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Sport in Society
Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics
ISSN: 1743-0437 (Print) 1743-0445 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fcss20
Indigenous Australian women and sport: findings
and recommendations from a parliamentary
inquiry
Hazel Maxwell, Megan Stronach, Daryl Adair & Sonya Pearce
To cite this article: Hazel Maxwell, Megan Stronach, Daryl Adair & Sonya Pearce (2017):
Indigenous Australian women and sport: findings and recommendations from a parliamentary
inquiry, Sport in Society, DOI: 10.1080/17430437.2017.1284802
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2017.1284802
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SPORT IN SOCIETY, 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2017.1284802
Indigenous Australian women and sport: ndings and
recommendations from a parliamentary inquiry*
Hazel Maxwella, Megan Stronachb, Daryl Adairb and Sonya Pearceb
aSchool of Health Sciences, University of Tasmania, Rozelle Campus, Sydney, Australia; bUTS Business School,
University of Technology Sydney, Australia
ABSTRACT
Researchers have consistently pointed to positive links between
sport, physical activity, health and wellbeing amongst marginalized
population groups. This paper concentrates on a group about which
little is presently known in terms of these links - Indigenous women
in Australia. The catalyst for this focus is twofold: demographic data
that, while sparse, suggests that this group has very low levels of
participation in sport and associated physical activity; and second,
a recent parliamentary inquiry into Indigenous sport in which the
participation of women featured in several submissions. Both data sets
conrm that Indigenous women are signicantly underrepresented in
the Australian sporting landscape. There is no systematic knowledge
about why this is so. The present study contributes to that small
body of literature by considering (a) evidence about participation
rates of Indigenous women in sport; and (b) the aspirations of sport
organizations to attract Indigenous women into their programs.
e contribution of sport to the social processes of inclusion and exclusion has been iden-
tied as both a socio-cultural challenge and opportunity (Coalter 2007). Minority groups
and disadvantaged communities are underrepresented in grassroots sport (Collins 2014).
is type of discrepancy is also apparent in other facets of social and cultural life, such as
higher education, employment and health status. Sport is therefore only one marker of dif-
ference and disadvantage in a range of societies, with Australia being no exception (Hoye
and Nicholson 2009; Maxwell 2012). In that context the experiences of Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islanders (ATSI), who make up 669,900, or 3 per cent of the Australian population
(ABS 2015), has attracted a growing body of research, but overwhelmingly in respect of
males. By contrast, the literature on Indigenous Australian women is sparse. Just as impor-
tantly, there is a need to explore and document ATSI female engagement in sport because
this group appears to have relatively little opportunity and involvement in those domains.
Although there is not an abundance of ocial gures, the known participation rates of
Australian Indigenous women and girls in sport are signicantly lower than for non-Indig-
enous women, and likewise in comparison to Indigenous men. Sport is dened as a ‘human
activity capable of achieving a result requiring physical exertion and/or physical skill which,
© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
CONTACT Hazel Maxwell Hazel.Maxwell@utas.edu.au
*Research undertaken at UTS Business School – University of Technology, Sydney.
2 H. MAXWELL ET AL.
by its nature and organisation, is competitive and is generally accepted as being a sport’
(Australian Sport Commission 2016). Statistics from 2012 demonstrate that only 23.3%
of Indigenous women participated in sport during the previous 12months (ABS 2012).
Compared to participation rates for Indigenous men (37.7%), non-Indigenous Australian
women (66.7%) and non-Indigenous Australian men (69.8%) (ABS 2012) this gure is
substantially lower. is is despite the common refrain, which is true for some, that sport
can make a positive dierence in the lives of ATSI people – assuming, of course, that such
programs are adequately supported and administered (Tatz 2011). Two key questions are,
therefore, how can social inclusion processes be successfully integrated into community
sport; and how can unequal power relations operating within society (that perpetuate exclu-
sion), be mitigated in sporting contexts (Maxwell 2012). ese questions are particularly
challenging when trying to understand the engagement (or otherwise) of ATSI women in
sport.
ere have been some eorts to understand, from the perspective of Indigenous women,
attitudes to and experiences of sport (for examples see Canuto et al. 2012, 2013; Fredericks,
Cro, and Lamb 2002; Macdonald, Abbott, and Jenkins 2012; Stronach, Maxwell, and Taylor
2016). In general terms, these studies indicate that within Indigenous communities sport
and recreation is closely linked to cultural activities and traditions. Stronach, Maxwell,
and Taylor (2016) found that Indigenous women described the important social function
that sport could provide in bringing communities together and making them stronger. A
number of other studies demonstrate the importance of sport and physical activities to
Aboriginal communities, remote, rural and urban, with the general consensus being that
sport is integral to understanding Indigenous culture (for examples see Nelson, Macdonald,
and Abbott 2012; Doyle et al. 2013; Ware and Meredith 2013). Just as signicantly, studies
have focused on sport development programs targeted specically at the health, wellbeing
and social inclusion of Indigenous peoples, indicating that participation in sport can provide
safe opportunities to build healthy lifestyles and contribute to physical and mental wellbeing
(for examples see Nelson, Macdonald, and Abbott 2012; Gray, Macniven, and omson
2013; Rossi 2014; Rossi and Rynne 2014; Evans et al. 2015). What is least understood is how
(or indeed whether) ‘mainstream’ sport organizations aim to include Indigenous women
in their programs. Given the participation statistics cited previously, this is a salient point
and thus worthy of investigation.
As a contribution to what is regrettably a small body of literature, the present study con-
siders the policies and practices of Australian sport organizations in regard to participation
by Indigenous females. In exploring this, an important source is submissions presented to
the 2012/2013 House of Representatives Standing Committee on Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander Aairs Inquiry (e Inquiry) (House of Representatives Standing Committe
on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Aairs 2013) by Indigenous representatives, sport
organizations, community agencies, academics and industry experts/practitioners (see
Table 1 for full details of the submissions). By evaluating these documents, the study is able
to consider how (or if) sport providers have a commitment to provide participation oppor-
tunities for Indigenous females, and tries to understand mechanisms they use to attract and
retain Indigenous women. It is therefore an analysis of what key stakeholders claim to be
doing for Indigenous people in terms of providing sporting opportunities and pathways,
but with a particular focus on ATSI women, for reasons outlined previously. e study also
highlights signicant omissions in the data presented to the Inquiry.
SPORT IN SOCIETY 3
Table 1.Attributes of the 58 Submission to the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs.
Sub-
mission
number
Submission origin
(name of individual
or organization)
Submission
description Submission type
Focus area/s
(state/urban/
rural/remote)
Submission focus (programme/s,
gender focus)
Programmes
involving
Indigenous women
as role models/
mentors
Evidence of indigenous women’s
sports participation (for example
participation data)
1Mr Ross Tanimu Individual
practitioner
Reflections on pro-
grammes Thesis/news
article
South Australia
(SA) Rural/
urban
• Female focus
• Onkaparinga Rugby Union Football Club
• Community sports club
Yes 12 women in an all-female Indige-
nous team in 2012
2Prof Colin Tatz Academic Letter/report/statistics Ref-
erences to his academic
papers/books
Australia wide • Both genders
• Proposal around sport programmes for
suicide prevention
Not stated Not Applicable
3 Brisbane Broncos Sports Club Sports club programmes Queensland
(QLD)Urban
• Both genders
• Education
• Learn Earn Legend Program
Not stated Not differentiated from males
4David Wirrpanda
Foundation
Non-
Government
Organization
(NGO)
Foundation programmes WA – urban,
regional and
remote VIC
– rural NSW –
urban
• Both genders
• Education – Deadly Sista Girlz Program –
netball focus
• Health promotion through netball (pre-
vent binge drinking) – Gwabba Yorga,
Gabba Warra (GYGW)
• Moorditj Mums & Bubs
Yes Deadly Sista Girlz Program – 2,500
indigenous girls in 4.5 yearsMoor-
ditj Mums Program – 9 women
5 Mr Peter and
Ms Catherine
Sheehan
Private
Individuals
Programme proposal and
critique of passed pro-
grammes
Remote North-
ern Territory
(NT)
• Both genders
• Proposal around sport programmes in
remote areas
Not stated Not stated
6 Adelaide Football
Club Ltd
Sports Club Generic youth programmes South Australia
(SA) – remote
• Education
• Youth leadership and governance
programme
Not stated 27 Anangu girls and boys
from Anangu Pitjantjatjara
Yankunytjatjara (APY) lands
(Continued)
4 H. MAXWELL ET AL.
Sub-
mission
number
Submission origin
(name of individual
or organization)
Submission
description Submission type
Focus area/s
(state/urban/
rural/remote)
Submission focus (programme/s,
gender focus)
Programmes
involving
Indigenous women
as role models/
mentors
Evidence of indigenous women’s
sports participation (for example
participation data)
7 City of Darebin Local
Government
Request for information VIC – Urban Not stated Not stated Not stated
8 Swimming Australia
Ltd
National
Sports
Organisation
Generic programmes NT – remote-
QLD –
remote
• Both genders
• Learn to swim programmes in 15 remote
areas
Not stated Not stated
9 Dr Bruce Hearn
Mackinnon
Academic Letter NT – remote • Proposals for a football focus in remote
communities
Not stated Not stated
10 VicHealth NGO – Health Cover letter/generic
programmes
VIC – urban
and rural
Case studies:
• Surfing Victoria’s Indigenous Surfing
Program
• Fitzroy Stars Football and Netball Club
Yes 1 women of 2 Indigenous trainees in
the surfing program
11 Commissioner for
Children and
Young People
Western Australia
(WA )
Commissioner Sport programmes WA – urban,
rural and
remote
• Supports the girl focused ‘Deadly Sista
Girlz’ programme run by the David Wirrr-
panda Foundation
Yes • 2008 (ABS data) showed partici-
pation rates for Indigenous girls in
organized sport as follows: 4–8yrs
– 30 %, 9–11yrs – 57 % and 12 to
14yrs – 51 %)
• Indigenous girls (4–14) 14% played
netball, 7% swam and 7 % played
basketball
12 Softball Australia NSO Overview of programmes
and detail of Indigenous
softball programme
Australia wide Male and Female, but focus is mainly on
women
Yes e.g. Stacey Por-
ter, Self -managed
by Indigenous
women.
73 % female from 7800 total Indige-
nous participants
13 Oztag Queensland
(QLD)
State Sporting
Organisa-
tion (SSO)
Generic programmes with
a focus on Mooroo
QLD – remote • Male predominantly Not stated 35 % juniors are female30 % adults
are female
Table 1.(Continued).
(Continued)
SPORT IN SOCIETY 5
(Continued)
Sub-
mission
number
Submission origin
(name of individual
or organization)
Submission
description Submission type
Focus area/s
(state/urban/
rural/remote)
Submission focus (programme/s,
gender focus)
Programmes
involving
Indigenous women
as role models/
mentors
Evidence of indigenous women’s
sports participation (for example
participation data)
14 Reconciliation
Australia
NGO Role of sport in
reconciliation
Australia Wide Reconciliation Action Plan Not stated Not stated
15 Stride Foundation NGO Generic sport programmes VIC Calls for a focus on hockey, softball, soccer,
basketball, netball and AFL to increase
female participation
Not stated Not stated
16 Australian Rugby
League (ARL)
NSO Sport programmes Australia Wide • M ale and female programmes
• Education – Learn Earn Legend
• Women’s specific programme – Women’s
Indigenous All Stars V the Australian
Jilaroos
Yes e.g. Jessica
Jefferies
2011 figures show 8830 players with
532 Female (but not Indigenous
specific)
Media articles
17 Basketball Australia NSO Focus on ‘no sport no play’ Australia Wide
NT, NSW, SA
Indigenous
focus areas
• Both genders
• No school no play focus
Not stated Not stated
18 South Australian
National Football
League Inc
SSO Report on programmes in
the APY area
South Australia
Remote
• 2 programmes – Senior Sports League
(SSL) and the Junior Sports Program
(JSP),
• Male and female (focus on girls softball)
Yes 2 girls selected for under 14 South
Australian Softball
19 Mr Doug Booth Academic Letter Generic Academic support for programmes
supporting the positive relationship
between sport and wellbeing
Not stated Not stated
20 Australian Football
League (AFL)
NSO Overview/programmes /
national partnership
agreement
Australia Wide Male and female programmes:
• Indigenous Events – Dreamtime @ G,
Indigenous Round
• Club Fostership
• Kickstart - female programme proposed
• Flying Boomerangs
• Indigenous Academics
• Ambassadors for life
• Indigenous All Starts
• AFL remote regional development
programme
Not stated Not stated
Table 1.(Continued).
6 H. MAXWELL ET AL.
Sub-
mission
number
Submission origin
(name of individual
or organization)
Submission
description Submission type
Focus area/s
(state/urban/
rural/remote)
Submission focus (programme/s,
gender focus)
Programmes
involving
Indigenous women
as role models/
mentors
Evidence of indigenous women’s
sports participation (for example
participation data)
21 North Queensland
Toyota Cowboys
Sports Club Report on programmes QLD Rural and
Remote
• Education – Learn Earn Legend! pro-
gramme
• The Every Day Counts initiative
• The Obe Geia Challenge programme
Not stated 2011–2014 of the 5 Indigenous staff
were female 45 % participants
female
22 Titians 4 Tomorrow NGO O verview of programmes QLD Remote • Education – Learn, Earn, Legend pro-
gramme
• Titians Achievement Program
Not stated 50 % female participation
23 Rumbalara Football
Netball Club and
Kaiela Institute
Limited
Sports Club Overview of the club and
programmes
VIC Rural • Male and Female
• Indigenous Football and Netball Club
• Family orientated club
Yes 8 women’s netball teams
24 Tennis Australia NSO Letter Overview of pro-
grammes
Australia Wide Learn Earn Legend! program Yes, Evonne Gool-
agong Cawley, (a
Wiradjuri women)
and an ambassa-
dor + 15 Indige-
nous coaches and
role models in the
Learn Earn Legend
programme
Evonne Goolagong Foundation has
funded 32 Indigenous students to
attend Pymble Ladies College in
Sydney
25 Queensland Rugby
Union
SSO Overview of programmes QLD Rural/
remote
Queensland Reds Indigenous Program, 3
strands:
• Reds Future Indigenous Leaders Program
• Learn Earn Legend! Program
• Indigenous Employment Program
Not stated Not stated
Table 1.(Continued).
(Continued)
SPORT IN SOCIETY 7
(Continued)
Sub-
mission
number
Submission origin
(name of individual
or organization)
Submission
description Submission type
Focus area/s
(state/urban/
rural/remote)
Submission focus (programme/s,
gender focus)
Programmes
involving
Indigenous women
as role models/
mentors
Evidence of indigenous women’s
sports participation (for example
participation data)
26 Queensland Aborig-
inal and Islander
Health Council
(QAHIC)
NGO – Health Letter Overview of
programmes
QLDRural/
remote
• Male and female programmes
• Queensland Murri Rugby League
Carnivals
• Ella 7s, 47 teams in 2012
Not stated 6 women’s teams in Ella 7s
competition
27 Australian Drug
Foundation
NGO Letter Australia Wide • Male and female
• Good Sports Indigenous Program
Not stated Not stated
28 Netball Australia NSO Overview of programmes Australia Wide Women only programmes Yese.g. Marcia Ella
Duncan and the
Pearlers
Not given
29 Dr Daryl Adair
and Dr Megan
Stronach
Academics Document detailing
research and issues in
the area
Australia Wide • Questions participation rates
• Cautions against overemphasis on Indig-
enous sportive abilities
• Demonstrates challenges for Indigenous
athletes transitioning out of sport
Not stated Not stated
30 Hockey Australia NSO Overview of National
Indigenous Hockey
Australia Program (NIHP)
Australia Wide
NT – remote
QLD - remote
• Male and females programmes
• The Women’s Sport Leadership Program
– designed to equip women in remote
Indigenous communities with sport
management and administration skills
Yes Indigenous am-
bassadors such as
Nova Peris Knee-
bone (Olympic
Gold Medallist
2010–2011, the Hockey Queensland
Remote and Indigenous
Program secured funding for
the employment of two young
Indigenous girls
31 Ballarat and District
Aboriginal Co-op
(BADAC)
NGO Letter regarding Active
lifestyle programme
VIC Rural Active Lifestyle programme for both
genders
Not stated Not stated
32 Former Origin Greats
Queensland
Government
Funded Or-
ganisation
(GOV)
Letter about Achieving
results Through Indige-
nous Education (ARTIE)
QLD Education – Male and females programmes Male only Not stated
Table 1.(Continued).
8 H. MAXWELL ET AL.
Sub-
mission
number
Submission
origin (Name
of individual or
organization)
Submission
description Submission type
Focus area/s
(state/urban/
rural/remote)
Submission focus (programme/s,
gender focus)
Programmes
involving
Indigenous women
as role models/
mentors
Evidence of indigenous women’s
sports participation (for example
participation data)
33 Hockey Queensland
Inc
SSO Overview of programmes
including the Remote
and Indigenous Hockey
Program (RIHP)
QLD Remote • Male and female
• Based on: Embrace diversity, respecting
culture, local solutions, small steps
to success, building partnerships and
making Hockey stronger
• Development of Rubies team – 1st
Indigenous women’s only national and
international team
Yes from the
Rubiesincludes:
Shyneal Saunders,
Jasmine Cleland,
Samantha Mor-
ganson and Bec
Fatnowna
3000 participants from both genders
34 Vicsport NGO – Sport Report VICRural/urban Male and females programmes should
focus on-
• Community engagement
• Unstructured activities
• Social and recreational participation
• Community role models
• Capacity building in sports organizations
• Taking a long term view
Yes focusing on
community role
models
Rates of sedentary behaviour for
Indigenous women are higher than
men at 82% compared to 67% for
Indigenous men (Pink, 2008)
35 Cricket Australia NSO Report Australia Wide Male and females programmes Women’s
teams in the Imparjja Cup
Not stated Indigenous Australian girls at junior
level (4–14 years) represented 1%
of the total
36 Football Federation
Victoria
SSO Discussion of the Indige-
nous Football Strategy
‘Football Dreaming’
VIC Urban/rural • Male and females programmes
• Football dreaming programme
Yes – National
Female Coach
of the Year and
Indigenous leader,
Jamara Maza, from
Worawa Aborigi-
nal College
40% of the 300 participants in 3 state
football carnivals were female
37 Australian Rugby
Union Ltd
NSO Letter outlining Indigenous
Rugby Plan
Australia Wide • Male and females programmes
• Women’s Rugby 7s programme
Yes e.g. Bo de la Cruz
Table 1.(Continued).
(Continued)
SPORT IN SOCIETY 9
(Continued)
Sub-
mission
number
Submission
origin (Name
of individual or
organization)
Submission
description Submission type
Focus area/s
(state/urban/
rural/remote)
Submission focus (programme/s,
gender focus)
Programmes
involving
Indigenous women
as role models/
mentors
Evidence of indigenous women’s
sports participation (for example
participation data)
38 National Aboriginal
Sporting Chance
Academy
NGO Program overview NSW –
urbanrural
• Education for boys and girls
• Kungka Klub – Education and Arts for
Girls
• ARMtour (Athletes as role models)
Yes through ARM-
tour program
Not stated
39 Touch Football
Australia
NSO Program overview Australia Wide Focus on men’s competitions Not stated Not stated
40 Central Australian
Youth Link-Up
Service (CAYLUS)
NGO – Health Information about the
service
NT Remote • Holiday programmes
• Infrastructure upgrades
Not stated Not stated
41 Government of
South Australia
State
Government
Letter from the Office for
SA Recreation and Sport
SA – urban/
rural/remote
Provides sport and active recreation
programmes and services to Indigenous
communities in South Australia.
Not stated Not stated
42 Department of
Families, Housing,
Community
Services and In-
digenous Affairs
National
Government
Overview of programmes Australia Wide (1) ational Plan to Reduce Violence Against
Women and their Children 2010-2022
Programmes with a sporting focus included:
• The Australian Netball Association – for
a peer education and mentoring pro-
gramme for Indigenous young women.
• The AFL online violence prevention
education tool.
• The National Rugby League (NRL) media
campaign
(2) Sports Leadership Grants and Scholar-
ships for Women Program
(3) Youth in Communities Program
Yes Since November 2002 – 20,600 wom-
en have benefited from the Sports
Leadership Grants Programme
with a total funding allocation of
$3.7 million.
Table 1.(Continued).
10 H. MAXWELL ET AL.
Sub-
mission
number
Submission origin
(name of individual
or organization)
Submission
description Submission type
Focus area/s
(state/urban/
rural/remote)
Submission focus (programme/s,
gender focus)
Programmes
involving
Indigenous women
as role models/
mentors
Evidence of indigenous women’s
sports participation (for example
participation data)
43 Department of
Health and Ageing
National
Government
Summary of activities Australia Wide Male and female programmes include:
• Indigenous Chronic Disease Package
• Healthy Communities Initiative
• National Physical Activity Guidelines
• Health Promotion activities e.g. Vibe
Australia and Move it Mob Style
• Promoting a healthy Australia
Yes – male and
females in Vibe
Australia and
Move it Mob Style
In 2004–2005, more Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander females than
males were considered sedentary
(51% compared with 42%).
44 Ms Heidi Norman Academic E-mail regarding New
South Wales (NSW)
Knockout
NSW Rural • Male and female
• 14 Women’s teams
Not stated 14 Women’s teams in NSW knockout
45 Royal Life Saving
Society Northern
Territory (NT)
Branch)
SSO Letter Program reports NT Remote • Remote pool infrastructure
• Prevention of drowning
Not stated Not stated
46 Queensland Govern-
ment
State
Government
Letter detailing 4
Indigenous programmes
QLD Urban/
rural /remote
4 Indigenous programmes for males and
females:
• Sport and Recreation Active Inclusion
Program
• Indigenous Grants Program
• Learning Earning Active Places (LEAP)
Strategy
• Indigenous Community Sport and Recre-
ation Program.
Not stated Not stated
47 Mr Joe Shaw Private
Individual
Details regarding online
sports training for Indig-
enous Australians
Australia Wide Evashaw online sports training for all
communities
Not stated Not stated
Table 1.(Continued).
(Continued)
SPORT IN SOCIETY 11
(Continued)
Sub-
mission
number
Submission origin
(name of individual
or organization)
Submission
description Submission type
Focus area/s
(state/urban/
rural/remote)
Submission focus (programme/s,
gender focus)
Programmes
involving
Indigenous women
as role models/
mentors
Evidence of indigenous women’s
sports participation (for example
participation data)
48 Department of
Education,
Employment
and Workplace
Relations
National
Government
Letter detailing 3 pro-
grammes:
• No School, No Play
• The spor ting chance
• Learn, Earn, Legend
Australia Wide • Sporting chance academies – 7 girls
academies in WA, 4 in NT, 1 in NSW
• Role Models and Leaders Australia
Program: based in Western Australia and
delivers seven girls' Academies and an
Education Engagement Strategy project.
The focus of the Academy projects is on
engaging girls in education using sport
as a hook.
• Learn, Earn, Legend – male focus
Yes in sporting
chance academies
Girls Rugby Union/League Program
attendance rates in 2012:
Program
Nos of
Females
% of
females
Souths 15 40.5
NRL Western
Sydney
159 48.5
NSW Origin
Legends
18 45
NSW Rugby Union 16 43.2
Titans 2012 120 53.6
Cowboys 2012 94 48.5
Broncos 2012 82 55.4
Northern pride 29 54.7
QLD Reds 10 27
Total 461 49.6
49 The Indigenous
Marathon Project
NGO – Sport Report on programmes Australian wide • Marathon and distance running
programs
• Certificate IV in Health & Leisure
• Fun runs
• All program
participants en-
couraged to take n
leadership roles
• Announced first Indigenous female
(I only) to be included in program
50 Newcrest Mining
Ltd and Western
Desert Sports
Council
Business and
NGO
Letter WARemote • Western Desert Sports Council
programmes
• Proposal for a Western Desert Alliance
between sport and music
• Male and female
Not stated Not stated
Table 1.(Continued).
12 H. MAXWELL ET AL.
Sub-
mission
number
Submission origin
(name of individual
or organization)
Submission
description Submission type
Focus area/s
(state/urban/
rural/remote)
Submission focus (programme/s,
gender focus)
Programmes
involving
Indigenous women
as role models/
mentors
Evidence of indigenous women’s
sports participation (for example
participation data)
51 Department of
Regional Australia,
Local Government,
Arts and Sport and
Australian Sports
Commission (ASC)
National
Government
Report on 3 aspect:
• Indigenous sport and
Active Recreation
Programs
• Australian Sports Com-
mission initiatives
• Funding to NSO’s
• Sport Demonstration
projects
Australia Wide • Indigenous Sport and Active Recreation
Program (ISAPP)
• Indigenous Sport Development Officer
Program (ISDOS)
• Elite Indigenous Travel and Accommoda-
tion Assistance Program (EITAAP)
• Participation funds for NSOs
• Active After School Communication
Programs
Yes ABS National Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander Social Survey (2008-
9) found only 23.3 % of Indigenous
women had participated in sport
and recreation in the last 12
months.Participants in the ISAPP
funded programmes in 2012/13
will be around 50 000 Indigenous
women or one third of partici-
pantsActivities organized by ISDOS
have a 46 % female participation
rate
52 Football Federation
Australia
NSO – Sport Letter Report on - Football
Dreaming - Indigenous
Football Development
Program (IFDP)
Australia
WideNT/QLD
specifically
• Football Dreaming - Indigenous Football
Development Program (IFDP)
• Indigenous Football Tournaments
• Male and female
Not stated 2 000 - 10 – 16 year old male and
female Indigenous participants
in IFDP
53 Institute for Urban
Indigenous Health
NGO – Health Report on 3 programmes:
• Indigenous Youth Sports
programme
• Deadly choices
• Work it out: Chronic dis-
ease rehab programme
QLDUrban • Indigenous Youth Sports Program link to
University education
• The Deadly Choices Health education
program
• Work it Out Chronic Disease Rehabilita-
tion Program
• Male and female
Not stated Not stated
54 Northern Pride
Rugby League
Football Club
Sports Club Letter QLDRural/
remote
• Take Pride Program – Education, employ-
ment, health and wellbeing
• Male and female
Not stated 11, 343 female participants
55 Left-Field Business
Solutions
Business Letter Australia wide • Partnerships
• Security of funding/flexibility/independ-
ent evaluation process
Not stated Not stated
Table 1.(Continued).
(Continued)
SPORT IN SOCIETY 13
Sub-
mission
number
Submission origin
(name of individual
or organization)
Submission
description Submission type
Focus area/s
(state/urban/
rural/remote)
Submission focus (programme/s,
gender focus)
Programmes
involving
Indigenous women
as role models/
mentors
Evidence of indigenous women’s
sports participation (for example
participation data)
56 Mr John Bell Private indi-
vidual
Critique of programmes Australia wide
with NT focus
• Indigenous Marathon Project (both
genders)
Not stated Not stated
57 Dunghutti Sport and
Recreation Indige-
nous Corporation
NGO Report on programme NSW - regional • ‘Ganangga’ youth at risk programme –
boys only
• New mountain biking proposal will
include girls/women
No Women not yet involved
58 Heart Foundation NGO – Health Letter and Program report NT - remote • Healthy Life Style Program (both
genders)
• Northern Territory - more participation
opportunities needed for Indigenous
communities
Not stated Not stated
Table 1.(Continued).
14 H. MAXWELL ET AL.
Literature review
e signicance of sport to Indigenous Australians has been demonstrated in various his-
torical, biographical, and community studies (Tatz 1995; Gorman 2004; Hayward 2006). In
rural and remote areas of the Australian continent, as well as the islands of the Torres Strait,
sport oen appears to have particular cultural resonance to ATSI communities. However,
a Human Rights and Equality Opportunity Commission report (Oliver 2006) expressed
concerns at a lack of research concerning Indigenous participation in sport, concluding that:
while there is a plethora of information available on the general number and characteristics of
Australian people who participate in sport and recreational activities (including age, gender,
frequency and type of participation), very little data focuses on the ethnic or cultural back-
ground of participants. (Oliver 2006, 19)
e Commission Report noted that ‘while many sporting organisations have dedicated
Indigenous sporting programs, some have yet to develop specic initiatives to promote
Indigenous participation in sport’ (Oliver 2006, 20). e report also emphasized that
Indigenous people are ‘not represented proportionally in sporting organisations, and very
few have represented at the elite and national level’ (Oliver 2006, 19). Since that time, a
small number of inquiries and investigations (for examples see Senate Standing Committee
on Environment Communications Information Technology and the Arts 2006; VicHealth
2010; Hajkowicz et al. 2013; Ware and Meredith 2013) have attempted to better understand
the role and signicance of sport for Indigenous Australians. e inquiries have typically
considered the health and social benets of participating in sport recruitment, retention
and attrition rates and trends, programme initiatives, programs barriers and facilitators
and leadership roles in sport. All of these reports demonstrated signicantly lower female
participation rates in sport than males, with rates of sedentary/low levels of exercise notably
higher among Indigenous Australian females than Indigenous Australian males (82% com-
pared with 67%). e degree to which these investigations examined the gender dimensions
of Indigenous sport varied. Suce to say there has yet to be a comprehensive inquiry into
the needs, desires and experiences of ATSI women in Australian sport.
Sporting acumen has been a great source of pride in the wider Indigenous community.
However, Colin Tatz, the most prolific Australian author to have focused on the nature of
involvement of Indigenous athletes in the nation’s physical culture, claimed that:
what black Australian woman has endured, no white woman – native or migrant – has ever
endured, or come close to enduring. e gradations of discrimination, the scales and dimen-
sions of injustice, are enormous … In sporting terms, if white women are having difficulty
getting to first or second base in sport, then by comparison their black sisters are not coming
within ‘cooee’ of the ballpark … Of all such Cinderellas, black women’s sport has the strongest
case for encouragement, change, and a fair go. (Tatz 1987, 98–100)
In a later assessment of the situation of Indigenous women and sport, Tatz remained
despondent:
because the normal view in traditional communities of women is they are childbearing, they
ought to bear children, they bring an economic benefit to the community … So yes, there is a
very serious problem of how a young Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander … girl gets out from
under the expectations of the clan, of the community, to break away and join an Institute of
Sport in Canberra, leave home at 12 and not stay with a cottage mother. (Tatz 2012, 8)
Finally, Tatz pointed the finger at the disparity of funding between Indigenous men’s and
women’s sport, commenting:
SPORT IN SOCIETY 15
Let me say to you that, for every $100 that is spent on Aboriginal male sport, you are lucky if $1
is spent on women’s sport. ere is a gross disparity not only in the minds of sporting bodies
but in the minds of Aboriginal communities that sport is for men and it is the footy that is the
big deal, not the netball, not the basketball, not the field hockey and the various other games
that women can participate in. (Tatz 2012, 4)
It must be said that the state of aairs alluded to by Tatz is little dierent from the gender
inequities traditionally faced by women in most sports over many years. However, in the
case of Indigenous Australian women, the problems seem even more salient. A key factor
is that there are very few female Indigenous sporting role models compared to the number
of male Indigenous role models. is is evident in particular, in the sports of boxing, rugby
league, Australian Rules Football and athletics. e three notable exceptions are Cathy
Freeman (athletics), Nova Peris (women’s hockey) and Evonne Goolagong-Cawley (tennis)
(Stronach, Maxwell, and Taylor 2016). Unfortunately, these talented women do not represent
the broader female Indigenous population.
A decade ago Senate Standing Committee on Environment Communications
Information Technology and the Arts (2006) prompted by concern over women’s lower
sport participation rates compared to men, recognized Indigenous women as a sub group
displaying even lower participation rates that women in the general population. ey
designated Indigenous women as having ‘special needs’ which included a requirement
for suitable sporting facilities (2006). One submission to that inquiry commented on the
cultural barriers such as lack of cross-cultural awareness by non-Indigenous deliverers,
another noted that some cultural issues tended to be exacerbated by socio-economic
issues such as a lack of transportation, particularly in remote and regional areas (WA
Netball 2006). Some years later, Maxwell et al. (2013) investigated participation in sport
among culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) groups of women and discovered that
subtle socio-cultural constraints on the CALD women’s participation perpetuated. ese
included the use by sporting codes of male ocials and/or male coaches causing women
to feel uncomfortable. Few changes to how sport is organized and managed in Australia
were noted (Maxwell et al. 2013).
Focussing specically on Indigenous Australian women, Ware and Meredith (2013) from
their synthesis of over 30 national and international studies suggested a number of factors
that were likely to enhance engagement of ATSI females in sport. ese included: (i) quality
programmes; (ii) linking sport with other services and opportunities (for example, health
services, jobs or education); (iii) promoting a programme rather than a desired outcome
improves the uptake of activities; (iv) involving Indigenous communities in the planning
and implementation of programmes; (v) keeping costs to a minimum, and (vi) creating
safe spaces for sport, which allows individuals to participate without fear of retribution or
being stigmatized.
In 2013, Hajkowicz and colleagues predicted that in the future, sports in Australia
would need to cater for the changing cultural make-up of Australia. ey pointed out
that Australian society has become, and will continue to become, highly multicultural,
and that dierent cultures have dierent sporting preferences and recreational habits.
Sporting organizations will, therefore, be challenged with capturing the interest and
involvement of diverse cultures, including Indigenous Australians (Hajkowicz et al.
2013).
16 H. MAXWELL ET AL.
Conceptual framework
e purpose of this study is to investigate the policies and practices of sport providers in
relation to the inclusion of Indigenous women. Bailey’s (2008) social inclusion framework
is therefore applicable to this exploration of how sport providers try to engage Indigenous
women in their sporting activities. e four dimensional model of social inclusion involves
(i) spatial, (ii) relational, (iii) functional, and (iv) power dimensions. Previous approaches to
investigating social inclusion in sporting settings have focused on active citizenship, social
cohesion, capacity building and personal development (Bloom, Grant, and Watt 2005; Kelly
2011). Each of these concepts is incorporated in Bailey’s (2008) framework.
First, spatial inclusion in sport contexts refers to the physical, economic, social and
cultural proximity of individuals in shared activities. Spatial inclusion within sport is the
concept of creating space to experience sport by accommodating individual participation
conditions which may be associated with individual cultural, religious, or socio-economic
requirements. Social inclusion ‘relates to proximity and closing of social and economic
distances’ (Bailey 2008, 89).
Second, relational inclusion is dened as social acceptance, feelings of belonging, and
acknowledgement (Bailey 2008) as well as social bonding (Tonts 2005), identity conrma-
tion, and safety (Walseth 2006). Participation in sport may provide status, value recognition
and social validation (Weiss 2001) which contribute to the formation of social identity (Long
and Sanderson 2001; Walseth 2006; Palmer 2009). Sport may facilitate the development of
a collective identity which can lead to local feelings of pride (Long and Sanderson 2001).
e relational dimension of social inclusion may be considered through the growth of
social bonds. Tonts (2005) described social inclusion processes involving the maturation
of strong bonding ties within sporting clubs in rural communities, and found that these
bonds were benecial to the included individuals. e social bonding elements of belong-
ing and acceptance may operate alongside elements of isolation and lack of acceptance in
community sport settings (McCue and Kourouche 2010).
ird, the functional dimension of social inclusion involves people acquiring new skills
and knowledge to participate. Personal development in sport settings may result in improved
self-esteem, self-condence and peer acceptance (Morris et al. 2003; Crabbe et al. 2006;
Cowell 2007).
Finally, the power dimension of social inclusion is conceptualized in the Bailey frame-
work as a redistribution of power, resources and collaborations within community sport
settings (Lawson 2005). Sport contributes to social inclusion to the extent that it increases
individuals’ sense of control over their lives, it extends social networks, and it increases
community cohesion and civic pride (Bailey 2008). Long and Sanderson (2001) argue that
successful sports-based social inclusion programmes empower communities by support-
ing self-determination and control over resources in the context of sporting programmes.
Additionally, other theorists indicate that successful social inclusion programmes feature
both an increasing sense of individual power and a change from traditional ‘top down’
approaches to inclusion to ‘bottom up’ approaches which contribute to empowerment
(Coalter 2005). us spatial, relational, functional and power dimensions make up the
four domains of inclusion and together represent a multidimensional framework.
In the present study, Bailey’s (2008) social inclusion framework is applied at the organ-
izational level. is level if analysis is appropriate to purpose, as the aim of the research is
SPORT IN SOCIETY 17
to identify practices undertaken by sport providers in order to facilitate the social inclusion
of Indigenous women in sport. e framework is used to understand in what ways and to
what extent, sport, health, community and government organizations are seeking to enable
the inclusion of Indigenous women in sport programmes. e framework is used to guide
our understanding of how these organizations value diversity, recognize and respect indi-
vidual and group dierences, enhance capabilities, support decision-making and provide
accessible sporting opportunities.
The parliamentary inquiry (‘The Inquiry’)
Despite the inquiries outlined earlier, it is not fully understood why sport participation rates
among Indigenous women are so low. ere is a lack of information about, and therefore
comprehension of, the engagement patterns and motivations of Indigenous females in sport.
Little wonder then that the Parliamentary Inquiry in 2012/2013 called for:
A particular focus on sporting bodies increasing opportunities for Indigenous participation,
including opportunities for Indigenous women. (House of Representatives Standing Committe
on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Aairs 2013, ix)
e Inquiry came about as a result of a previous House of Representatives Standing
Committe on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Aairs Committee inquiry regarding
the high level of involvement of Indigenous youth in the criminal justice system. e earlier
inquiry found that mentors and role models through sport could assist youth at risk and
therefore was an area worthy of further investigation (House of Representatives Standing
Committee on Aboringinal and Torres Strait Islanders Aairs 2011).
On 20 September 2012, the Federal Minister for Families, Community Services and
Indigenous Aairs, Jenny Macklin, together with the Federal Minister for Sport, Kate Lundy,
asked the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander Aairs to inquire into the contribution of sport to Indigenous wellbeing. e
Committee Chair, Mr .Shayne Neumann MP stated that:
We know that sport can contribute to promoting teamwork, healthy living and community
cohesion in Indigenous communities. e challenge, then, is to increase participation in sport
and remove barriers to participation. Sporting bodies, non-government bodies and the gov-
ernment all have a role to play. (Media release # 1–24 September 2012 by Chair, Mr .Shayne
Neumann MP)
Subsequently a call for submissions from sporting bodies, government and non-government
organizations (NGOs) was issued through the Australian Parliamentary website (http://
www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/House), nine media releases and
direct approaches to individuals and organizations with a known interest in the subject.
e nine-month Inquiry (September 2012–June 2013) focused on two issues; (i) the
goal of increasing Indigenous participation in sport, and (ii) utilizing sport to improve
Indigenous wellbeing in terms of supporting ‘Close the Gap’ targets.1 It is signicant to
note that in the Inquiry, gender was not a huge focus. e Committee comprised eight
members of parliament (four female and four male) from both major political parties –
conservative and labour. e Committee began with the assumption that sport could be
used as a ‘hook’ or ‘vehicle’ to provide opportunities for communities to come together,
to encourage ‘spin-o ’ Indigenous participation in education and employment, and to
demonstrate positive behaviours through local and elite sporting role models. e Terms
18 H. MAXWELL ET AL.
of Reference of the Inquiry required the Committee to examine the contribution of sport
to Indigenous wellbeing and mentoring, with a particular focus on:
• sporting bodies increasing opportunities for Indigenous participation, including
opportunities for Indigenous women,
• non-government organizations utilizing sport as a vehicle to improve outcomes for
Indigenous people, and
• the contribution of Indigenous sporting programmes, as supplied by the sporting
codes, the private and NGO sectors, and Federal government assistance to Closing the
Gap targets (House of Representatives Standing Committe on Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander Aairs 2013, ix).
Submissions were invited from state and local government agencies, regional sporting
assemblies, peak sporting bodies, sports clubs, organizations and individuals, and 58 written
submissions were received. e Committee also conducted six public hearings in Canberra,
Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane.
As a result of the inquiry on 24 June 2013 a suite of recommendations were made which
included a recommendation to Government to prioritize sports programmes for Indigenous
women (House of Representatives Standing Committe on Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander Aairs 2013, v). e inquiry resulted in a 107-page report which provides a val-
uable resource for researchers seeking to understand aspirations to improve Indigenous
engagement in sport in Australia. An exciting opportunity is thus provided for researchers
to explore and evaluate the large volume of submissions made in 2012/2013 to this perti-
nent Commonwealth parliamentary body. With that in mind, the next section of the paper
outlines the methodology used to guide the analysis of ‘e Inquiry’.
Methodology
e current study consists of a qualitative content analysis of the 58 submissions presented as
formal evidence to the Inquiry. Submissions were received from Indigenous representatives,
sport organizations, community agencies, academics and industry experts. In addition, the
study includes an analysis of the transcripts of the six days of public hearings.
Content analysis was used to identify, and analyse occurrences of specic messages and
message characteristics embedded in the texts. Content analysis is frequently used for a
realist approach interested in how participants talk and reect their ideas, thoughts and
feelings. is is a dierent approach from ‘discourse analysis’ which may be used to examine
participants’ linguistic repertoires and how these are linked to dierent representations
of the social world. e majority of content analyses employ quantitative procedures that
involve counting and enumerating units of analysis. However, in qualitative content analysis,
researchers are more interested in the meanings associated with messages than with the
number of times message variables occur. Berg (2007) testies to the use of content analysis
in qualitative research, arguing:
Content analysis provides a method for obtaining good access to the words of the text or tran-
scribed accounts oered by subjects. is oers, in turn, an opportunity for the investigator
to learn about how subjects or authors of textual materials view their social words. From this
perspective, content analysis is not a reductionist, positivist approach. Rather it is a passport to
listening to the words of the text, and understanding better the perspective(s) of the producer
of these words. (Berg 2007, 242)
SPORT IN SOCIETY 19
e content of each of the submissions and the transcripts from the hearings was read and
coded by the authors to identify the material that related to the focus of this study. is was
followed by a second level analysis on 28 submissions that fullled the following criteria:
• e submission specically mentioned female participants;
• Specic women’s and/or girls’ programmes/activities were mentioned; and/or
• Events, carnivals and competitions involving females were outlined.
To aid in storing, integrating, indexing and coding the data, the NVivo 9 soware package
was utilized. e subsequent thematic analysis process followed guidelines established by
Miles and Huberman (1994). is involved an initial broad coding of all themes relevant to
the research questions, to identify emerging and recurring themes. Codes were analysed and
condensed into dominant themes. emes were derived from ideas, thoughts and concepts
described in the submissions. e identication of themes was based on ‘recurrent and
distinctive features of participants’ accounts, characterizing particular perceptions and/or
experiences, which the researcher[s saw] as relevant to the research question’ (King and
Horrocks 2010, 150).
Findings
is section presents both quantitative and qualitative ndings from the submission and
transcribed public hearings that comprise the corpus of the Inquiry material. e need for
information was echoed at the Melbourne public hearing on 22 November 2012, when
Professor Bill Fogarty (2012) posed some salient questions:
We need to look at the models that are actually working. What is it about Deadly Sisters2 that
is working? What are the things that you think could be working better? How applicable are
they to other codes and other areas? e nal really big thing is around the grassroots capacity.
What are the models that are working really well? Again, what are the parts that are adaptable
and what are the parts that are not adaptable? Clontarf3 is a fantastic thing and it has become
the catch-all phrase of a great model, but does it work in other codes?4 We do not know. How
well is it really working for girls and women? We do not know.
In total, 1366 pages of text were received. In addition, the transcripts of the six days of
public hearings created an additional 161 pages from eight individual witnesses and 39
organizations. e 58 written submissions were as follows:
• 12 from National Sport Organisations (NGOs),
• six from State Sport Organisations (SSOs),
• ve from local sports clubs,
• eight from government bodies,
• 10 from individuals (ve from academics and ve from industry experts/practition-
ers), and
• 17 from non-government organizations (NGOs).
e 12 NSOs which provided submissions were:
• Australian Rules Football
• Basketball Australia
• Cricket Australia
• Football Federation Australia
20 H. MAXWELL ET AL.
• Hockey Australia
• Netball Australia
• Australian Rugby League
• Australian Rugby Union
• Soball Australia
• Swimming Australia
• Tennis Australia
• Touch Football Australia.
is represents only 19% of the 63 NSOs which received funding from Australian Sports
Commission in 2011/2012 (Australian Sports Commission 2012). It is also worth noting
that with the exception of swimming, the most popular Australian participation sports of
walking, running, jogging and cycling (ABS 2012), managed by Athletics Australia and
Cycling Australia, were not represented in the submissions.
e submissions highlighted examples of programmes and activities that focused
specically on Indigenous participation in sport (for details see Table 1). However, they
provided little specic statistical information about Indigenous women’s participation
or the nature of their involvement. Indeed, the Committee reported that even though it
had requested participation rates from the sporting codes, only about a third of those
bodies could, or did, provide such information. Of the 18 submissions (31% of the total
submissions) that did provide participation rates, most failed to dierentiate between
male and females – whether in terms of athletic participation, stang and associated
activities, such as volunteering, ociating etc. ere were, none the less, some useful
data:
• e National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey (NATSISS) 2008 (ABS
2008) found that only 30.1% of those aged 15years and over had participated in sport
and physical activities during the 12months prior to interview. e participation rate
for males was 37.7% and for females 23.3%.
• e Australian Rugby League National Census of 2011 identied 8830 and 532 female
players. is is, of course, a male-centred sport.
• e Northern Cowboys (Rugby League Club) stated that in 2011, four out of ve of
its Indigenous sta were female.
• Soball Northern Territory reported that it had a key aim of increasing participation
levels of Indigenous women and children living in remote communities.
• Cricket Australia reported that participation rates among Indigenous Australians at
junior levels (aged 4–14) were 5% of boys, and 1% of girls.
• Data drawn by respondents from the 2008 Census (ABS) reveal the following:
For Aboriginal children and young people aged 4–14, almost half (47%) had played
organized sport in the last 12months. Of those, 51% were boys, and 42% were girls.
Aboriginal girls and boys 4–8 years had lower participations rates (30% and 34%
respectively) than Aboriginal girls and boys aged 9–11years (57% and 63% respec-
tively), and 12–14year olds (51% and 59% respectively) (ABS 2008).
For Aboriginal girls aged 4–14years, the most popular sport was netball (13%) fol-
lowed by swimming (7%) and basketball (7%) (Commissioner for Children and Young
People WA 2012).
SPORT IN SOCIETY 21
is information around the participation rates of Indigenous women in specic sport-
ing activities largely reected the very low participation rates reported by the ABS (2012).
It seems logical, therefore, that this evidence provided to the Inquiry would lead to a rec-
ommendation that governments prioritize sports programmes for Indigenous women to
increase participation rates, as, indeed, is the case. Two recommendations were made spe-
cically in relation to women and girls; one involved prioritizing strategies within sport
programmes to increase participation opportunities and the other was to prioritize funding
to this cohort. However, specic objectives, targets or benchmarks are not detailed.
e submissions do however reveal important information that can guide our under-
standing of how some sports organizations and other sport providers engage Indigenous
Australian women in sport. Utilizing Bailey’s (2008) social inclusion dimensions (power,
relational, functional, and spatial) as the framework for analysis, a number of practices that
facilitate the inclusion of Indigenous women in sporting activities and programmes were
identied. ese include:
(i) culturally appropriate activities (spatial, relational and power dimensions);
(ii) self-management of activities (power and functional dimensions);
(iii) opportunities to build competencies and leadership (power and functional
dimensions);
(iv) assistance with costs and transport (spatial dimension), and
(v) building partnerships (relational and power dimension).
Each of these ve practices is briey discussed below with reference to the relevant
literature and previous research in the eld.
(1) Cultural safety
A number of the submissions spoke about the importance of providing culturally suitable
and culturally safe sporting opportunities. Cultural appropriateness or relevance involves
the provision of participation opportunities in sporting activities delivered with an acknowl-
edgement and celebration of Indigenous culture, thereby providing spatial inclusion. is
socio-cultural aspect of spatial inclusion involves the cultural modication of sport which
in turn enables access and opportunity for Indigenous women. A sport provider explained
that deliverers should:
embrace diversity and modify programs to suit the local needs of the community rather than
trying to change the community to suit the program being delivered … [for example] e
Remote Indigenous Hockey Program (RIHP) has modied the HOCKEY ED Program to ensure
it is designed to meet the needs of the indigenous communities we deliver to. (Submission #
33 Hockey Queensland Inc.)
An example of a culturally appropriate activity is the delivery of sport in ‘traditional lan-
guages where possible to ensure Indigenous participants have increased opportunities of
learning and understanding and feeling comfortable’ (Submission # 33 Hockey Queensland
Inc.). e feeling of comfort assists with the development of feelings of belonging and the
growth of social bonds, elements of the relational dimension of social inclusion.
One aspect of this practice is the delivery of activities in a culturally safe and secure
environment. Evidence suggests that both Onkaparinga Rugby Union (Submission # 1B
Mr .Ross Tanimu) and Hockey Queensland (Submission # 33) have endeavoured to create
culturally safe spaces for sport to enable individuals to participate without fear of retribu-
tion or being stigmatized, as discussed by Ware and Meredith (2013) as well as Ruhanen
22 H. MAXWELL ET AL.
and Whitford (2011). is nding also concurs with recent studies by Maxwell et al. (2013)
which found that to overcome this challenge, sport providers may be required to provide
cultural safety by changing how sport is organized, managed and delivered. A spokesperson
for Onkaparinga Rugby Union explained that ‘the group work is designed to be more cul-
turally appropriate in a setting the students and teacher feel comfortable with’ (Submission #
1B Mr .Ross Tanimu). For example, ndings suggest that sports carnivals might be delivered
as ‘modern day corroborees’.5
Research on the Knockout6 highlights the signicance of the Knockout carnival as a social
event, as a ‘modern day corroborree’ … e Knockout emerged in the context of consider-
able social, economic, cultural and political change. It is a vehicle for the continuation and
regeneration of cultural traditions. It has been the means by which new communities are
forged, where love is realised and stars made. It has created opportunities to reconnect and
celebrate being Aboriginal in a jubilant all-Aboriginal environment. (Submission # 44 Ms
.Heidi Norman)
A Netball Australia spokesperson noted that:
e carnivals provide a rare contemporary chance to rearm connections, the importance
of elders, geographic lineage, Aboriginal heritage, language, tribal aliations and cultural
dierences. Connection to place, people and symbolism of Aboriginal-only sporting compe-
tition helps Indigenous people to identify sport with existing values and cultural practices.
(Submission # 28 Netball Australia)
e celebration of Indigenous culture can be linked to Indigenous art, music and dance.
Hockey Queensland explained that:
Celebrating the importance of local and Indigenous culture is integral to the success of the
Rubies7 programme. Indigenous culture is brought into all aspects of the team, including
uniforms, branding, logos and even hockey equipment. (Submission # 33 Hockey Queensland
Inc.)
In summary, submissions by the Onkaparinga Rugby Union, Ms .Heidi Norman, Hockey
Queensland Inc. and Netball Australia all indicated that culturally appropriate activities
could be incorporated into sport to facilitate participation of women and girls. e impor-
tance of linking sport and culture in order to empower Indigenous women reects previous
research around Indigenous women in sport conducted by Gray, Macniven, and omson
(2013), Stronach, Maxwell, and Taylor (2016) as well as investigations concerning the par-
ticipation of CALD women in sport (Maxwell et al. 2013).
(2) Taking ownership
Some sports organizations and sports programmes such as the ‘Deadly Sista Girlz’ pro-
gram (Submission # 28), Hockey Queensland (Submission # 33) and Soball Australia
(Submission # 12) sought to involve Indigenous communities in the planning and imple-
mentation of programmes. e strategy of self-management to promote engagement is
widely supported in the literature (omson, Darcy, and Pearce 2010; Ware and Meredith
2013; Stronach, Maxwell, and Taylor 2016). Self-management involves empowerment and
the development of Indigenous women’s agency.
Self- management encompasses Indigenous communities in the planning and implementa-
tion of activities. Encouraging self-management, facilitates, enables and encourages Indigenous
women to feel empowered to take on the running of their own sport. Strategies found in the
submissions which aimed to facilitate empowerment involved the development of sporting
leadership opportunities, greater recognition and encouragement of Indigenous women as
SPORT IN SOCIETY 23
athletes and role models, empowering Indigenous women athletes to use media to promote
their participation in sport, facilitating sporting careers, and community ownership of sport.
e development of self-direction for Indigenous women extends to sport providers
supporting community leadership and ownership of sporting programmes and activities.
e success of this strategy is seen, for example, in Rumbalara,8 the Mornington Island
Sports League project (Submission # 23) and in the evidence from the Brisbane hearing,
which described a successful Victorian surng program which was:
run by Indigenous people who had partnered with Surng Victoria to gain surng qualica-
tions … It was one where spirituality and connectedness happened very naturally as part of
the program. I guess the answer is moving programs so that they are run not just with but by
communities as well. (Dr .Rynne, University of Queensland, Brisbane Hearing, 6 December
2012, 38)
e Kaiela Institute9 stated that ‘ultimately, the club’s success comes down to the fact that
Rumbalara is well and truly owned by the Aboriginal community’ (Submission # 23).
Community leadership ‘ensured that families and the community were included and enjoyed
a sense of ownership … the program has now come full circle, with many children who
started as hockey players 10years ago returning now as adult supporters’ (Submission # 33
Hockey Queensland Inc.).
e importance and the positive outcomes of self-direction and recognizing Indigenous
women as athletes in the delivery of Indigenous women’s sports programmes is illustrated
in this recount from Hockey Queensland:
RIHP invited the team members to take ownership and involve themselves in the project. ese
young indigenous women were very positive with their response and became involved in many
aspects of program development, including promotion and media outreach (e.g. interviews,
lming, interview preparation and script development) … e Rubies were the rst women’s
Indigenous sports team from Australia to compete in an international competition, when they
visited Singapore to participate in the Singapore International Sixes Hockey Tournament in
March 2012. Aware of the history-making aspects of this achievement, they travelled with their
own documentary lm crew and have included their experiences in a DVD entitled Leading
the Way. (Submission #33, Hockey Queensland Inc.)
Self-direction was also found in the pathways Indigenous women used to develop sport
-
ing careers and become role models. Female Boomerangs10 participants were encouraged
to participate in a representative team at the National Women’s Australian Football League
Championships; this included a national tour with a three-match series (Submission # 20,
Australian Football League). Young women involved in the Remote and Indigenous Hockey
Program were encouraged to develop their potential as elite and high performance ath-
letes, within a Talent Identication Program in the Indigenous Pathways Support Program
(Submission # 33, Hockey Queensland Inc).
(3) Leading the way
e development of leadership opportunities provides a chance for Indigenous women
to extend their leadership abilities and qualities through their involvement in sport in
both playing and non-playing roles. is capacity building approach aligns with practices
adopted and recommended for sport development programmes with refugee and asylum
seekers (Bunde-Birouste, Bull, and McCarroll 2010), ‘at risk’ young people (Crabbe et al.
2006), CALD women (Multicultural Youth Aairs Network Queeensland 2008) and with
approaches designed to use sport as a vehicle for community empowerment (Partington
and Totten 2012).
24 H. MAXWELL ET AL.
e ‘Deadly Sista Girlz’ program (Submission # 28), Hockey Queensland (Submission
#33) and Soball Australia (Submission # 12) focus on the development of Indigenous
women as leaders in their chosen sports. Soball Australia stated that ‘soball is a very
high female participation sport for Indigenous women and girls. rough this sport women
are able to take on leadership roles as competition coordinators, coaches and managers’
(Submission # 12). Another submission commented that ‘the Women’s Sport Leadership
Program supported by the Hockey Queensland Remote and Indigenous Program is designed
to better equip women in remote Indigenous communities with the skills of management
and administration of the sport’ (Submission # 33, Hockey Queensland Inc). Furthermore:
Sport and mentoring programs must use Aboriginal people as role models and mentoring sta.
is ensures that the programs are driven by Aboriginal people, and are culturally appropriate
… e ‘Deadly Sista Girlz’ Netball Program is designed to build self-esteem and condence
in young disadvantaged women and it engages, inspires and empowers the young women to
become leaders in their families, schools and communities. (Submission # 28, Netball Australia)
(4) Backing the women
Spatial inclusion for Indigenous women in sport programmes is facilitated in a physi-
cal and economic sense through nancial assistance. e frequently mentioned structural
constraint – that of money – is found widely across research in this area and is particular
an issue in rural and remote areas (Ware and Meredith 2013). is is overcome to some
extent by the sport organizations keeping costs to a minimum to ensure broad access to
programmes. e theme of adequate resourcing sporting activities in terms of money for
registration fees, transport, equipment, and to pay qualied ocials was prominent. A
spokesperson for Onkaparinga Rugby Union explained:
We had 12 Aboriginal women players participating in the 2011 season, a small growth from
the 2010 season. Due to the low socioeconomic area, it is the responsibility for the coaching
sta to help where possible help reduce the cost for fees. Having nancial support to pay for
fees and playing equipment allowed the women to better concentrate on training drills and
game strategies. (Submission # 1, Mr .Ross Tanimu)
At a Canberra hearing a government spokeswomen provided details of nancial assistance
specically targeted at women including Indigenous women, explaining that:
Another initiative is the sports leadership grants in the Scholarships for Women program
which is a joint initiative between FaHCSIA and the Australian Sports Commission. at
programme has been in place since 2002. It provides development opportunities and training
for women, including Indigenous women, to reach their leadership potential within the sport
industry. Over 20,600 women have beneted from the programme with a total allocation of
$3.7 million. And Indigenous players from a range of sporting codes have been involved both
as mentors and participants. (Ms .Caroline Edwards, Manager, Strategic Priorities Queensland,
Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Aairs, Canberra
Hearing, 7 February 2013)
In a recommendation which specically involved Indigenous women, the Inquiry stated
that the government should prioritize funding for programmes designed to encourage
Indigenous women in sport. Accordingly, if this funding can be used to facilitate economic
inclusion through assistance with costs and transport it will be a key enabler.
(5) Working together
Evidence indicates that long term and established partnerships are critical ingredients
in assisting with the spatial, relational and power dimensions of social inclusion. Bailey’s
SPORT IN SOCIETY 25
(2008) power dimension of social inclusion also incorporates the concept of ‘community
capital’ which is developed through the facilitation of partnerships between community
sports organizations and the wider community. e RIHP, for example, has been supported
by Hockey Australia for the past 10years. Another important programme feature involves
the formation of partnerships between sporting bodies and government organizations and
with Indigenous organizations. For example:
Soball Australia and our Member States have been proactive in developing relationships and
working with Indigenous communities and a variety of other interested or key stakeholders,
including the Australian Government, the Australian Sports Commission, State Sport and
Recreation Departments, National Aboriginal Sporting Chance Academy (NASCA) and Red
Dust. (Submission # 12 Soball Australia)
Partnerships allow sport to be used as vehicles for tackling relevant social issues. Linking
sport with other services and opportunities (for example, health services, jobs or education)
has been shown to improve the uptake of these allied services by CALD women (Tsai and
Coleman 1999; Stronach, Maxwell, and Taylor 2016). In an Indigenous context, promot-
ing a programme rather than a desired outcome is said to improve the uptake of activities
(Ware and Meredith 2013). Sporting programmes were commonly associated with objectives
around healthy lifestyles, educational achievement and reducing risk taking behaviours. In
terms of specic issues, the projects aimed to use sport to tackle a range of issues such as
poor nutrition, petrol sning, binge drinking, poor self-esteem, low school attendance,
unemployment. For example:
e Gwabba Yorga, Gabba Warra program is an innovative, pilot program, aimed at engaging
Indigenous girls between 12 and 17years. e program focuses on increasing awareness about
the eects of binge drinking, reducing involvement in this activity and ultimately preventing
binge drinking altogether. Teaming with Netball WA and their positive role models enables
us to attract and engage girls in a healthy activity and couple this with the anti-binge drinking
message. (Submission # 28 Netball Australia)
In summary this analysis has identied several core practices used to include Indigenous
women across a range of successful sport projects. ese practices have focused on aorda-
ble, culturally appropriate, self-managed activities, involving leadership development and
partnerships. For these practices to be successful, adequate resourcing including facilities,
training and support is required backed by government policy. e inquiry notes that
‘sports policy has moved across Commonwealth Government portfolios numerous times
in the last ten years. (House of Representatives Standing Committe on Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander Aairs 2013, 13). is continuous movement makes consistency and
development of programmes dicult and oen fragmented. Progress in the delivery of
Indigenous sport programmes since the Senate Standing Committee on Environmental
Communications Information Technology and the Arts in 2006 has subsequently faced a
number of logistical challenges. However, programmes such as the Indigenous Sport and
Recreation Program (ISARP) and the Indigenous Sport Development Ocer Program
(ISDOP) represent examples of what can be achieved with adequate funding and support.
Conclusion
Despite the confronting, albeit limited, statistics presented to the Inquiry around Indigenous
women’s participation, there is a glimmer of hope. A number of national, state and local
26 H. MAXWELL ET AL.
sport organizations provided details of their policies and practices regarding participation
by Indigenous females in sport which adds to the very limited literature on ways to address
participation barriers (Ware and Meredith 2013). is facilitates our understanding of the
mechanisms that can be used to attract and retain Indigenous women, and thereby facili-
tate their social inclusion. Mechanisms used to facilitate Indigenous women’s participation
included the provision of culturally safe spaces (Ware and Meredith 2013) and culturally
appropriate programmes and activities (Fredericks, Cro, and Lamb 2002). ese involve
adaptations to traditional delivery structures and systems to overcome socio-cultural and
aective constraints (Tsai and Coleman 1999), thus enabling spatial and relational inclusion
(Bailey 2008). A recommendation of the Inquiry to provide funding for Indigenous sport
carnivals may assist with this practice.
Successful sporting programmes were shown to provide opportunities for Indigenous
women to manage, control and lead their own activities. In particular, capacity building
approaches providing functional inclusion and empowerment were outlined. ese prac-
tices were employed with particular success as part of the Deadly Sistas Girlz program.
e development of these innovative policies and practices demonstrate the commitment
of some organizations to providing increased participation opportunities for Indigenous
women and girls. e Committee applauded such programmes for their success but fell
short of making specic recommendations beyond making one statement that supports the
use of Indigenous athletes as role models – hardly a bold resolution. e need for this state-
ment is supported by our literature review which reveals that there are very few Indigenous
sportswomen to act as role models for others.
ere are some limitations with the data sources used in this study as there was likely to
be a tendency for stakeholder bias because many of the Inquiry submissions stemmed from
organizations or individuals promoting the practices and potential of their own programme
(and the need for it to be granted government funding). Furthermore, and very signicantly,
the voices of Indigenous women were largely absent in the submissions.
is study has highlighted the need for sports organizations and related providers to
assiduously record participation gures and to conduct thorough evaluations of their pro-
grammes, including interviews and feedback with Indigenous women and girls. is ought
to be mandatory to justify continued or increased government funding. ere should also
be key performance indicators related to the participation rates of ATSI women.
is analysis of the ndings and recommendations from the Inquiry has been a val-
uable exercise as it identies a number of innovative and creative strategies that a small
number of sport providers are starting to deploy to facilitate the participation of ATSI
women. e challenge remains to better understand how sport programmes are most
likely to overcome gender, nancial and other barriers to best meet the needs and aspi-
rations of Indigenous Australian females. is is not simply about sport, or only about
social inclusion; so much of the evidence points to regular exercise promoting health and
in the company of others creating a sense of wellbeing. All this is dependent, of course,
on programmes that are designed to include and engage. is is as much a policy issue
as a resource issue.
Notes
1. Closing the gap is a strategy that aims to reduce Indigenous Australian disadvantage with
respect to life expectancy, child mortality, access to early childhood education, educational
SPORT IN SOCIETY 27
achievement, and employment outcomes. Endorsed by the Australian Government in March
2008, Closing the gap is a formal commitment developed in response to the call of the Social
Justice Report 2005 to achieve Indigenous health equality within 25years.
2. e Deadly Sista Girlz program was developed by the David Wirrpanda Foundation in 2007
and aims to empower aboriginal girls by oering a safe, stable and trusting environment
in which they can discuss current and personal issues and receive guidance from positive
aboriginal female role models.
3. e Clontarf Foundation exists to improve the education, discipline, life skills, and self-
esteem and employment prospects of young Aboriginal men and by doing so equips them to
participate meaningfully in society. e vehicle for achieving this outcome is Australian Rules
and/or Rugby League. e Foundation uses the existing passion that Aboriginal boys have
for football to attract them into school and keep them there. e programmes are delivered
through a network of football academies established in partnership with local schools. Any
Aboriginal male enrolled at the school is eligible to participate in the Clontarf Academy
(Clontarf Foundation [2014] 2015).
4. e terms codes is routinely applied to four types of football in Australia. ey are Australian
Rules football, rugby league, rugby union and Association Football (oen known as soccer).
5. A corroboree is an Australian Aboriginal dance ceremony which may take the form of a
sacred ritual or an informal gathering.
6. e NSW Aboriginal Rugby League Knockout Carnival, commonly referred to as the Koori
Knockout, is known to be the largest gathering of Indigenous peoples in Australia. e
inaugural knockout was held in 1971. It was created specically for Aboriginal players as
opposed to the state rugby league.
7. RIHP Rubies is a team of talented Indigenous young women selected through Hockey
Queensland Talent Identication Programs.
8. e Rumbalara Football and Netball Club was founded in the early 1970s and represents
aboriginal peoples’ rights to play sport and represent their people. Aer years of rejection,
the Club nally made its way into a mainstream sporting league in 1997.
9. e Kaiela Institute supports collaboration between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal leaders
to envision, design and implement an inclusive future for all people in the Goulburn Murray
region.
10. In 2006, the AFL established the Flying Boomerangs program.
Disclosure statement
No potential conict of interest was reported by the authors.
ORCID
Hazel Maxwell http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0610-4698
Daryl Adairhttp://orcid.org/0000-0001-7998-3414
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