysis of environmental, behavioral,
and psychosocial variables in diverse populations. Annals of
Behavioral Medicine, 38, 94–104.
Pieper, J. R., & Laugero, K. D. (2013). Preschool children with lower
executive function may be more vulnerable to emotional-based
eating in the absence of hunger. Appetite, 62, 103–109.
Pratt, L. A., & Brody, D. J. (2014). Depression and obesity in the U.S.
adult household population, 2005–2010. NCHSDataBrief,167,1–8.
Prickett, C., Brennan, L., & Stolwyk, R. (2015). Examining the
relationship between obesity and cognitive function: A system-
atic literature review. Obesity Research & Clinical Practice, 9,
93–113.
Raman, J., Hay, P., & Smith, E. (2014). Manualised cognitive
remediation therapy for adult obesity: Study protocol for a
randomised controlled trial. Trials, 15, 426.
J Behav Med (2017) 40:687–701 699
123
Raman, J., Smith, E., & Hay, P. (2013). The clinical obesity
maintenance model: An integration of psychological constructs
including mood, emotional regulation, disordered overeating,
habitual cluster behaviours, health literacy and cognitive func-
tion. Journal of Obesity, 2013, 1–9.
Roberts, M. E., Demetriou, Lucy, Treasure, J. L., & Tchanturia, Kate.
(2007). Neuropsychological profile in the overweight population:
An exploratory study of set-shifting and detail focused process-
ing styles. Therapy, 4, 821–824.
Rossini, R., Moscatiello, S., Tarrini, G., Di Domizio, S., Soverini, V.,
Romano, A., et al. (2011). Effects of cognitive-behavioral
treatment for weight loss in family members. Journal of the
American Dietetic Association, 111, 1712–1719.
Rothman, A. J. (2000). Toward a theory-based analysis of behavioral
maintenance. Health Psychology, 19, 64–69.
Sabia, S., Kivimaki, M., Shipley, M. J., Marmot, M. G., & Singh-
Manoux, A. (2009). Body mass index over the adult life course
and cognition in late midlife: The whitehall II cohort study. The
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89, 601–607.
Sciamanna, C. N., Kiernan, M., Rolls, B. J., Boan, J., Stuckey, H.,
Kephart, D., et al. (2011). Practices associated with weight loss
versus weight-loss maintenance results of a national survey.
American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 41, 159–166.
Sellbom, K. S., & Gunstad, J. (2012). Cognitive function and decline
in obesity. Journal of Alzheimers Disease, 30, 89–95.
Siervo, M., Arnold, R., Wells, J. C. K., Tagliabue, A., Colantuoni, A.,
Albanese, E., et al. (2011). Intentional weight loss in overweight
and obese individuals and cognitive function: A systematic
review and meta-analysis. Obesity Reviews, 12, 968–983.
Siervo, M., Nasti, G., Stephan, B. C., Papa, A., Muscariello, E.,
Wells, J. C., et al. (2012). Effects of intentional weight loss on
physical and cognitive function in middle-aged and older obese
participants: A pilot study. Journal of the American College of
Nutrition, 31, 79–86.
Smith, E., Hay, P., Campbell, L., & Trollor, J. N. (2011). A review of
the association between obesity and cognitive function across the
lifespan: Implications for novel approaches to prevention and
treatment. Obesity Reviews: An Official Journal of the Interna-
tional Association for the Study of Obesity, 12, 740–755.
Snyder, H. R. (2013). Major depressive disorder is associated with
broad impairments on neuropsychological measures of executive
function: A meta-analysis and review. Psychological Bulletin,
139, 81–132.
Spitznagel, M. B., Alosco, M., Galioto, R., Strain, G., Devlin, M.,
Sysko, R., et al. (2014). The role of cognitive function in
postoperative weight loss outcomes: 36-Month follow-up. Obe-
sity Surgery, 24, 1078–1084.
Spitznagel, M. B., Alosco, M., Strain, G., Devlin, M., Cohen, R.,
Paul, R., et al. (2013a). Cognitive function predicts 24-month
weight loss success following bariatric surgery. Surgery for
Obesity and Related Diseases, 9, 765–770.
Spitznagel, M. B., Garcia, S., Miller, L. A., Strain, G., Devlin, M.,
Wing, R., et al. (2013b). Cognitive function predicts weight loss
following bariatric surgery. Surgery for Obesity and Related
Diseases, 9, 453–459.
Spitznagel, M. B., Hawkins, M., Alosco, M., Galioto, R., Garcia, S.,
Miller, L., et al. (2015). Neurocognitive effects of obesity and
bariatric surgery. European Eating Disorders Review, 23,
488–495.
Suchy, Y. (2009). Executive functioning: Overview, assessment, and
research issues for non-neuropsychologists. Annals of Behav-
ioral Medicine: A Publication of the Society of Behavioral
Medicine, 37, 106–116.
Svetkey, L. P., Stevens, V. J., Brantley, P. J., et al. (2008).
Comparison of strategies for sustaining weight loss: The weight
loss maintenance randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 299,
1139–1148.
Szabo-Reed, A. N., Breslin, F. J., Lynch, A. M., Patrician, T. M.,
Martin, L. E., Lepping, R. J., et al. (2015). Brain function
predictors and outcome of weight loss and weight loss mainte-
nance. Contemporary Clinical Trials, 40, 218–231.
Tamm, L., Nakonezny, P. A., & Hughes, C. W. (2014). An open trial
of a metacognitive executive function training for young
children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 18,
551–559.
Teixeira, P. J., Carrac¸a, E. V., Marques, M. M., Rutter, H., Oppert, J.
De Bourdeaudhuij, I., Brug, J. (2015). Successful behavior
change in obesity interventions in adults: A systematic review of
self-regulation mediators. BMC Medicine, 13
Teixeira, P. J., Silva, M. N., Coutinho, S. R., Palmeira, A. L., Mata, J.,
Vieira, P. N., et al. (2010). Mediators of weight loss and weight
loss maintenance in middle-aged women. Obesity, 18, 725–735.
Thomas, J. G., Bond, D. S., Phelan, S., Hill, J. O., & Wing, R. R.
(2014). Weight-loss maintenance for 10 years in the national
weight control registry. American Journal of Preventive
Medicine, 46, 17–23.
Verbeken, S., Braet, C., Goossens, L., & van der Oord, S. (2013).
Executive function training with game elements for obese
children: A novel treatment to enhance self-regulatory abilities
for weight-control. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 51,
290–299.
Veronese, N., Facchini, S., Stubbs, B., Luchini, C., Solmi, M.,
Manzato, E., et al. (2017). Weight loss is associated with
improvements in cognitive function among overweight and
obese people: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuro-
science and Biobehavioral Reviews, 72, 87–94.
Wadden, T. A., & Stunkard, A. J. (1986). Controlled trial of very low
calorie diet, behavior therapy, and their combination in the
treatment of obesity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 54, 482–488.
Wadden, T. A., West, D. S., Neiberg, R. H., Wing, R. R., Ryan, D. H.,
Johnson, K. C., et al. (2009). One-year weight losses in the look
AHEAD study: Factors associated with success. Obesity (Silver
Spring, Md.), 17, 713–722.
Wadden, T. A., et al. (1988). Three-year follow-up of the treatment of
obesity by very low calorie diet, behavior therapy, and their
combination. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56,
925–928.
Wang, Y. C., McPherson, K., Marsh, T., Gortmaker, S. L., & Brown,
M. (2011). Health and economic burden of the projected obesity
trends in the USA and the UK. Lancet (London, England), 378,
815–825.
Warschburger, P. (2015). SRT-joy- computer-assisted self-regulation
training for obese children and adolescents: Study protocol for a
randomized controlled trial. Biomed Central Trials, 16, 566.
doi:10.1186/s13063-015-1078-2
Weintraub, S., Dikmen, S. S., Heaton, R. K., Tulsky, D. S., Zelazo, P.
D., Bauer, P. J., et al. (2013). Cognition assessment using the
NIH Toolbox. Neurology, 80, S54–S64.
White, T., & Stern, R. A. (2003). Neuropsychological assessment
battery: Psychometric and technical manual. Psychological
Assessment Resources, Inc.
Whitmer, R. A., Gunderson, E. P., Barrett-Connor, E., Quesenberry,
C. P., Jr., & Yaffe, K. (2005). Obesity in middle age and future
risk of dementia: A 27 year longitudinal population based study.
BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 330, 1360.
Whitmer, R. A., Gustafson, D. R., Barrett-Connor, E., Haan, M. N.,
Gunderson, E. P., & Yaffe, K. (2008). Central obesity and
increased risk of dementia more than three decades later.
Neurology, 71, 1057–1064.
700 J Behav Med (2017) 40:687–701
123
Williams, G. C., Grow, V. M., Freedman, Z. R., Ryan, R. M., & Deci,
E. L. (1996). Motivational predictors of weight loss and weight-
loss maintenance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
70, 115–126.
Williams, P. G., Suchy, Y., & Rau, H. D. (2009). Individual
differences in executive functioning: Implications for stress
regulation. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 37, 126–140.
Williams, P. G., & Thayer, J. F. (2009). Executive functioning and
health: Introduction to the special series. Annals of Behavioral
Medicine: A Publication of the Society of Behavioral Medicine,
37, 101–105.
Wing, R. R., & Hill, J. O. (2001). Successful weight loss
maintenance. Annual Review of Nutrition, 21, 323–341.
Wing, R. R., & Phelan, S. (2005). Long-term weight loss mainte-
nance. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 82, 222S–
225S.
Wing, R. R., Tate, D. F., Espeland, M. A., Lewis, C. E., Gokee-
LaRose, J., Gorin, A. A., et al. (2016). Innovative self-regulation
strategies to reduce weight gain in young adults: The study of
novel approaches to weight gain prevention (SNAP) randomized
clinical trial. JAMA Internal Medicine, 176, 755–762.
Wing, R. R., Tate, D. F., Gorin, A. A., Raynor, H. A., & Fava, J. L.
(2006). A self-regulation program for maintenance of weight
loss. The New England Journal of Medicine, 355, 1563–1571.
Wing, R. R., Vazquez, J. A., & Ryan, C. M. (1995). Cognitive effects
of ketogenic weight-reducing diets. International Journal of
Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders: Journal of the
International Association for the Study of Obesity, 19, 811–816.
Wing, R. R., Venditti, E., Jakicic, J. M., Polley, B. A., & Lang, W.
(1998). Lifestyle intervention in overweight individuals with a
family history of diabetes. Diabetes Care, 21, 350–359.
Wolf, P. A., Beiser, A., Elias, M. F., Au, R., Vasan, R. S., & Seshadri,
S. (2007). Relation of obesity to cognitive function: Importance
of central obesity and synergistic influence of concomitant
hypertension. The framingham heart study. Current Alzheimer
Research, 4, 111–116.
J Behav Med (2017) 40:687–701 701
123
JournalofBehavioralMedicineisacopyrightofSpringer,2017.AllRightsReserved.
... There is evidence that cognitive function plays an important role in adherence to postoperative recommendations, leading to sustained long-term weight loss results after bariatric surgery. Possibly, such results are associated with improvement in some functions such as memory, attention, inhibitory control, goal setting, and planning 12,13 . ...
... We also found alterations in semantic memory related to the ability to retrieve facts, knowledge of words and their expression 40 , hindering the patients' communication and making their understanding more difficult, similar to what was observed in other studies 12,13,31 . There were no differences according to obesity class. ...
... we observed mild cognitive deficit 29,31,32 in executive functions, possibly related to the compulsion observed in some patients, due to the difficulty to inhibit inappropriate behaviors in relation to food, facilitating the ingestion of caloric foods that are not part of the prescribed diet. There may also be difficulty in the ability to weight loss, low commitment to achieve determined goals and to follow the recommendations to perform physical activities and lifestyle changes, which are important for both weight loss and weight maintenance 12,13 . We observed no statistically significant correlation between obesity severity and greater cognitive impairment. ...
Article
Full-text available
Neuropsychology has been studying the effects of obesity on cognition and its relationship with dementia and factors that may be related to the difficulty of losing weight. Objective: Neuropsychological assessment of cognitive functions in patients with severe obesity. Method: 99 patients were selected from the outpatient clinic of the Bariatric and Metabolic Surgery Unit of the Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina da USP, between 2018 and 2020. The patients were divided according to the class of obesity in G1 (40.0 < BMI < 49.9 Kg/m2; n=56) and G2 (BMI ≥ 50 Kg/m2; N=43). Results: Patients showed mild cognitive deficits in executive functions, short-and long-term verbal memory, and retrieval of recall memory. There was no significant difference in cognitive functions related to obesity class (G1 vs. G2). Conclusions: Severely obese patients showed mild cognitive impairment compared to the general population in short-and long-term verbal memory and executive functions unrelated to obesity class.
... Particularmente, se ha probado si el DT está asociado con algunas conductas alimentarias, lo que ha mostrado resultados contradictorios puesto que algunos estudios han encontrado una asociación positiva del DT y la sobreingesta (Kekic et al., 2020), el consumo de dietas poco saludables, la realización de atracones (Miranda-Olivos et al., 2021), e incluso con las consecuencias de la realización de conductas alimentarias poco saludables como el sobrepeso y la obesidad (Rodriguez et al., 2021;Tang et al., 2019), aunque en otras investigaciones no se ha encontrado dicha asociación (Veillard y Vincent, 2020;Rodriguez et al., 2021) Los resultados discordantes pueden deberse a que en algunas de estas investigaciones se ha probado el DT con estímulos neutros (Sze et al., 2017;Tang et al., 2019;Veillard y Vincent, 2020) y en otras con estímulos de alimentos (Morys et al., 2020;Sutton et al., 2022), sin embargo, estos últimos presentan algunas de las dificultades antes mencionadas, como exceso de reactivos, divisiones ilógicas del producto o asociaciones con la cantidad monetaria, por lo que, para esclarecer este fenómenos es necesario contar con mejores instrumentos de medición y concretamente que contengan estímulos alimentarios, pues la utilización de estos dentro de la tarea podría ofrecer resultados más contundentes (Barlow et al., 2016;Favieri, Forte y Casagrande, 2019;Gettens y Gorin, 2017). Considerando lo anterior, el objetivo principal del presente estudio fue evaluar la eficacia de la tarea de DT de Koffarnus y Bickel (2014) al reemplazar los estímulos neutros por estímulos relacionados con la comida. ...
... Por un lado los participantes pudieron haber presentado hambre durante la aplicación de la tarea, estado que pudo condicionar su desempeño al responder la tarea que integra el estímulo alimentario puesto que una presencia baja de glucógeno en sangre potencia el proceso de sensibilidad a la recompensa y aquellos participantes que no habían ingerido alimentos durante al menos 3 horas antes de la tarea adecuado (Barlow et al., 2016). Adicionalmente se pudo identificar que la tarea parece diferenciar por tipos de estímulos en general y por grupos de peso solo en la condición con estímulos alimentarios, lo que apoya el supuesto de que, en el área del sobrepeso y la obesidad, el DT difiere por grupos de peso (Amlung et al., 2016;Barlow et al., 2016) y que este se ve mayormente influenciado cuando se integran estímulos alimentarios en los reactivos (Barlow et al., 2016;Favieri et al., 2019;Gettens y Gorin, 2017). ...
Article
Full-text available
Objetivo: probar la utilidad de la tarea de descuento temporal de Koffarnus y Bickel (2014) al sustituir los estímulos neutros por alimentarios. Diseño metodológico: se trata de un estudio instrumental de corte transversal y alcance descriptivo. Se realizó una traducción y retraducción de los reactivos, se integró la imagen de dos barras de chocolate, se modificó la consigna de “preferirías tener” a “preferirías comer” y se realizó una prueba piloto. Posteriormente se aplicó a una muestra de 191 participantes de entre 18 y 30 años (M= 22.33, DE= 4.02) residentes de la Ciudad de México, 121 mujeres y 70 hombres. Resultados: se encontró una tendencia de los participantes a descontar más las recompensas retardadas. La tasa de descuento mostró un comportamiento similar al reportado en la literatura (k = .25, s= .24, R2 = .62; k = .014, s= .87, R2 = .90), lo que indica que la tarea sí permite identificar la tendencia a descontar las recompensas. Limitaciones de la investigación: la utilización de un solo estímulo alimentario es limitante, así como la presencia de sensación de hambre y la no diferenciación de estímulos dulce y salado. Sin embargo, esto no impide que se obtenga una medida de descuento temporal acorde con el reportado en la literatura. Hallazgos: la tarea sí es capaz de identificar la tendencia a descontar las recompensas retardadas, además se pudieron obtener los valores de área bajo la curva para ambas condiciones lo cual permite establecer que la tarea es adecuada para obtener una medida del DT.
... Stronger executive functioning, in contrast, is associated with greater fruit and vegetable consumption (Riggs et al., 2010(Riggs et al., , 2012. Inhibitory control, a specific domain of executive functioning, is thought to be particularly relevant to eating behaviors characterized as excessive or disinhibited because they represent difficulties stopping a desired response, like consuming tasty foods (Allom & Mullan, 2014;Appelhans et al., 2016;Gettens & Gorin, 2017). Interventions that are focused on strengthening executive functioning, particularly behavioral inhibition, may offer a novel approach to improving children's eating habits, including their total energy intake and their consumption of energydense snack foods. ...
Article
Full-text available
Children in rural communities consume more energy-dense foods relative to their urban peers. Identifying effective interventions for improving energy intake patterns are needed to address these geographic disparities. The primary aim of this study was to harness the benefits of physical activity on children’s executive functioning to see if these improvements lead to acute changes in eating behaviors. In a randomized crossover design, 91 preadolescent (8-10y; M age = 9.48 ± 0.85; 50.5% female; 85.7% White, 9.9% Multiracial, 9.9% Hispanic) children (86% rural) completed a 20-minute physical activity condition (moderate intensity walking) and time-matched sedentary condition (reading and/or coloring) ~ 14 days apart. Immediately following each condition, participants completed a behavioral inhibition task and then eating behaviors (total energy intake, relative energy intake, snack intake) were measured during a multi-array buffet test meal. After adjusting for period and order effects, body fat (measured via DXA), and depressive symptoms, participants experienced significant small improvements in their behavioral inhibition following the physical activity versus sedentary condition (p = 0.04, Hedge’s g = 0.198). Eating behaviors did not vary by condition, nor did improvements in behavioral inhibition function as a mediator (ps > 0.09). Thus, in preadolescent children, small improvements in behavioral inhibition from physical activity do not produce acute improvements in energy intake. Additional research is needed to clarify whether the duration and/or intensity of physical activity sessions would produce different results in this age group, and whether intervention approaches and corresponding mechanisms of change vary by individual factors, like age and degree of food cue responsivity.
... Consideration of future consequences is a cognitive-motivational process in which one weighs the immediate and future positive outcomes (pros) and negative consequences (cons) of behavior during decision-making [19]. Executive functions, required for successful lifestyle behavior change [20], includes (for example) inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, decision making, problem-solving, and planning [21]. ...
... Taken together, these findings provide additional insights into the interplay between executive functions and body weight. Considering the growing scientific interest regarding this topic [95][96][97][98][99], our results may offer meaningful contributions to this area of discussion by incorporating the role of sex-related physiological variability. However, only a few studies have explored this issue in the scientific literature [100]. ...
Article
Full-text available
This study explores the interplay between executive functions and body weight, examining both the influence of biological factors, specifically sex, and methodological issues, such as the choice between Body Mass Index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC) as the primary anthropometric measure. A total of 386 participants (222 females, mean age = 45.98 years, SD = 17.70) were enrolled, from whom sociodemographic (sex, age, years of formal education) and anthropometric (BMI and WC) data were collected. Executive functions were evaluated using the Frontal Assessment Battery-15 (FAB15). The results showed the increased effectiveness of WC over BMI in examining the relationships between executive functions, sex differences, and body weight. In particular, this study revealed that there was a significant moderating effect of sex at comparable levels of executive functioning. Specifically, women with higher executive performance had lower WCs than their male counterparts, suggesting that executive function has a greater impact on WC in women than in men. Our findings highlight the importance of conducting more in-depth investigations of the complex relationship between cognitive deficits and weight gain, considering confounding variables of behavioral, psychobiological, and neurophysiological origin.
... The ability of most studies to detect distinct phenotypes that predict weight loss has been limited by their inclusion of only a small number of self-report measures. 14,50,51 Simultaneously examining multiple behavioral traits using laboratory-based assessments, along with neuroendocrine biomarkers and gastric emptying, may enhance our ability to identify phenotypes associated with poor response to BT. Better characterizing these non-responders will in turn facilitate the development of tailored treatments that can address different biopsychosocial barriers. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
The original protocol was approved on December 19, 2018 during the funding application process (NIH/NIDDK 1K23DK116935). Two protocol amendments were made prior to the start of recruitment. First, the study medication was changed from liraglutide (the medication proposed in the original K23 funding application) to phentermine, and medication-specific sections of the protocol, including medication-related inclusion/exclusion criteria, were modified accordingly (IRB-approved May 13, 2019). The second amendment included the following minor changes (IRB-approved July 18, 2019): replacing cholecystokinin (CCK) with insulin in a neuropeptide hormone panel; adding a prespecified secondary analysis of changes in past-week VAS ratings of appetite, adding exploratory questionnaires (Philadelphia Mindfulness Questionnaire, Yale Food Addiction questionnaire, sleep hours/week); specifying that the electrocardiogram (ECG) would occur at screening and that the first BT session would start immediately after the baseline assessment visit; updating the portion size of the liquid test meal for males vs. females; and specifying that only randomized participants would complete a cardiometabolic and lipid panel at the randomization visit. Three minor protocol amendments were made during the trial: 1) in order to reduce in-person contact in response to COVID-19, we allowed the ECG to take place any time prior to randomization (rather than only at screening) and specified that all lifestyle counseling sessions (not just make-up sessions) could be conducted remotely via videoconferencing or phone (IRB-approved July 27, 2020); 2) we replaced the term “nurse practitioner” with “research nurse” due to a change in the Center’s staff (IRB-approved April 13, 2021); and 3) we amended that HbA1c could be substituted for fasting blood glucose for the second, confirmatory assessment of diabetes at screening (IRB-approved May 14, 2021).
... We also observed significant decreases in the Reho values of the right inferior frontal orbital gyrus ( Figure S2A), anterior cingulate cortex ( Figure S2C), left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ( Figure S2D), and right putamen ( Figure S2F) at endpoint of phase III, compared with those at baseline ( Figure S2). These brain regions are responsible for cognitive control, emotion and learning memory, as well as sensory (Volkow et al., 2003;Dagher, 2012;Ochner et al., 2013;Gettens and Gorin, 2017). No significant changes were observed in brain activity of the reward circuit or other brain regions ( Figure S2). ...
Article
Full-text available
Objective Intermittent energy restriction (IER) is an effective weight loss strategy. However, little is known about the dynamic effects of IER on the brain-gut-microbiome axis. Methods In this study, a total of 25 obese individuals successfully lost weight after a 2-month IER intervention. FMRI was used to determine the activity of brain regions. Metagenomic sequencing was performed to identify differentially abundant gut microbes and pathways in from fecal samples. Results Our results showed that IER longitudinally reduced the activity of obese-related brain regions at different timepoints, including the inferior frontal orbital gyrus in the cognitive control circuit, the putamen in the emotion and learning circuit, and the anterior cingulate cortex in the sensory circuit. IER longitudinally reduced E. coli abundance across multiple timepoints while elevating the abundance of obesity-related Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Parabacteroides distasonis, and Bacterokles uniformis. Correlation analysis revealed longitudinally correlations between gut bacteria abundance alterations and brain activity changes. Conclusions There was dynamical alteration of BGM axis (the communication of E. coli with specific brain regions) during the weight loss under the IER.
... Furthermore, a hierarchical structure is assumed in which basal SR facets enable more complex SR facets (McClelland et al., 2018). The executive functions (EF) working memory updating (updating), cognitive flexibility (flexibility), and inhibition can be considered as basal facets of SR (Gettens & Gorin, 2017;Warschburger et al., 2023) and should be considered in SR research (Bailey & Jones, 2019;Hofmann et al., 2012). Updating describes the ability to monitor and update working memory representations; flexibility is the ability to shift between mental sets or tasks, and inhibition is the ability to suppress primary behavioral impulses (Diamond, 2013;Miyake et al., 2000). ...
Article
Full-text available
Positive peer experiences and self-regulation (SR) skills are crucial for children's healthy development, but little is known about how they interact during middle childhood. Therefore, we examined the prospective links between adverse peer experiences (APEs) and SR, drawing from the dataset of the PIER study. Across three measurement points, 1654 children aged 6–11 (T1), 7–11 (T2), and 9–13 years (T3) were included. We assessed the SR facets updating, flexibility, inhibition, emotional reactivity, inhibitory control, and planning using computerized tasks, parent- and teacher-reports. The latent variable of APEs consisted of measures of peer victimization and peer rejection assessed via self-, parent-, and teacher-report. Separate cross-lagged panel models were calculated, investigating the interplay of each SR facet and APEs. Results indicated that experiencing more APEs at T1 predicted higher emotional reactivity, and lower inhibition, inhibitory control, updating, and flexibility at T2. More APEs at T2 predicted higher emotional reactivity and lower planning at T3. Lower inhibition, updating, and flexibility at T2 predicted more APEs at T3. Accordingly, we found a negative bidirectional relationship between inhibition, updating, and flexibility with APEs. Our findings highlight that during middle childhood more APEs predict lower SR, which in turn predicts more experiences of peer victimization and rejection.
... However, weight loss challenges individuals. To lose weight, individuals have to be able to plan and engage in successful weight loss strategies (for example, goal setting, self-monitoring), which require a higher order of cognition or executive function [11]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Episodic future thinking (EFT) has shown efficacy in laboratory settings. We conducted a pilot goal-oriented EFT (GoEFT) intervention in a real-world setting to help low-income overweight or obese mothers lose weight. This paper presents intervention acceptability and efficacy. Methods: The study used a single-group, before-after design. During the 3-week intervention, participants (N = 15) completed weekly web-based lessons and online health coaching sessions to manage stress and emotion, eat healthier, and be more physically active. Participants completed online surveys at baseline and immediately after the intervention. They also completed an interview to evaluate intervention acceptability. We applied paired t-tests to evaluate efficacy and used content analysis to discover interview themes. Results: Participants consistently identified the intervention as acceptable, noting the usefulness of pre-written goals, GoEFT strategies, and goal progress evaluations. The intervention effectively promoted weight loss (d = -0.69), fruit and vegetable intake (d = 0.45-0.49), and emotion control (d = 0.71). It also reduced fat (d = -0.51) and added sugar intake (d = -0.48) and alleviated stress (d = -0.52). Moreover, the intervention increased autonomous motivation (d = 0.75-0.88) and self-efficacy (d = 0.46-0.61). Conclusion: The GoEFT intervention was acceptable to participants, showing strong preliminary efficacy.
Article
Full-text available
Interventions to preserve functional independence in older adults are critically needed to optimize ‘successful aging’ among the large and increasing population of older adults in the United States. For most aging adults, the management of chronic diseases is the most common and impactful risk factor for loss of functional independence. Chronic disease management inherently involves the learning and adaptation of new behaviors, such as adopting or modifying physical activity habits and managing weight. Despite the importance of chronic disease management in older adults, vanishingly few individuals optimally manage their health behavior in the service of chronic disease stabilization to preserve functional independence. Contemporary conceptual models of chronic disease management and health habit theory suggest that this lack of optimal management may result from an underappreciated distinction within the health behavior literature: the behavioral domains critical for initiation of new behaviors (Initiation Phase) are largely distinct from those that facilitate their maintenance (Maintenance Phase). Psychological factors, particularly experiential acceptance and trait levels of openness are critical to engagement with new health behaviors, willingness to make difficult lifestyle changes, and the ability to tolerate aversive affective responses in the process. Cognitive factors, particularly executive function, are critical to learning new skills, using them effectively across different areas of life and contextual demands, and updating of skills to facilitate behavioral maintenance. Emerging data therefore suggests that individuals with greater executive function are better able to sustain behavior changes, which in turn protects against cognitive decline. In addition, social and structural supports of behavior change serve a critical buffering role across phases of behavior change. The present review attempts to address these gaps by proposing a novel biobehavioral intervention framework that incorporates both individual-level and social support system-level variables for the purpose of treatment tailoring. Our intervention framework triangulates on the central importance of self-regulatory functioning, proposing that both cognitive and psychological mechanisms ultimately influence an individuals’ ability to engage in different aspects of self-management (individual level) in the service of maintaining independence. Importantly, the proposed linkages of cognitive and affective functioning align with emerging individual difference frameworks, suggesting that lower levels of cognitive and/or psychological flexibility represent an intermediate phenotype of risk. Individuals exhibiting self-regulatory lapses either due to the inability to regulate their emotional responses or due to the presence of executive functioning impairments are therefore the most likely to require assistance to preserve functional independence. In addition, these vulnerabilities will be more easily observable for individuals requiring greater complexity of self-management behavioral demands (e.g. complexity of medication regimen) and/or with lesser social support. Our proposed framework also intuits several distinct intervention pathways based on the profile of self-regulatory behaviors: we propose that individuals with intact affect regulation and impaired executive function will preferentially respond to ‘top-down’ training approaches (e.g., strategy and process work). Individuals with intact executive function and impaired affect regulation will respond to ‘bottom-up’ approaches (e.g., graded exposure). And individuals with impairments in both may require treatments targeting caregiving or structural supports, particularly in the context of elevated behavioral demands.
Article
Full-text available
Objective: To evaluate the efficacy, as well as potential moderators and mediators, of a revised acceptance-based behavioral treatment (ABT) for obesity, relative to standard behavioral treatment (SBT). Methods: Participants with overweight and obesity (n = 190) were randomized to 25 sessions of ABT or SBT over 1 year. Primary outcome (weight), mediator, and moderator measurements were taken at baseline, 6 months, and/or 12 months, and weight was also measured every session. Results: Participants assigned to ABT attained a significantly greater 12-month weight loss (13.3% ± 0.83%) than did those assigned to SBT (9.8% ± 0.87%; P = 0.005). A condition by quadratic time effect on session-by-session weights (P = 0.01) indicated that SBT had a shallower trajectory of weight loss followed by an upward deflection. ABT participants were also more likely to maintain a 10% weight loss at 12 months (64.0% vs. 48.9%; P = 0.04). No evidence of moderation was found. Results supported the mediating role of autonomous motivation and psychological acceptance of food-related urges. Conclusions: Behavioral weight loss outcomes can be improved by integrating self-regulation skills that are reflected in acceptance-based treatment, i.e., tolerating discomfort and reduction in pleasure, enacting commitment to valued behavior, and being mindfully aware during moments of decision-making.
Article
Full-text available
Increased body mass is directly associated with reduced cognitive function. The aim of this study was to systematically review the effect of bariatric weight loss surgery on cognitive function. A comprehensive and unrestricted literature search was conducted using the following databases: MEDLINE, EMBASE, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Sciences, and the Cochrane Library. A total of 414 publications were identified, of which 18 were included in the final review. Cognitive function as measured by a number of different assessment tools was shown to improve following surgically induced weight loss in most studies. Significant and rapid weight loss resulting from bariatric surgery is associated with prompt and sustained improvements in cognitive function including memory, executive function, and cognitive control.
Article
There is a general perception that almost no one succeeds in long-term maintenance of weight loss. However, research has shown that ≈20% of overweight individuals are successful at long-term weight loss when defined as losing at least 10% of initial body weight and maintaining the loss for at least 1 y. The National Weight Control Registry provides information about the strategies used by successful weight loss maintainers to achieve and maintain long-term weight loss. National Weight Control Registry members have lost an average of 33 kg and maintained the loss for more than 5 y. To maintain their weight loss, members report engaging in high levels of physical activity (≈1 h/d), eating a low-calorie, low-fat diet, eating breakfast regularly, self-monitoring weight, and maintaining a consistent eating pattern across weekdays and weekends. Moreover, weight loss maintenance may get easier over time; after individuals have successfully maintained their weight loss for 2–5 y, the chance of longer-term success greatly increases. Continued adherence to diet and exercise strategies, low levels of depression and disinhibition, and medical triggers for weight loss are also associated with long-term success. National Weight Control Registry members provide evidence that long-term weight loss maintenance is possible and help identify the specific approaches associated with long-term success.
Article
Reports an error in the original article by M. T. McGuire et al ( Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 1999[Apr], 67[2], 177–185). On page 181, the Figure 1 caption was incorrect. The correct caption is provided. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1999-10771-002 .) This study identified predictors of weight gain versus continued maintenance among individuals already successful at long-term weight loss. Weight, behavior, and psychological information was collected on entry into the study and 1 year later. Thirty-five percent gained weight over the year of follow-up, and 59% maintained their weight losses. Risk factors for weight regain included more recent weight losses (less than 2 years vs. 2 years or more), larger weight losses (greater than 30% of maximum weight vs. less than 30%), and higher levels of depression, dietary disinhibition, and binge eating levels at entry into the registry. Over the year of follow-up, gainers reported greater decreases in energy expenditure and greater increases in percentage of calories from fat. Gainers also reported greater decreases in restraint and increases in hunger, dietary disinhibition, and binge eating. … (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Background: Nearly one in five 4-year-old children in the United States are obese, with low-income children almost twice as likely to be obese as their middle/upper-income peers. Few obesity prevention programs for low-income preschoolers and their parents have been rigorously tested, and effects are modest. We are testing a novel obesity prevention program for low-income preschoolers built on the premise that children who are better able to self-regulate in the face of psychosocial stressors may be less likely to eat impulsively in response to stress. Enhancing behavioral self-regulation skills in low-income children may be a unique and important intervention approach to prevent childhood obesity.
Article
Importance Between 1980 and 2000, the prevalence of obesity increased significantly among adult men and women in the United States; further significant increases were observed through 2003-2004 for men but not women. Subsequent comparisons of data from 2003-2004 with data through 2011-2012 showed no significant increases for men or women. Objective To examine obesity prevalence for 2013-2014 and trends over the decade from 2005 through 2014 adjusting for sex, age, race/Hispanic origin, smoking status, and education. Design, Setting, and Participants Analysis of data obtained from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), a cross-sectional, nationally representative health examination survey of the US civilian noninstitutionalized population that includes measured weight and height. Exposures Survey period. Main Outcomes and Measures Prevalence of obesity (body mass index ≥30) and class 3 obesity (body mass index ≥40). Results This report is based on data from 2638 adult men (mean age, 46.8 years) and 2817 women (mean age, 48.4 years) from the most recent 2 years (2013-2014) of NHANES and data from 21 013 participants in previous NHANES surveys from 2005 through 2012. For the years 2013-2014, the overall age-adjusted prevalence of obesity was 37.7% (95% CI, 35.8%-39.7%); among men, it was 35.0% (95% CI, 32.8%-37.3%); and among women, it was 40.4% (95% CI, 37.6%-43.3%). The corresponding prevalence of class 3 obesity overall was 7.7% (95% CI, 6.2%-9.3%); among men, it was 5.5% (95% CI, 4.0%-7.2%); and among women, it was 9.9% (95% CI, 7.5%-12.3%). Analyses of changes over the decade from 2005 through 2014, adjusted for age, race/Hispanic origin, smoking status, and education, showed significant increasing linear trends among women for overall obesity (P = .004) and for class 3 obesity (P = .01) but not among men (P = .30 for overall obesity; P = .14 for class 3 obesity). Conclusions and Relevance In this nationally representative survey of adults in the United States, the age-adjusted prevalence of obesity in 2013-2014 was 35.0% among men and 40.4% among women. The corresponding values for class 3 obesity were 5.5% for men and 9.9% for women. For women, the prevalence of overall obesity and of class 3 obesity showed significant linear trends for increase between 2005 and 2014; there were no significant trends for men. Other studies are needed to determine the reasons for these trends.
Article
Importance Previous analyses of obesity trends among children and adolescents showed an increase between 1988-1994 and 1999-2000, but no change between 2003-2004 and 2011-2012, except for a significant decline among children aged 2 to 5 years. Objectives To provide estimates of obesity and extreme obesity prevalence for children and adolescents for 2011-2014 and investigate trends by age between 1988-1994 and 2013-2014. Design, Setting, and Participants Children and adolescents aged 2 to 19 years with measured weight and height in the 1988-1994 through 2013-2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Exposures Survey period. Main Outcomes and Measures Obesity was defined as a body mass index (BMI) at or above the sex-specific 95th percentile on the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) BMI-for-age growth charts. Extreme obesity was defined as a BMI at or above 120% of the sex-specific 95th percentile on the CDC BMI-for-age growth charts. Detailed estimates are presented for 2011-2014. The analyses of linear and quadratic trends in prevalence were conducted using 9 survey periods. Trend analyses between 2005-2006 and 2013-2014 also were conducted. Results Measurements from 40 780 children and adolescents (mean age, 11.0 years; 48.8% female) between 1988-1994 and 2013-2014 were analyzed. Among children and adolescents aged 2 to 19 years, the prevalence of obesity in 2011-2014 was 17.0% (95% CI, 15.5%-18.6%) and extreme obesity was 5.8% (95% CI, 4.9%-6.8%). Among children aged 2 to 5 years, obesity increased from 7.2% (95% CI, 5.8%-8.8%) in 1988-1994 to 13.9% (95% CI, 10.7%-17.7%) (P < .001) in 2003-2004 and then decreased to 9.4% (95% CI, 6.8%-12.6%) (P = .03) in 2013-2014. Among children aged 6 to 11 years, obesity increased from 11.3% (95% CI, 9.4%-13.4%) in 1988-1994 to 19.6% (95% CI, 17.1%-22.4%) (P < .001) in 2007-2008, and then did not change (2013-2014: 17.4% [95% CI, 13.8%-21.4%]; P = .44). Obesity increased among adolescents aged 12 to 19 years between 1988-1994 (10.5% [95% CI, 8.8%-12.5%]) and 2013-2014 (20.6% [95% CI, 16.2%-25.6%]; P < .001) as did extreme obesity among children aged 6 to 11 years (3.6% [95% CI, 2.5%-5.0%] in 1988-1994 to 4.3% [95% CI, 3.0%-6.1%] in 2013-2014; P = .02) and adolescents aged 12 to 19 years (2.6% [95% CI, 1.7%-3.9%] in 1988-1994 to 9.1% [95% CI, 7.0%-11.5%] in 2013-2014; P < .001). No significant trends were observed between 2005-2006 and 2013-2014 (P value range, .09-.87). Conclusions and Relevance In this nationally representative study of US children and adolescents aged 2 to 19 years, the prevalence of obesity in 2011-2014 was 17.0% and extreme obesity was 5.8%. Between 1988-1994 and 2013-2014, the prevalence of obesity increased until 2003-2004 and then decreased in children aged 2 to 5 years, increased until 2007-2008 and then leveled off in children aged 6 to 11 years, and increased among adolescents aged 12 to 19 years.