Article

Poverty or riches: who benefits from the booming tourism industry in Botswana?

February 2017
Journal of Contemporary African Studies 35(1):1-20

DOI:10.1080/02589001.2016.1270424

Authors:

University of Botswana

Botswana is a key tourism destination in Southern Africa mainly because of the rich wildlife resources and scenic beauty it sustains. Since the 1990s, the growth of wildlife-based tourism in Botswana has stimulated the development of a variety of tourism infrastructure and facilities. This paper asks if these qualify as sustainable tourism. Using both primary and secondary data sources, the study reveals that foreign-owned safari companies and investors dominate Botswana’s tourism industry, leading to the repatriation of tourism revenue, domination of management positions by expatriates and lower salaries for citizen workers. Tourism also fails to significantly contribute to rural development in Botswana due to its weak linkages with the domestic economy. Promoting more inclusive and beneficial policies and strategies would allow tourism to become more sustainable, making a significant contribution to local development, and allowing citizens to finally see real benefits from an industry which is sustained by their local environment.

Social Media Backlash and Tourism Boycott Demands After Botswana’s Trophy Hunting Ban Lift: Thematic and Sentiment Analysis

Chapter

Dec 2024

The reversal of Botswana’s 2014 suspension of elephant hunting, herein, trophy hunting ban, initially imposed to address concerns over wildlife conservation, sparked significant social media backlash. The ban led to unintended consequences: elephant population explosion, increased human–wildlife conflicts, and landscape degradation. On social media, critics of hunting are perceived to be employing coercive tactics and disseminating misinformation against individuals or countries, such as Botswana, that support trophy hunting and sustainable use. This study examines the implications of this backlash, analysing social media posts to understand public sentiment and its impact on Botswana’s tourism and conservation efforts. The backlash has led to calls for tourism boycotts, negatively affecting Botswana’s tourism destination image. This issue underscores the necessity for a comprehensive, equitable, and sustained approach to conservation initiatives, in alignment with global conservation policy imperatives. The global policy agenda should be informed and driven by robust, empirical data and scientific evidence. We recommend the integration of environmental, social, and economic sustainability to harmonize local and global conservation and sustainability goals.

Capturing value from wildlife tourism: growth corridor policy and global production networks in Zambezi, Namibia

Thesis

Full-text available

Jul 2021

Linus Kalvelage

To overcome economic injustices and spatial disparities inherited from the apartheid era, the Namibian government pursues regional development in the Zambezi region. Two popular policies are applied that build on the commodification of nature via wildlife tourism: growth corridor policy is envisioned to enable the coupling into global production networks (GPN) via increased connectivity and targeted investments into tourism. Similarly, community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) schemes are designed to attract foreign investments in the safari and hunting tourism sector to benefit rural communities. Despite the hopes that are set on international tourism, GPN theory indicates three threats connected with global market integration: first, emerging social inequalities and disarticulations in the host region, second, the appropriation of value by central nodes of the GPN and therefore limited value capture at the production stage and third, the alteration of human-environment relations at the production stage. Notwithstanding this, a conceptualisation of nature’s integration into GPNs is still pending. Therefore, the aim of this dissertation is to scrutinise the commodification of nature through wildlife tourism and growth corridor policy effect on regional development. To this end, value capture among the actors and localities of the tourism GPN was examined, the role of infrastructure for nature-based GPNs assessed and the mechanisms that lead to the integration of nature into GPNs revealed. A single case study approach was applied that comprehensively studied the effects of tourism development policies connected with the Walvis Bay-Ndola-Lubumbashi Development Corridor (WBNLDC) in the Zambezi region. A mixed-methods approach combined qualitative interviews, archival research and the review of existing scholarly and grey literature with a business survey, a traffic census and the analysis of quantitative data, inter alia a household survey. Findings reveal that infrastructure development and the expansion of nature conservation territories led to increased value creation from tourism in the region, but traffic census data indicates that extra-regional actors are able to capitalise on these opportunities. Nevertheless, conservancies as local institutions are able to capture roughly 20 % of the value, while tourism accrues to only 5.5 % of the income of rural households. Lastly, the institutional configuration on the local and national scale is crucial for determining how wildlife is economically utilised and who benefits from it. These findings highlight the role of local institutional actors in value capture, confirm the necessity to study the territoriality of GPNs and the role of infrastructure therein and call for a closer look at social-ecological relations at the production stage, since they are decisive for regional development.

Echoes of the Okavango Delta -Does the Voice of the People Matter?

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2023

Volume 16 | Issue 3 Datla, A.; Schmeier, S.; Cuadrado-Quesada, G. and Mothobi, R. 2023. Echoes of the Okavango Delta-Does the voice of the people matter? Water Alternatives 16(3): 821-848 Datla et al.: Echoes of the Okavango Delta-Does the voice of the people matter? ABSTRACT: Water governance in a shared basin features a complex array of actors operating at one or many scales, whose knowledge, practices, and authority inform and influence that governance. These relationships can be particularly complex in water systems that form part of a transboundary river system, as is the case with the Okavango Delta. The article discusses the persistent challenges of water access faced by community members in the Delta. Water governance in the Delta has been studied from various disciplinary perspectives; still, the experiences of local communities at the layer nearest to the water resources remain a topic of significant interest. Our research takes an integrated approach combining concepts of scales, institutions, and power. This article is based on a literature review and a qualitative empirical field study; the study found that communities in the Delta complain about persistent experiences of constrained access and limited influence in matters related to water governance. We also observe that the state is entangled in policy and practice at various scales, often appropriating power at the expense of those institutions and mechanisms designed to address the needs of the local community. Our study shows that the exercise of power by formal institutions in the Delta tends to undermine informal institutions, compromising the ability of some community members to participate effectively in water governance processes.

University students' perceptions of tourism impacts: a study in Vietnam

Article

Oct 2023

Purpose Research about tourism impacts is abundant. However, existing studies often investigate tourism impacts from residents’ and tourists’ perspectives. The study targeting students is absent. The students’ perception and evaluation of tourism impact must be investigated independently to have more insights into improving the current education curriculum, which covertly addresses the impacts. Therefore, this study aims to examine university students’ perception of tourism impacts as young tourists to provide implications for better teaching of such content in the future. Design/methodology/approach Vietnam was chosen as the context, and a mixed method was employed. First, free elicitation with 118 university students was carried out to identify the students’ perceived impacts (109 items, four categories). Second, structured surveys using the previously generated content with 243 and 224 university students were implemented to identify the latent structures of the impacts (3-4 factors per impact category). Findings Tourism impacts can be dually perceived. In other words, they can come in positive or negative forms or are directed toward the destinations or the residents. However, being positive or negative, or affecting the place or the people, tourism impacts have some general and universal elements concerning the economic, sociocultural and environmental ones. In addition, they have some specific and contextual aspects, such as cross-border marriages, child labor and economic autonomy loss. Originality/value Tourism impacts seen from the perspective of university students are relatable and valuable for tourism education. Educators in Vietnam should consider revising the current curriculum to address all the tourism impacts overtly.

Residents’ Willingness to Pay for Domestic Nature-Based Tourism in Botswana

Preprint

Full-text available

Aug 2022

The COVID-19 pandemic has halted tourism worldwide. This shock has led to job losses, loss of livelihoods and overall revenue losses at national and international levels. The pandemic has reinforced the need to develop strong domestic tourism bases. In Botswana, the domestic tourism market has remained largely unexplored and undeveloped. This study aims to estimate domestic tourists’ willingness to embark on domestic tourism during and post the COVID-19 pandemic. Using primary data derived from questionnaires administered online, this study seeks to estimate the residents’ willingness to pay (WTP) for a standard two-day domestic nature-based tourism package and analyse factors influencing residents’ WTP for domestic nature-based tourism. On average, the respondents were willing to pay for a standard two-day domestic nature-based tourism experience package valued at BWP3 340.66 per person sharing. However, some camps charge as high as BWP72 097.62 for a similar package. There is a need to develop plans that promote pricing and product offerings that accommodate domestic tourists without having an impact on the sustainability of natural resources and the integrity of the natural environment

Two decades of One Health in action: Enabling sustainable wildlife conservation and livestock production in southern Africa

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2025

The AHEAD (Animal & Human Health for the Environment And Development) program was launched in 2003 at the IUCN World Parks Congress in Durban, South Africa. We defined our mission as serving as “a convening, facilitative mechanism, working to create enabling environments that allow different and often competing sectors to literally come to the same table and find collaborative ways forward to address challenges at the interface of wildlife health, livestock health, and human health and livelihoods.” We continue on this mission more than 20 years later, convening stakeholders, helping delineate conceptual frameworks to underpin planning, management and research, and providing technical support and resources for projects stakeholders identify as priorities. As one of the first applied One Health programs, our work is premised upon the fact that the challenge of managing transboundary animal diseases (TADs) often lies at the heart of whether transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs) will succeed or fail in their aspirations to become the ecologically resilient land-use entities required for long-term delivery of poverty alleviation and related development as well as biodiversity conservation benefits. As the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area’s (KAZA’s) remaining key wildlife corridors, needed for wildlife populations to survive and thrive for generations to come, continue to be blocked by veterinary cordon fences, the urgency of improving regional animal disease management cannot be overstated. This is especially relevant for those European donors to TFCAs whose nations set up the veterinary cordon fencing-based disease management system in the first place – starting in the 1950s when today’s KAZA partner countries were European colonies or protectorates. The prevailing veterinary fencing paradigm is rooted in the colonial era, but with impacts on KAZA’s wildlife that have persisted on up to the present. If we fail to help all countries within a given TFCA actually co-manage disease threats to the livestock sector that all value highly – culturally, economically, and politically – then how can we expect significant progress in terms of fostering habitat connectivity across international boundaries? When a given country fears diseases they believe or know are across the border, how can we lower the perceived or actual risks of the vision of restoring wildlife migrations through removal of segments of the most environmentally damaging fences? The AHEAD program continues to work on these challenges, with recent progress on sectorally integrative approaches providing reasons for cautious optimism. One Health impact statement What was arguably the first applied One Health program, AHEAD (Animal & Human Health for the Environment And Development) was launched in 2003 at the IUCN World Parks Congress in Durban – a year before one of us led the drafting of The Manhattan Principles on ‘One World, One Health’ (Cook et al., 2004). As AHEAD has recently marked its 20th anniversary, some introspection certainly seems prudent. Our goal, our raison d’etre, has been to serve as ‘a convening, facilitative mechanism, working to create enabling environments that allow different and often competing sectors to literally come to the same table and find collaborative ways forward to address challenges at the interface of wildlife health, livestock health, and human health and livelihoods’ (available at: http://cornell-ahead.org). We continue on our One Health mission to convene stakeholders, help delineate conceptual frameworks to underpin planning, management and research, and provide technical support and resources for projects stakeholders identify as priorities. AHEAD’s One Health framing recognises the need to look at health, disease, and the environment together, while always taking a given region’s socio-economic, political, and policy context into account.

THE STATE OF TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN TRANSFRONTIER CONSERVATION AREAS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2024

This study adopts a cross-border approach to examining the state of tourism development within the context of Transfrontier conservation areas, based on three case study sites (Botswana, Zambia, and Zimbabwe). In-depth interviews conducted with 58 wildlife tourism stakeholders, including tourism businesses, conservation NGOs, community representatives, and governing authorities, demonstrate that while natural resources constitute the basis of the tourism economies, the level of development and ownership of tourism offerings differs significantly among the three destinations. Additionally, while international and regional tourists have been the dominant market for these destinations, there is a strong emergence of domestic tourists stemming from the post-pandemic era. The unbalanced scale of tourism development in the three destinations demonstrates that closer attention must be paid to tourism policies and practices that support the inclusion of local entrepreneurs in the tourism sector to generate a greater localised socioeconomic impact and align stakeholder interests.

Strengthening tourism ethnocentrism in emerging tourism destinations

Article

May 2024

David Amani

Purpose Despite the importance of tourism ethnocentrism in emerging tourism destinations, there is limited, but growing, research interest in this area. This study aims to respond to current calls for investigating mechanisms that can promote tourism ethnocentrism in both emerging and developed tourism destinations.

Tourism and income inequality in sub-Saharan African countries: the role of democracy

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2024
Curr Issues Tourism

The tourism literature has largely neglected another important factor that may influence the tourism and income inequality relationship. This factor reflects democratic institutions of the destination country. To contribute to the tourism literature, this study attempts to fill a gap in the corresponding literature by investigating the moderating effect of democracy on the tourism-income inequality nexus for a panel of 23 sub-Sharan African countries over the period 2000-2020. The empirical evidence is based on the panel corrected standard errors (PCSE) estimation technique. The results obtained from our study show that tourism and democracy unconditionally worsen income inequality. Moreover, democracy complements tourism to further undermine income distribution as positive synergies are apparent. Policy implications are discussed.

Introduction to the Handbook on Tourism and Conservation

Chapter

Nov 2023

Experiences and emotional responses of farming communities living with Asian Elephants in Southern Sri Lanka

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2023

Individuals’ tolerance toward wildlife can be based on a combination of tangible benefits and costs (e.g. economic gains and losses) as well as intangible benefits and costs (e.g. shared values and risk perceptions). Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) potentially present both types of benefits and costs for rural communities. We examined which factors were associated with emotional responses toward wild Asian Elephants among agriculturalists using a questionnaire survey of 300 households situated around the Wetahirakanda sanctuary connecting Udawalawe and Lunugamwehera National Parks, Sri Lanka. Respondents were all from the Sinhala-Buddhist ethno-religious majority with average annual household incomes of Rs. 339,335 LKR (~$2610 USD). We found that none of the surveyed households derived any economic benefits from tourism despite the proximity of two national parks, whereas 171 (57%) had experienced crop damage by Elephants. Though the median annual income lost due to elephants was Rs.50,000 LKR (4%), 21 households (7%) had losses exceeding 100%. Only six individuals (2%) recollected any human fatalities in their communities. Only three individuals reported positive feelings toward elephants, whereas all others had negative or neutral feelings. Economic factors were not significant predictors of feelings toward elephants, whereas fear of elephants and worry about crop damage had the largest and most significant negative effects. Our findings suggest that it might not be sufficient to reduce losses solely at an individual level, but that human-elephant coexistence interventions should target communities as a whole to reduce the spill-over effects of worry and anxiety by association with others who have experienced loss.

Extreme rainfall events over the Okavango river basin, southern Africa

Article

Sep 2023

Has Community-Based Tourism Been a Useful Tool for Poverty Eradication in Southern African Rural Destinations?

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2023

The goal of this study is to assess the progress made so far in the eradication of poverty through the growth of tourism in the rural communities of three Southern African tourist destinations. In doing so, the study seeks to answer the following research questions: (1) to what extent have the countries in Southern Africa improved the livelihoods of the poor through community-based tourism? (2) Are the poor the beneficiaries of the sustainable, inclusive community-based tourism drive in Southern Africa? (3) Is community-based tourism a panacea for the eradication of poverty in rural areas of Southern African? The study uses meta-synthesis to evaluate the extent to which pro-poor tourism approaches are achieving the intended goals using Namibia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe as case studies. Findings shows that empirical studies investigating poverty alleviation and CBT are growing, especially in Botswana and Namibia, and the level of poverty seems to be declined in areas where community-based tourism thrives.

Protected Areas and Rural Livelihood: An overview of the Mediating role of Wildlife Tourism

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023

John Thomas Mgonja

The present study contributes to the body of knowledge in protected areas conservation by exploring the role of nature based tourism in strengthening the relationship between protected areas and rural community. The paper draws largely from Sustainable Livelihood Framework. The study was carried out by analyzing peer-reviewed literature from published sources such as books, journal articles, conference proceedings and published documents from major international and national organisations. The analysis shows that majority of the scholars agree that benefits arising from protected areas tend to accrue largely to the international community, national governments and the private sector in the form of revenues from nature based tourism, while a large amount of conservation costs are borne by local communities living adjacent to protected areas. Without receiving significant benefits from tourism, local communities will continue to view wildlife as a threat to their livelihoods and develop resentments against conservation of protected areas

Mosquito community composition in Central District, Botswana: insights from a malaria endemic to non-endemic gradient

Article

Mar 2023
AFR ENTOMOL

Spatial distribution of vector mosquitoes plays a critical role in the dynamics of associated diseases' spread across diverse landscapes. In Botswana, six Districts are implicated as malaria endemic zones, one of which is the Central District comprising both malaria endemic and non-endemic sub-districts. Despite being the biggest in the country, mosquito diversity in this District is under-explored, more so in the malaria non-endemic sub-districts. Here, we thus sampled mosquito adults and larvae from the malaria endemic sub-district of Bobirwa and non-endemic sub-districts of Palapye and Serowe, to determine spatial mosquito abundance and diversity in the District. Overall, all the sub-districts had a representation of key mosquito taxa of medical and economic importance (Aedes, Culex and Anopheles), irrespective of malarial endemicity status. Bobirwa had the highest number of mosquitoes sampled (429) although the greatest species richness (0.8511) was observed from Palapye. Moreover, Palapye also recorded a species from another genus, Culiseta longiareolata, a known natural vector of avian malaria parasites. Given global climate shift projections for the region, there is a need for continuous area-wide surveillance for vector mosquitoes and associated parasites in curbing the risk of emerging and re-emerging infections. While the Anopheles-centric approach to mosquito control is still necessary, a holistic approach, incorporating other vector incriminated mosquito species is warranted, particularly given shifting climates and the presence of invasive disease associated vector mosquito species.

Mosquito community composition in Central District, Botswana: insights from a malaria endemic to non-endemic gradient

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023
AFR ENTOMOL

Spatial distribution of vector mosquitoes plays a critical role in the dynamics of associated diseases’ spread across diverse landscapes. In Botswana, six Districts are implicated as malaria endemic zones, one of which is the Central District comprising both malaria endemic and non-endemic sub-districts. Despite being the biggest in the country, mosquito diversity in this District is under-explored, more so in the malaria non-endemic sub-districts. Here, we thus sampled mosquito adults and larvae from the malaria endemic sub-district of Bobirwa and non-endemic sub-districts of Palapye and Serowe, to determine spatial mosquito abundance and diversity in the District. Overall, all the sub-districts had a representation of key mosquito taxa of medical and economic importance (Aedes, Culex and Anopheles), irrespective of malarial endemicity status. Bobirwa had the highest number of mosquitoes sampled (429) although the greatest species richness (0.8511) was observed from Palapye. Moreover, Palapye also recorded a species from another genus, Culiseta longiareolata, a known natural vector of avian malaria parasites. Given global climate shift projections for the region, there is a need for continuous area-wide surveillance for vector mosquitoes and associated parasites in curbing the risk of emerging and re-emerging infections. While the Anopheles-centric approach to mosquito control is still necessary, a holistic approach, incorporating other vector incriminated mosquito species is warranted, particularly given shifting climates and the presence of invasive disease associated vector mosquito species.

Tourism commodification of traditional basket weaving in the Okavango Delta, Botswana

Article

Feb 2023

Despite the burgeoning interest in cultural tourism in Botswana, its effect on traditional practices has been seldom understood. This study examined the effects of tourism development on traditional basket weaving in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Semi-structured interviews and in-depth interviews were conducted. Data was analysed through descriptive statistics and thematically. The results depict a gradual transformation in basketry – from being a domestic utilitarian product to being a most sought after product in the tourism market. Although change was inevitable, local communities are urged to strike a balance between satisfying market demands and preserving the cultural significance of basketry.

Revival of Sri Lankan Wildlife Tourism Operation in New Normal Conditions of Covid -19: Challenges and Readiness

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023

Wildlife tourism industry as a form of nature-based tourism was a rapidly growing niche market segment & has developed a revenue platform for many economies. Outstretching the Pandemic COVID-19, it badly hit with wildlife tourism sector too. Nevertheless, a contemporary need is to rejuvenate the current market segments to reconstruct the tourism industry's potential. This study explores the ways and means to revive of wildlife tourism operations with the challenges of COVID-19.

The Impact of Sustainable Waste Management and Domestic Tourism on Environmental Pollution in Erbil Governorate

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2022

Research analysing the impact of sustainable waste management and domestic tourism on environmental pollution has not been given due attention irrespective of them being clearly connected. Such examinations are instrumental for generating scientific information for minimizing environmental pollution induced by domestic tourism activities and fostering the effectiveness of sustainable waste management practices. The study uses structural equation modelling to analyse connections linking sustainable waste management and domestic tourism with environmental pollution. Examinations were conducted using questionnaire data collected from a random sample of 138 Kurdish nationals who visited Erbil Citadel, Sami Abdulrahman Park, Gali Ali Bag, Shanidar Cave and Sakura Park at the time the research was conducted, and such was done with the aid of Smart PLS. Results established from the study showed that sustainable waste management is instrumental in enhancing the effectiveness of environmental protection programs aimed at reducing environmental pollution. Additionally, sustainable waste management programs were discovered to be having positive effects on domestic tourism. On the other hand, domestic tourism had significant positive effects on environmental pollution. Lastly, the study exhibited that sustainable waste management has positive moderating effects on the relationship between domestic tourism and environmental pollution. This present study contributes significantly to existing studies as it provides suggestions needed to foster and enhance sustainable waste management by eradicating environmental pollution caused by the neglected effects of domestic tourism.

A product diversification framework assessing potential of expanding ecotourism products in Botswana

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Sep 2021

Tourism in Botswana is principally based on wildlife products and heavily concentrated in the northern parts of the country. The reliance on a narrow product range and exclusive dependence on the western market has generated generic supply-side research advocating diversification. The study, therefore, focused on developing a demand-based diversification framework for ecotourism products in Botswana. Quantitative data was collected through self-administered questionnaires at Kasane and Maun airports. Findings showed high demand for wildlife, nature, and wetlands products, focusing on education, resource preservation, and co-creation of experience. Adventure and Cultural products registered moderate demand whilst events and hunting had the least demand. This calls for a related diversification strategy focusing on product add-ons, service enhancement and an innovative mixture of activities to create new and unique experiences. The study provides a holistic demand-based diversification strategy that identifies specific needs, activities and product types that should be developed.

Task-shifting as a response to human resource crisis facing the Ngwelezana Tertiary Hospital in KwaZulu-Natal

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Sep 2021

ABSTRACT The government is committed to improving the health system by providing universal coverage to all South Africans as articulated in national health policies. The biggest threat facing the health sector today is the shortage of well-trained healthcare workers and the increasing demand for healthcare services. A quantitative study was used to examine the role of task-shifting as response to human resource crisis facing the Ngwelezana Tertiary Hospital in KwaZulu-Natal. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics, chi-square tests of association and the Cramer’s V test. The results show that task-shifting was adopted to address staff shortages, delays in serving patients, long waiting periods for patients, increased risks of error and patient mortality. However, task-shifting presented its own challenges such as legal and professional risks and staff morale issues. The paper concludes that task shifting should be used as a relief measure for reducing the impact of staff shortages in hospitals.

Environmental Change, Wildlife-Based Tourism and Sustainability in Chobe National Park, Botswana

Chapter

Jan 2022

Environmental change is an ecologically complicated and contentious issue that usually has consequences on the structure and dynamics of ecosystems. Consequently, the impacts of environmental change will be more pronounced on both the natural resource base and dependent industries such as wildlife-based tourism. However, the extent of knowledge on environmental change, especially in protected areas in Botswana, is relatively limited. Creating knowledge on the nature and scale of environmental change is a fundamental step to responsive policy formulations and planning of adaptation measures. This chapter examines the perceived impacts and implications environmental change has on the sustainability and management of the Chobe National Park (CNP), Botswana. Sixty-seven safari tour guide respondents were purposively sampled in this study, drawn from the mobile and fixed tourism operators in Chobe District. In addition, nine key informants were also purposively sampled. Descriptive statistics and a thematic analysis approach were used for analysing the data. The results demonstrate that respondents held negative perceptions towards environmental change on wildlife-based tourism. The important assumption is that the consequences of environmental change on wildlife-based tourism management in Chobe National Park should not threaten its sustainability and High Cost; Low Volume (HCLV) Policy position.KeywordsEnvironmental changeWildlife-based tourismPerceptionsSustainabilityChobe national parkBotswana

Disempowering Minority Communities: Tourism Development in the Siwa Oasis, Egypt

Article

Mar 2022

Tourism planning and development is a complex, multifaceted, and highly politicised phenomenon, particularly in the context of economic development for rural minority communities. This paper discusses such a case in the context of a remote rural community, Siwa Oasis in the western desert of Egypt, which was one of the destinations identified in the development policy termed Infitāḥ, or “openness” in the early 1970s. As part of a long-term project, this article examines how community members perceive tourism development and its effects on their livelihoods, specifically from gender perspective. Findings show that the government development policy in effect resulted in Siwan seeking to protect their identity, including values associated with traditional gender relations, where women are considered to be the safeguards of domestic duties, child-raising, and minority languages, providing empirical evidence on how development can be “closing” rather than “opening” opportunities, disempowering rather than empowering.

A framework of enabling factors for contract compliance in Procuring and Disposing Entities (PDEs) in Uganda. In Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Conference of the Southern Africa Institute for Management Scientists. [Online]. Available: https://www.saibw.co.za/docs/SAIMS-CONFERENCE_PROCEEDINGS_2021.pdf [Accessed: 7 February 2022].

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Sep 2021

Procuring and Disposing Entities (PDEs) in state departments are challenged with missing records, inadequate training, poor enforcement mechanisms, limited funding and poor reports. Taking into account the huge government investment into public contracts, research to understand factors enabling contract compliance is imperative. This study explored the enabling factors for contract compliance in PDEs in Uganda. A qualitative study of twenty-nine telephone interviews and focus group discussions via Zoom were conducted. Thematic and content analysis were used to identify the fourteen major themes. Findings suggest capacity building, funding, reporting, evaluation, contract management, records management, institutional structure, enforcement, legal and regulatory framework, communication, openness, compliance checks, ethical orientation and stakeholder involvement as enablers for a suitable contract compliance environment in state departments in Uganda. The proposed conceptual framework serves as a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners especially those involved in public procurement.

Tourists’ perceptions and consumer surplus at a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Okavango Delta, Botswana: Implications for rural development

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2021

The capturing of full benefits associated with nature-based tourism could be one of the strategies for the promotion of sustainable tourism in the Okavango Delta (OD). The general objective of this paper is to establish the perceptions of tourists in relation to consumer surplus (CS) of tourist visitation to the OD and implications on rural development. The study shows that there is substantial CS of tourist visitation in the OD. A significant proportion of tourists (53%) said that they were willing to contribute to a fund for the compensation of farmers for their loss of property resulting from their conflict with wildlife. Most tourists (90%) thought tourism should contribute to the development of local communities. They suggested that the captured CS could be used for rural development and wildlife conservation. The study recommends that the CS could be captured in the OD as entry and conservation fees.

A Study on the Causes and Effects of Stressful Situations in Tourism for Japanese People

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2021

(1) Numerous studies have been undertaken to investigate the perceived impacts of tourism, particularly from the perspective of local residents. Only a handful have dealt with the coping strategies of this group. In addition, they have largely neglected the successes or failures of the coping strategies and the related consequences. In order to address these gaps, this study aims to investigate the psychological impacts of tourism, focusing on the causes and effects of the negative feelings felt by local residents. (2) Methods: Several qualitative methods, including web archive research, netnography, user-generated content analysis, literature review, and ethnography were employed to gather the necessary data. Japan was selected as the context of this study. (3) Results: This study identified a set of negative feelings and a group of four coping strategies. It also found that the causes of the negative feelings, the bad impacts of tourism, were similar to those in other countries. In addition, the study verified that the effects of the coping strategies were only situational and temporal. (4) Conclusions: Tourism is not stress-free. In order for tourism to sustain, the causes and consequences of its negative impacts must be properly addressed.

Can the subaltern speak? Contradictions in trophy hunting and wildlife conservation trajectory in Botswana

Article

Oct 2021

Botswana re-introduced trophy hunting in 2019. This generated a debate about the relevance of trophy hunting in achieving wildlife conservation and human well-being among wildlife stakeholders. These stakeholders include the Government of Botswana, local agro-pastoralists, photographic and trophy hunting tourism operators and anti-hunting groups that differ in opinion on the acceptability of trophy hunting as socio-economic development and conservation tool. This paper, therefore, adopts the socio-ecological framework and uses Spivak’s rhetoric question: “Can the Subaltern Speak”, to analyse contradictions of trophy hunting, human well-being and wildlife conservation trajectory in Botswana. The study is qualitative and makes use of interviews and secondary data sources. The results indicate that the Government of Botswana and communities (agro-pastoralists) especially those residing in wildlife areas prefer both trophy hunting and photo-tourism as a strategy to derive tourism benefits and achieve wildlife conservation. Conversely, animal rights groups reject trophy hunting noting its failure to promote conservation. The paper concludes the socio-ecological framework is the ideal guide for wildlife conservation and human well-being in wildlife areas. Both photographic tourism and trophy hunting are sustainable land use options with the potential to achieve wildlife conservation and human well-being in Botswana.

Business: Theory and Practice ANALYTICAL EVALUATION OF THE PROSPECTS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTALLY ORIENTED TOURISM BUSINESS

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2021

The purpose of the article is to study the features of the development of the regions of Ukraine, the formation of a model of sustainable development of ecotourism. The bibliographic method made it possible to study the basic concepts,controversial and problematic issues, as well as the experience of solving them, proposed by scientists from different countries in this area of research. The analysis of efficiency has revealed the most competitive regions of Ukraine for conducting an environmentally oriented tourism business. The correlation and regression analysis results showed that the coefficient of determination R-square indicates a 94% correlation between the studied indicators. The growing dynamics of the number of subjects of tourist activity in Ukraine is noted. The primary data for cluster analysis were preliminarily formed, the presence of advantages and risks (anthropogenic effects) in 24 regions was determined, and promising directions for the development of ecotourism were identified. Cluster analysis, carried out using IBM SPSS software, determined the Euclidean distance and grouped the analyzed regions of Ukraine into clusters with the most similar characteristics. As a result of the study, the author’s vision of the essence of ecotourism, the logic of applying the methodology of cluster analysis was substantiated. The hypothesis about the influence of cultural heritage sites on the number of tourists was refuted. Some recommendations are given for further improvement of the quality of ecotourism development as a priority direction in the formation of sustainable development. The study’s practical significance lies in the fact that the results of the work carried out can be used as reference material for those studying the topic.

The Okavango Delta’s waterbirds – Trends and threatening processes

Article

Aug 2021

The Okavango Delta is renowned as an extraordinary ecosystem of high biodiversity, listed as both a Ramsar and World Heritage Site, with part protected in the Moremi Game Reserve. This extensive floodplain ecosystem has 444 recorded bird species, with just under a quarter of these waterbirds, including at least 16 breeding and 4 threatened (1 endangered, 3 vulnerable) species. Despite the global importance of this ecosystem, and its transboundary nature, there are surprisingly few long-term assessments of status of the ecosystem or waterbird communities, a key indicator of ecosystem health, with threats such as upstream water extraction, and climate change threatening its outstanding biodiversity. We compiled a comprehensive 53-year dataset comprised of citizen science and other datasets (1970-2019), on 36 waterbird species (Anhingidae, Ardeidae, Ciconiidae, Gruidae, Pelecanidae, Phalacrocoracidae, and Phoenicopteridae), including eight waterbird breeding colonies in the Okavango Delta. We investigated trends in waterbird biodiversity as well as responses to temperature, flow, flooding, and local rainfall. Waterbird breeding colonies were associated with relatively high areas of riparian woodland, and experienced moderate flooding frequencies (> 1 in 5 years). Total abundance of all 36 waterbird species was positively related to river flows. Despite increased citizen science effort over time, total abundance within the Okavango Delta significantly declined with declining average inundation. Four species led these declines (African darter Anhinga rufa, green-backed heron Butorides striata, slaty egret Egretta vinaceigula, squacco heron Ardeola ralloides) and one marabou stork Leptoptilos crumenifer, increasing (only sufficient data to analyse 15 species individually). Decreased inundation within the Delta and other internal factors (urbanisation, tourism, vegetation change) as well as external factors (habitat loss elsewhere) are likely driving these declines. Rigorous monitoring of waterbirds, including the eight breeding colonies across the Delta, is needed to explore these changes closely, providing baselines in the case of water resource developments on the rivers supplying the Okavango Delta. Long-term conservation of the magnificent Okavango Delta and its dependent biodiversity, including its waterbirds, is highly reliant on protection of river flows in three countries to ensure natural flooding regimes, alongside the conservation of neighbouring wetlands.

Residents’ Perception of Changing Local Conditions in the Context of Tourism Development: The Case of Phuket Island

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2021

Lack of understanding of the ways local subpopulations perceive various changes associated with rapid growth of the tourism industry may lead to unsustainable development. This study assessed the levels and determinants of residents’ perception regarding the changes in environmental, sociocultural, and economic conditions associated with tourism development in Phuket, Thailand. A structured questionnaire survey was conducted with 450 residents covering all three districts of Phuket Province to capture overall indicators and detailed sub-indicators of perception, whilst factors affecting the perceived changes were examined through ordered logistic regression and seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) analyses. The descriptive statistics showed that residents perceived unfavorable changes in various conditions in the island such as increased levels of pollution, road accidents, traffic congestion, and costs of living, while at the same time acknowledging the importance of long-term economic contribution of tourism development. Moreover, regression analyses revealed that various sociodemographic factors such as gender, education, residency duration, and occupation influenced residents’ perception of the changing local conditions. At the sub-indicator level, detailed insights were obtained such as female residents being more likely to positively perceive some of the changes such as increased availability of public space. Implications and suggestions for policy design and planning are discussed in detail.

Tourism Development in Northern Circuit of Tanzania and Its Contribution in Improving Local People’s Livelihood

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2021

This study evaluates tourism development in the northern tourist circuit of Tanzania, and the extent to which the tourism activities have helped individuals and communities surrounding the natural attractions to secure the necessities of live. It employs descriptive analysis, and interview approach covering selected villages around the national parks. The results show that over 11 years to 2018/19, number of visitors rose by 66.9 percent and earnings (gate fees) by 289.5 percent making the circuit the backbone of tourism in the country. Nevertheless, the industry still faces several challenges, including volatility and moderate growth of the number of visitors in most of the parks; high concentration of visitors and earnings to only three national parks; and difficulty accessibility to some parks. One third of non-resident visitors originate from only three destinations, while about 44.5 percent of leisure and holidays visitors come under package arrangement.On the improvement of people’s welfare, tourism activities have significantly contributed in improving local people’s welfare as reflected by assets they have, largely obtained through tourist induced demand. Underlining the significance tourism, self-employed respondents indicated that business sales were on average TZS 259,151 between May and September (tourist season), much higher than when off-season. Also, business entities (companies/institutions) in the areas offer direct employment to local people, in which 120 employees (mostly unskilled labour) out 182 originated from the villages. With respect to social services, many local communities benefit from various social services, with the government, natural conservation authorities, and charity organizations playing a greater role in their construction. Most of the social services are easily accessible and affordable. Meanwhile, tourism activities are generally perceived to have little negative effects on culture, respect to the society, and security in the areas as alluded to by 64 percent of 218 respondents.To develop further the tourism industry to improve its contribution to people’s living, it is imperative to: Intensifying programs on promotions and campaigns to attract both resident and non-resident visitors to less visited parks including encouraging the establishment of African style small-scaled lodges and international-standard tourist hotels where they are lacking, and ensuring taxes and park fees are competitive; Putting in place plans to ensure roads to and in national parks are accessible throughout the year to allow more visits; Enhancing the strategies for product and market diversification; Increasing programs to sensitize the local people on the importance of conserving tourist attractions in their areas, and the benefits associated with tourism; Scaling up training plans for the local people to improve their entrepreneur skills, and facilitate access to affordable loans; Encouraging establishment of tourist-standard restaurants, supermarkets, and cultural and art centres in the vicinity of parks; and scaling up measures to support establishment of social services in areas where the services are lacking or are located far from the people.

Applying the adaptive cycle and resilience principles to understand and manage human-wildlife relations on the African savanna

Article

Mar 2025
J NAT CONSERV

Strategic Plan Formulation for the Tourism Sector of Bankura District using the SWOT and AHP Techniques

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2024

The strategic plan is important for the management of tourism resources in the particular region. However, the strategic planning for the Bankura District is still very far from being accomplished. The study was aimed to formulate the strategic plan for the Bankura District by combining the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and SWOT (Strength-Weakness-Opportunities-Threats) techniques. The methodology involved a five-step approach, which included the identification of SWOT factors, formulation of pair-wise comparison matrices and the strategy formulation using the TOWS (Threats-Opportunities-Weakness-Strengths) matrix. The data was collected both from the primary and secondary sources. The purposive sampling technique was used to interview the key stakeholders (800 tourists, 120 souvenir people and 87 tourist guides and hotel managers) and the non-participant observation technique were utilized to observe the nature of tourism in the study area. The findings of the research showed that the strength (S) and opportunity (O) factor obtained the highest priorities within the group. Therefore the S-O combination dominates in the strategic planning and management in the study area. The development of tourism may significantly contribute to the community members' feeling of pride in their area and culture by offering a supplemental source of revenue and livelihood with careful planning and implementation.

Enhancing tourism’s role in alleviating poverty: a bureaucratic approach to implementing SDG1 in China

Article

Oct 2024

Socio-economic Factors, Policy and Governance Systems Influencing Multifunctional Landscapes

Chapter

Oct 2024

Multifunctional landscapes, characterised by their ability to simultaneously fulfil diverse societal needs ranging from agricultural production to biodiversity conservation and cultural heritage preservation, represent complex socio-ecological systems at the nexus of human and natural interactions. Drawing on insights from several countries in sub-Saharan Africa, this chapter looked at the role of trees in sustainable livelihoods within multifunctional landscapes through the myriad of their ecosystem services. The role of socio-economic drivers such as demographics, in particular population growth, economic and market forces, as well as cultural aspirations on land use decisions and resource allocation within multifunctional landscapes were also examined. The chapter further scrutinized the role of policy frameworks in guiding the trajectory of multifunctional landscapes toward sustainable outcomes. The efficacy of diverse policy interventions, ranging from land-use zoning regulations to incentive-based schemes and participatory decision-making processes was also highlighted. Emerging trends and challenges on the horizon of multifunctional landscape management including landscape complexity, conflicting interests, fragmented governance arrangements, and insufficient data were also identified. It is believed that by embracing adaptive strategies that integrate socio-economic considerations, policy imperatives, and governance principles, societies can unlock the full potential of multifunctional landscapes to meet the evolving needs of present and future generations.

Editorial: Community Based Tourism and Hospitality for Urban and Rural Development Successes, Potentials and Challenges in the Sub-Saharan African Region

Article

Jul 2024

This collection of case studies examines the role, significance, and challenges of community-based tourism (CBT) development in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Highlighting practical instances of urban and rural communities engaged in communally owned tourism ventures, this special collection reflects on the tourism industry's impact on the socio-economic landscape of SSA. Information © CAB International 2024

The viability of the welfare state in Botswana: a Gramscian response to Botlhale and Molokwane

Article

Jul 2024

Kebapetse Lotshwao

Over Reliance on Wildlife Tourism: Impacts and Policy Implications

Chapter

May 2024

Lesego Senyana Stone

Wildlife tourism is important to the economies of many countries in Southern Africa. It has brought many benefits in these countries, including employment opportunities, income and foreign exchange and the improvements in the livelihoods of many in society. Wildlife tourism is important to many stakeholders including the private and public sectors and local communities. Using the case of Botswana, the chapter discusses some of the negative impacts associated with countries relying heavily on the tourism sector. Results indicate that the reliance on wildlife tourism and international tourists has resulted in Botswana developing dependence on the sector. Furthermore, results show that during times when the sector is not doing well, communities that are dependent on tourism and participate in community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) are negatively impacted, casting doubts on the sustainability of the sector. It is therefore important to develop destination adaptation and resilience strategies and for tourism dependent communities to diversify their income earning activities to reduce their risk during periods of uncertainty.

Wildlife Tourism in Southern Africa: Prospects for Sustainability

Chapter

May 2024

In many regions of the world, wildlife tourism is a popular form of ecotourism (Mangachena & Pickering, 2021; Newsome & Rodger, 2013). According to Novelli et al. (2006), wildlife-based tourism flourished in the mid-1960s due to the affordability of travel, more interest in nature and wildlife conservation, and Western tourists getting access to remote, unspoiled areas; this encouraged the development of a diverse African wildlife tourism sector. Wildlife tourism is a form of nature- based tourism based on encounters with wild animals; it can be consumptive or non-consumptive (Lovelock, 2008). It is a global activity of significance which forms a fundamental part of the world’s massive nature-based tourism industry (Cong et al., 2017). Wildlife tourism is one of the prominent foreign exchange earners in numerous countries, especially those from the African continent (Novelli et al., 2006; Reynolds & Braithwaite, 2001). The UNWTO (2015) indicates the significance of wildlife tourism, with 80% of international travel to the sub-Saharan Africa being wildlife related.

Pragmatic arguments for decolonising tourism praxis in Africa

Article

Apr 2024

Maureen Ayikoru

IKS and Gendered Ecologies: The Okavango Panhandle in Context

Article

Sep 2023

Two geological fault lines mark the southernmost tip of the Great East African Rift Valley. An ancient tectonic uplift, or superswell, caused rifting down the spine of the African continent, which created the Okavango Delta, an endorheic (enclosed) wetland in Botswana. The huge and biodiverse waterbody is an anomaly, as it is surrounded by the otherwise arid Kalahari Desert. Part of this delta is known as the Panhandle. Despite evidence of the Anthropocene, the area teems with massive concentrations of wildlife. It is also home to a diverse post/colonial concentration of human inhabitants, some Indigenous. Each segment of this population has a unique relationship with the environment, informed by Indigenous knowledge systems ( IKS ), geopolitical hierarchies and the misogynistic politics of the post/colonial nation-state in which hegemonic patriarchies produce gendered ecologies. Through a breaking rank methodology, this paper explores the gendered ecologies and IKS of the post/colonial Panhandle community.

Different pathways of accumulation in mining and conservation displacements in Botswana

Article

Mar 2024

Justyn Kase Huckleberry

HISTORY AND FUTURE OF TOURISM CONCESSION AREAS IN NORTHERN BOTSWANA -A 2023 PERSPECTIVE

Technical Report

Full-text available

Jan 2023

Lin Cassidy

Wildlife management areas (WMAs) are legally designated, extensive blocks of land where wildlife utilisation is the primary land use. Controlled hunting areas (CHAs) are administrative boundaries primarily set up to allow for spatially explicit variations in the management of wildlife, including the right to hunt wildlife and birds (or not to), and to determine localised and variable annual hunting quotas. Within the WMAs in northern Botswana, the CHA boundaries have proved useful for the allocation of wildlife-based tourism rights, whether consumptive or non-consumptive. Such allocations have been done in collaboration with land authorities through the granting of a tourism head lease, that gives the lessee exclusive commercial tourism rights – and management obligations including adherence to stated tourist numbers – over that CHA. Not all CHAs in the northern WMAs have had the tourism head lease system assigned to them. About a third of the CHAs within the tourism lease system in northern Botswana have been assigned for use by communities. Over the last thirty years, the tourism context has changed substantially, with consequent threats to and challenges from the CHA head lease system. • Lodge operators appear to be locked into a spiral of increasing exclusivity and opulence, so that access to tourism in northern Botswana is, for the most part, only accessible to a small and largely foreign, affluent elite. • De-facto monopolisation is also increasing with the emergence of large corporations that manage multiple lodge sites, further reinforcing the perceptions of elite capture, and exclusion and disenfranchisement of the local population. • Even within CBNRM communities, there is a sense of elite capture of opportunities and decision making. • By far the majority of communities who live with the cost of wildlife lie outside of WMAs, while those communities able to benefit from a CHA head lease are very few. • There has been a recent emergence of individual land claims within CHAs inside WMAs, after almost 30 years of the tourism head lease system. These individual land claims are often in the form of conversion of customary rights to agritourism leases – in direct conflict with the rights and obligations of the tourism head-lease that confers exclusive tourism rights at the CHA level.

Community Based Natural Resources Management in Botswana

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2023

Since the mid-1980s, Botswana has relied on community based natural resources management (CBNRM) to incentivize communities to choose environmentally beneficial behaviour to advance conservation efforts. This approach has had some success, although it has not been as successful as had been hoped. Nevertheless, it is well acknowledged that CBNRM can play an important role in advancing conservation efforts. The state is therefore working to revamp the CBNRM framework so that it consistently yields beneficial results for communities and conservation. This article relies on regulatory theory and experience with CBNRM in Botswana to identify what it would take to establish an effective CBNRM regulatory framework there. It establishes that Botswana has failed to secure effective CBNRM consistently, due to the lack of a dedicated CBNRM law and inadequately resourced institutions. It recommends the promulgation of a CBNRM law with a community-centred and / or rights-based approach, and the establishment of an adequately resourced institution, charged with regulating CBNRM in Botswana.

Botswana’s New Tourism Policy of 2021 and Mantras of Citizen Empowerment and Product Diversification: A Case of Going Backward to Move Forward

Article

Jul 2023

Monkgogi Lenao

Botswana’s first tourism policy was published in 1990 as the first true attempt at formalizing tourism activities in the country. The policy advocated for a high-cost, low-volume (HC, LV) marketing approach for general tourism practice in Botswana. This policy position has received reviews from various stakeholders, some of whom decry its exclusionary consequences for both citizen entrepreneurs and travellers. In 2021, the Revised Tourism Policy was released following a lengthy review process dating back to 2008. The newly revised policy prescribes a high volume/mixed price strategy in recognition of the constraints embedded in the founding policy’s approach. To this end, the revised policy promises a more citizen-friendly tourism environment where local participation would be improved and benefits spread more equitably to citizens. While explicitly making pronouncements on how an increase in domestic travel shall be facilitated, as well as calling for local participation at the entrepreneurial level, two things remain unchanged. At most, the revised policy retains its predecessor’s government-centred approach as well as wildlife and wilderness-centred thinking. The government-centred dispensation is aptly captured in the policy as a government-led, private-sector-driven, and community-based tourism development approach. The current case addresses the challenges of a government-centred policy in the wake of citizen empowerment and participation in community-based tourism. Information © The Author 2023

Fall from grace or back down to earth? Conservation and political conflict in Africa’s “miracle” state

Article

Jun 2022

Since the publication of the influential text, An African Miracle, much scholarship has focused on Botswana's supposed “exceptionality” anchored in the country's economic growth and sustained democracy. Botswana's success story has proved enduring and versatile, being deployed in numerous contexts including in relation to Botswana’s status as a conservation “safe haven” in southern Africa. Many green plaudits are associated with the tenure of former president Ian Khama (2008–2018), who broke with longstanding tradition and actively campaigned against his own vice president and successor, President Mokgweetsi Masisi. Their acrimonious relationship is multifaceted but in this article, we refer to disputes over wildlife conservation policy wherein Masisi rolled back his predecessor's signature conservation policies, focusing specifically on the reversal of the hunting ban, the disarming of some anti-poaching officers, and changes in Botswana's stance in international environmental diplomacy regarding ivory and the CITES regime. We contend that Khama's conservation decisions—underpinned by lack of consultation and green violence—made Botswana a “green miracle” to outside observers while contravening the central principles of local democratic practice such as therisanyo (consultation) cherished in the country. We argue that Masisi's reversal of Khama-era positions that were unpopular with conservation-adjacent communities represents not a “fall from grace,” but rather the bringing back down to earth of policies that had alienated the local population, thus indicating the potential to pursue inclusive governance that domestically Botswana acclaims.

Inclusive sustainable tourism: An equity approach for local development

Article

Oct 2022

Dev Jani

nclusiveness within tourism in developing countries has been questionable. The present study aimed at evaluating local residents’ perceptions of being included in tourism around national parks in Tanzania utilizing the Equity theory as a theoretical lens. Local residents’ perceptions on inclusion were captured using structured questionnaire. At total of 507 usable responses were analyzed using one-sample and paired samples t-tests to compare the mean scores. Results indicate local residents to have mixed perceptions regarding their inclusion in tourism. Specifically, local residents perceive to be excluded in tourism with respect to business oppor�tunities while being included on resource access and use. Residents perceive stakeholders to have different powers, with government having the most followed by the community, private businesses and lastly the non-governmental organizations. Results shed light to policymakers and destination managers on governance aspects that are pertinent in enhancing inclusiveness and sustainability in tourism.

Trends and Development of Tourism Product Diversification in Botswana: Lessons Learned

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2022

Diversifying tourism products is a vital contemporary business strategy for maintaining a competitive advantage in the face of rapid technological, economic and social changes. Tourism in Botswana is largely dependent on wildlife and international tourists and consistent calls to diversify over the past four decades have greatly been amplified by the colossal impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. A semi-systematic literature review analyzed progress and research trends related to tourism product diversification in Botswana. Findings revealed that research on diversification is largely qualitative and supply-side focused. It mostly explains reasons for diversification and identifies potential development sites and optional products that could be introduced such as activities related to cultural, heritage and community-based tourism. Tourism product diversification has largely been stalled over the past four decades and is characterized by a deficiency in empirical demand-side research, precise strategies to adopt as well as theoretical and conceptual analyses of diversification that should form the basis for crafting time-specific effective strategies. Keywords: product diversification; tourism product; wildlife tourism; tourism supply; tourism demand.

Exploring Tourism Impacts on Poverty Alleviation - The Case of Le Morne Village, Mauritius

Thesis

Full-text available

Jun 2021

Vishista Joyram

Tourism is fundamental to eradicate poverty and fostering sustainable development. Yet, there is limited research on how impoverished communities perceive the impacts of tourism on poverty alleviation. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to address this gap in the literature and contribute to the academic research on tourism and poverty alleviation. This study established a triple bottom line framework to explore tourism impacts on poverty alleviation at Le Morne village, as the study area. Online semi-structured interviews were conducted with local residents. The findings show that locals' perceptions of tourist impacts and poverty are based on their own personal experiences. Tourism development has been a momentous contributor to alleviating multidimensional poverty in the study location to a certain extent. The most critical tourism impacts for poverty alleviation is the increase in the number of jobs and revenue in the economy. The study also identifies a number of issues and barriers facing by poor residents in participating in tourism. The most important barrier is overdependence on tourism, poor water and sanitation and no access to health and transport services. The study also deals with the concept of Sustainable Development Goals as the basis of eradicating extreme poverty at Le Morne village. Generally, the area where greater progress is required is goal 2, 3, 6, 9 and 17. To sum up, although tourism may bring some short run benefits for the poor, there is need for the participation of various stakeholders to make it a long- term contribution to poverty reduction.

The Reality of Financing Small Tourism Firms: The Case of Indian Tourism SMEs

Chapter

Full-text available

Jan 2021

Small tourist firms occupy an important place within the Indian tourism industry and make a significant contribution towards gross domestic production. This study investigates access to and finance preferences of SME tourism firms in the Punjab area, India. The study employed a post-positivist research approach depending on semi-structured questionnaires and interviews. The findings confirmed that tourism firms relied on pecking order trajectory, drawing capital from own savings, family and informal lenders, which is consistent with the literature. The study provides a unique insight into issues related to tourism firms and benchmarks findings with SME literature to identify the salient points.

Sustainability and Tourism: Reflections from a Muddy Pool

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1996

David Harrison

How 'Eco' is Ecotourism? A Comparative Case Study of Ecotourism in Costa Rica

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2011

Ecotourism's appeal as a conservation and development tool rests in its potential to provide local economic benefits while maintaining ecological resource integrity through low-impact, non-consumptive resource use. Some, however, question its contribution to conservation and community development, citing negative impacts, such as solid waste generation, habitat destruction, and sociocultural ills. This paper, based on a comparative study in Costa Rica, explores some of these issues. Study findings were mixed regarding ecotourism's effectiveness as a conservation and community development tool. Survey respondents saw legal restrictions as more influential than tourism in prompting declines in deforestation and hunting rates. Likewise, respondents did not feel tourism operators were significant players in raising environmental awareness. The research also revealed that direct employment in ecotourism was associated with pro-conservation practices, but indirect benefits showed stronger associations in generating pro-conservation perspectives. Little evidence was found to suggest that people are investing tourism-generated income in environmentally threatening practices. Research findings also indicated that scale influences tourism's benefits and negative impacts and that, where ecotourism dominates local economies, towns may become economically vulnerable. The paper concludes by recognising that ecotourism would be most effective as a component of a broader conservation strategy and offers suggestions to improve ecotourism's potential.

Shadow players: Ecotourism development, corruption and state politics in Belize

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2000

Rosaleen Duffy

This article examines the way that developing societies have been increasingly incorporated into global networks, and the effect that this has had on the states themselves. The notion of a shadow state is used here to inform the ways that the state has been modified by the global networks represented by ecotourism development on the one hand and drug trafficking (and associated offshore banking sectors) on the other. Belize provides an excellent example of the way that these North-South linkages, in the form of global networks, undermine the ability of states to enforce regulations in offshore banking, drug trafficking and environmental protection that are demanded of the South by the North.

A Content Analysis of Ecotourism Definitions

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2001

David Fennell

One of the most habitual practices in the sub-field of ecotourism, from both academic and industry perspectives, is the development of definitions. Although the reasons for such a proliferation of definitions is unknown, it appears as though the trend will continue. This research sought to better understand the concept of ecotourism through an examination of 85 definitions of the term (chiefly from the perspective of 20 variables), using a content analysis methodology. The variables most frequently cited in the definitions include: (i) reference to where ecotourism occurs, e.g. natural areas; (2) conservation; (3) culture; (4) benefits to locals; and (5) education. From the perspective of time, the data indicate that the years ranging from 1991 to 1996, were the most productive in terms of the development of ecotourism definitions, and more specifically 1994 to 1996, when a number of the most comprehensive of these were coined. Conservation, education, ethics, sustainability, impacts and local benefits were variables which were better represented in the more recent definitions, showing a changing emphasis in how the term has been conceptualised over time.

Tourism and Sustainable Development: Exploring the Theoretical Divide

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2000

Richard Sharpley

Despite the significant attention paid by tourism academics and practitioners to sustainable tourism development in recent years, there has been a consistent failure within the tourism literature to relate the concept to the theory of its parental paradigm, sustainable development. As a result, the applicability of sustainable development to the specific context of tourism is rarely questioned. This paper addresses this omission in the literature. Reviewing development theory and the notion of sustainability, it proposes a model of sustainable development against which the principles of sustainable tourism are compared. It is argued that tourism development remains embedded in early modernisation theory whilst the principles of sustainable tourism over look the characteristics of the production and consumption of tourism. As a result, significant differences between the concepts of sustainable tourism and sustainable development are revealed, suggesting that the principles and objectives of sustainable development cannot be transposed onto the specific context of tourism.

Tourist merchandise’ as a means of generating local benefits from ecotourism

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1994

Robert G. Healy

Long term protection of national parks and nature reserves is very difficult unless economic benefits can be secured for local people. Ecotourism offers a possible income source, provided that there is a means of local revenue capture from the visitors. This article examines the sale of handicrafts and other ‘tourist merchandise’ as a possible means of generating local benefits. The article considers issues of supply and demand, new product development, marketing, and the sustainability of supply of materials used as inputs. It concludes that strong possibilities exist for market development and creation of new, sustainable, culturally acceptable products. Of particular interest are active linking of tourist merchandise production to agricultural or forestry projects that provide a sustainable supply of inputs, use of ‘craft as performance’ to promote product sale, and development of products that educate tourists about park resources and local cultures.

Success Factors in Community Based Natural Resources Management in Northern Botswana: Lessons from Practice

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2005
NAT RESOUR FORUM

Olekae Tsompi Thakadu

The article explores and examines challenges and lessons learned from the implementation of community based natural resources management (CBNRM) programmes in Ngamiland, northern Botswana. The article, based largely on primary data, with some secondary data sources, draws on the CBNRM framework, which promotes rural socio-economic development and natural resources management. Among the key factors identified as pivotal to the success of CBNRM is broadening the consultation base during the mobilization phase of the programme to facilitate effective community participation and representation. Preparedness by both the implementing institutions and participating communities is also highlighted as key to effective mobilization. This means moving away from a conventional consultative forum, to a more multi-faceted approach that will facilitate capturing the views of diverse user groups within the community. The article also suggests that feasibility studies are needed to address socio-economic, political and cultural characteristics inherent in communities to guide programme implementation. To achieve increased community participation and enhance positive conservation attitudes, the article advocates a mobilization approach and practice that will effectively facilitate the process.

Satellite and resource accounting as tools for tourism planning in southern Africa

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2002
Dev South Af

The potential for improvements to tourism planning through development of tourism satellite accounts (TSAs) to measure economic activity, and tourism asset resource accounts (TARAs) to measure the natural asset base, was studied in southern Africa. It was concluded that economic efficiency in tourism development would be enhanced if all the countries pursue plans to develop TSA, TARA and economic models for tourism planning. Basic TSA, including consumption, production, supply and use, employment and capital tables are required. TSA development should take place step by step, with specific data collection surveys and agreements between the stakeholders. Surveys should be focused on both tourists and the suppliers of tourism products, and should be carried out by central tourism agencies in collaboration with national accounting agencies. TARAs should involve both physical accounts for specific resources, such as water or wildlife, as well as land accounts for general tourism activity and potential. TSAs and TARAs should be integrated with input-output/social accounting matrix modelling tools. Countries should match the rigour of their TSA and TARA development with their anticipated capacity for analysis and planning. Donors could assist in the process, especially in a regional context.

Taxing Tourism in Developing Countries

Article

Full-text available

Aug 1992
WORLD DEV

Richard M. Bird

Although tourism is an important industry in many developing countries, where tax revenues are often in short supply, surprisingly little attention has been paid to the taxation of the tourist industry. This paper argues that in principle there is a strong economic case in many, but not all, countries for taxing tourism more than at present, but that the nature of the industry and administrative difficulties severely limit what can be done in practice. This analysis and a review of the fiscal instruments available to most developing countries suggest three main conclusions: first, more attention should be paid to introducing adequate “charging” policies where possible; second, special taxes on hotel accommodation are generally the key to tourist taxation; and third, there is little reason to provide special incentives for investment in the tourist industry.

The socio-economic and environmental impacts of tourism development on the Okavango Delta, north-western Botswana

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2003

Joseph Mbaiwa

The Okavango Delta is one of Botswana's leading tourist destination areas, mainly because of the rich wildlife resources it sustains and its scenic beauty. Tourism has stimulated the development of a variety of allied infrastructure and facilities, such as hotels, lodges and camps, airport and airstrips, in the Okavango region. Through its backward linkages, wholesale and retail businesses have also been established, especially in Maun, to offer various goods to the tourist industry. Tarred roads and other communication facilities have also been developed in Ngamiland District partly to facilitate tourism development. Tourism in the Okavango Delta also provides employment opportunities to local communities and it is a significant source of foreign exchange for Botswana. Despite its positive socio-economic impacts, the industry is beginning to have negative environmental impacts in the area such as the destruction of the area's ecology through driving outside the prescribed trails, noise pollution and poor waste management. This, therefore, suggests that tourism in the Okavango Delta has socio-economic and environmental impacts, issues which are addressed by this paper based on the concept of sustainability.

Enclave Tourism and Its Socio-Economic Impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2005
TOURISM MANAGE

Joseph Mbaiwa

This paper draws on the dependency paradigm to explain the development of enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Using both primary and secondary data source, the study indicates that international tourists, foreign safari companies and investors dominate the tourism industry in the Okavango Delta. The foreign domination and ownership of tourism facilities has led to the repatriation of tourism revenue, domination of management positions by expatriates, lower salaries for citizen workers, and a general failure by tourism to significantly contribute to rural poverty alleviation in the Okavango region. Tourism as a result has a minimal economic impact on rural development mainly because it has weak linkages with the domestic economy, particularly agriculture. Because of its nature, tourism in the Okavango Delta cannot be described as being sustainable from a socio-economic perspective. In order to address problems of enclave tourism development and promote more inclusive and beneficial tourism development in the Okavango, there is need to adopt policies and strategies that will ensure that substantial amounts of tourism revenue are retained in the Okavango and Botswana. These strategies should also ensure that tourism development in the Okavango Delta has strong linkages with the rest of the economy in Botswana.

Sustainable Tourism: An Overview of the Concept and its Position in Relation to Conceptualisations of Tourism

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2002

Reference to sustainable tourism is now made in most strategic tourism planning documents. Yet, despite its common use, definitional arguments exist over its meaning and subsequent operationalisation. In addition to this, literature on sustainable tourism rarely discusses its development prior to the publication of Our Common Future (World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), 1987) and its relevance to current conceptualisations of tourism. This paper analyses the context within which sustainable tourism was developed and has recently been conceptualised. It does this by assessing the development of sustainable tourism (with an Australian focus) and proposing a model which incorporates the development of sustainable tourism into tourism. The paper argues that sustainable tourism has traditionally given more focus to aspects related to the environment and economic development and that more focus should be given to community involvement.

Is Ecotourism Sustainable?

Article

Full-text available

Aug 1997
ENVIRON MANAGE

Geoffrey Wall

/ It is legitimate to ask whether and in what form tourism might contribute to sustainable development. This is not the same as sustainable tourism which, as a single-sector approach to development, may overlook important linkages with other sectors. If tourism is to contribute to sustainable development, then it must be economically viable, ecologically sensitive and culturally appropriate. Ecotourism is often advocated as being a sustainable form of tourism but imprecision in terminology clouds basic issues and there are strong economic, ecological, and cultural reasons for believing that, even in its purest forms, ecotourism is likely to present substantial challenges to destination areas, particularly if it competes for scarce resources and displaces existing uses and users. Sustainable tourism and ecotourism are not synonyms, many forms of ecotourism may not be sustainable, and if ecotourism is to contribute to sustainable development, then careful planning and management will be required.KEY WORDS: Ecotourism; Sustainable development; Development; Tourism

Sustainable tourism in Southern Africa: Local communities and natural resources in transition

Book

Jan 2009

Tourism has become a major economic agent and an important social and cultural element in contemporary southern Africa. As such, tourism has a wide range of impacts on environment, economy, cultures, and the everyday life of people. These processes have highlighted the role of sustainability in tourism development.This book represents an accessible examination of the connections between tourism and sustainability in southern Africa. It introduces connections between tourism, sustainability and development with a range of case studies and examples from the region. While the book and the individual chapters are emphasising the key role of tourism in the transition processes of local communities and environments, the social, cultural, economic and political contexts of tourism and communities are also highlighted. © 2009 Jarkko Saarinen, Fritz Becker, Haretsebe Manwa, Deon Wilson and the authors of individual chapters. All Right Reserved.

Tourism, Ecotourism and Protected Areas

Article

Jan 1996

H. Ceballos-Lascurain

Assessing community-based natural-resource management

Article

Mar 1999

Rethinking community in community-based natural resource management

Article

Jan 2013

Gyan P. Nyaupane

This paper examines the issues associated with the conceptualization and formation of community in community-based natural resource management (CBNRM). The paper is guided by qualitative research methods and is based on the context of southern African countries, with specific reference to Botswana. The results indicate that the clustering of communities to become CBNRM beneficiary groups, regardless of their geographical locations, interests, tribal relationships, historical formations, and the adoption of a single CBNRM implementation model approach fail to incorporate local variations in natural resources, culture, and socioeconomic conditions. Thus, the argument made in this paper is that most problems experienced cannot be attributed to CBNRM as a concept, but to the implementation processes, hence the call for a rethinking in the implementation of CBNRM projects. The paper provides alternative community models to overcome the issues associated with the hasty community clustering process in CBNRM.

Tourism space in developing countries

Article

Jan 1993
ANN TOURISM RES

Martin Oppermann

This article discusses tourism development theories with respect to their spatio-temporal implications in the Third World. They are all found to be inadequate in explaining the spatial occurrence and temporal development of tourism in developing countries. This is largely due to a lack of differentiation of tourism activity into different sectors. In response, the proposed model of “tourist space in developing countries” acknowledges the influence of the existing social and economic structures in these countries at all stages of tourism development, differentiates the tourism industry into two sectors, and recognizes the spatial segregation and different economic impacts of the sectors.RésuméL'espace touristique aux pays en voie de développement. L'article examine des théories de développement touristique et leurs implications spatio-temporelles au Tiers-Monde. On trouve qu'aucune des théories ne suffit pour expliquer les circonstances de l'espace et le dévelopment temporel aux pays en voie de développement. Cette insuffisance vient du fait que ces théories ne distinguent pas les différents secteurs de l'activité touristique. Cet article propose donc un modèle qui intg̀re l'influence des structures sociales et économiques existantes à toutes les phases du développement du tourisme, qui différencie l'industrie touristique en deux secteurs et qui reconnaît la ségrégation spatiale et les effets économiques différents des deux secteurs.

How Europe Underdeveloped Africa

Article

Jan 1997
Int J Afr Hist Stud

Walter Rodney

Sustainable Tourism Development: A Critique

Article

Dec 2003

Zhenhua Liu

Sustainable tourism has become an increasingly popular field of research since the late 1980s. However, the sustainable tourism debate is patchy, disjointed and often flawed with false assumptions and arguments. This paper is a brief critique of some of the weaknesses in the sustainable tourism literature. In particular, it explores six issues that are often overlooked but must be addressed in research: the role of tourism demand, the nature of tourism resources, the imperative of intra-generational equity, the role of tourism in promoting sociocultural progress, the measurement of sustainability, and forms of sustainable development. Finally, it is argued that in order to transform research on sustainable tourism to a more scientific level, a systems perspective and an interdisciplinary approach are indispensable.

Business attitudes to sustainable tourism: Self‐regulation in the UK outgoing tourism industry

Article

Jan 1995

Tim Forsyth

Much debate about sustainable tourism has focused on how to change business practices which lead to environmental and social damage in tourist destinations. There is much disagreement between campaigners, who wish to make industry more responsible for sustainable tourism, and companies, which fear regulations may damage business performance. Many companies have adopted their own practices of sustainable tourism. Yet these are sometimes criticised by campaigners for being superficial. This paper describes research undertaken to list current practices of self‐regulation adopted by the UK outgoing tourism industry, and to identify how far these satisfy principles of sustainable tourism identified by campaigners. The research also identified perceived obstacles to the adoption of sustainable practices, and how practices could operate in the commercial favour of companies. Results indicated that many companies saw sustainable tourism practices to be of commercial benefit; in particular, they could add value to holiday products, thus allowing companies to compete with each other on more than price alone. However, most sectors of the industry said that host governments, rather than they, were ultimately responsible for sustainable tourism. The survey therefore concluded that the industry was in favour of long‐term regulation, but this was not being achieved by current self‐regulation. A better understanding of the commercial opportunities of sustainable tourism may enable companies to take a more proactive role in seeking change.

Tourism and Economic Growth: The Case of Mauritius

Article

Dec 2004

Ramesh Durbarry

Tourism is now believed to provide an impetus to the economic progress of developing nations and its importance is gaining widespread recognition. In fact, the relationship between exports and growth is the subject of ongoing debate, but the nature of exports has received little attention. Despite the continuous efforts of developing countries to increase their exports, this strategy often adds little foreign exchange to their balance of payments. For many reasons, the non-traditional exports of developing countries have too often failed to prove effective in economic development and so tourism is increasingly seen as something of a saviour. This paper focuses on the success story of a small island economy, Mauritius. Once regarded as an extreme case of a mono-crop economy, relying very predominantly on the export of sugar, Mauritius is now a reputed exporter of non-traditional goods (textiles) and services (tourism). Using cointegration and causality tests, the author's results lend support to the contention that tourism has promoted growth, and further evidence suggests that tourism has a significant positive impact on Mauritian economic development.

The Problems and Prospects of Sustainable Tourism Development in the Okavango Delta, Botswana

Article

May 2005

Joseph Mbaiwa

The objective of this paper is to assess the problems and prospects of sustainable tourism development in developing countries with special reference to the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Using both secondary and primary data sources, this paper points out that tourism in developing countries does not always adhere to the principles of sustainable tourism development. In the Okavango Delta, the tourism industry is designed to meet the interests of tourists from developed countries and is dominated by foreign safari companies. The tourism industry in the Okavango Delta does not significantly take into consideration the sociocultural, economic and environmental needs of the host economy. It is characterised by: the marginalisation of local companies and investors; leakages and repatriation of tourism revenue from Botswana to developed countries; the failure of tourism to promote rural development and poverty alleviation; and, the failure to observe local environmental regulations to conserve the Okavango Delta as a natural ecosystem. This paper argues that, despite these problems, such destinations have the potential to contribute to sustainable tourism development. This requires a planning process that satisfies the needs of tourists and tour operators while being sensitive to the sociocultural, economic and environmental needs of host countries and destinations.

Contending with Unequal and Privileged Access to Natural Resources and Land in the Okavango Delta, Botswana

Article

Jul 2008
SINGAPORE J TROP GEO

This paper reviews how state policy and regulatory instruments, including protected area alienations and concessions, have altered or denied the access to land and natural livelihood resources of the indigenous Basarwa and minority subsistence-oriented communities in the Okavango Delta (OD) in Botswana. Drawing on field research and guided by a sustainable rural livelihoods framework, the paper provides an overview of key institutional interventions – in particular the setting up of the Moremi Game Reserve, Wildlife Conservation Policy, Tourism Policy, Agricultural Development Policy and the erection of veterinary fences – that have served to privilege a foreign-owned and dominated commercialized wildlife and nature tourism sector and the export-oriented beef industry in the OD. The officially sanctioned barriers to customary and usufructory rights and access, and the non-recognition of historically embedded traditional land uses have decimated already marginalized resource-based subsistence livelihoods, and precipitated intergroup conflicts over preferential rights and access to resources and opportunities, notably wildlife, non-timber veld products, agriculture and community-based tourism schemes. Such outcomes, moreover, will have consequences for the longer-term sustainability of the OD both as a socioeconomic resource base and as a natural ecosystem.

Challenges of sustainable tourism development in the developing world: The case of Turkey

Article

Jun 2001
TOURISM MANAGE

Cevat Tosun

This article presents an analysis of the challenges to sustainable tourism development in developing countries with special references to Turkey as a part of the developing world. It was found that the factors that have emerged as challenges to sustainable tourism development related to priorities of national economic policy, the structure of public administration, an emergence of environmental issues, over commercialisation, and the structure of international tourism system. It concludes that although the principles of sustainable tourism development are beneficial, their implementation is an enormously difficult task to achieve and owing to the prevailing socio-economic and political conditions in the developing world. Hence, any operation of principles of sustainable tourism development necessitates hard political and economic choices, and decisions based upon complex socio-economic and environmental trade-offs. Moreover, it states that implementation of these hard decisions may not be possible unless international organisations encourage and collaborate with governments of developing countries to implement the principles of sustainable tourism development.

The Political Economy of Tourism in the Third Word

Article

Dec 1982
ANN TOURISM RES

Stephen G. Britton

When a Third World country uses tourism as a development strategy, it becomes enmeshed in a global system over which it has little control. The international tourism industry is a product of metropolitan capitalist enterprise. The superior entrepreneurial skills, resources, and commercial power of metropolitan companies enables them to dominate many Third World tourist destinations. This paper outlines the dynamics of this process, particularly in the context of the South Pacific.RésuméL'Economie politique du tourisme du Tiers Monde. Quand un pays du Tiers Monde emploie le tourisme comme stratégie de développement, il s'empètre dans un systéme global dont il a peu de contrôle. L'industrie touristique internationale est un produit de l'entreprise capitaliste métropolitain. Les talents supérieurs des entrepreneurs, les ressources et le pouvoir commercial des compagnies métropolitains leur donnent la possibilité de dominer beaucoup de destinations touristiques au Tiers Monde. Cet article expose les grandes lignes de la dynamique de ce processus, en particulier dans le contexte du Pacifique du Sud.

Feeding wildlife as a tourism attraction: A review of issues and impacts

Article

Jun 2002
TOURISM MANAGE

Mark Orams

The feeding of wildlife has become a popular means by which tourists and tourism operators can facilitate close observation and interaction with wildlife in the wild. These practices are widespread and have a variety of impacts on the wildlife—and on the tourists. Deliberate and long-term provision of food to wildlife has been shown to alter natural behaviour patterns and population levels. It has also resulted in the dependency of animals on the human provided food and their habituation to human contact. Intra- and inter-species aggression has also occurred where wildlife, in their efforts to obtain food, have harmed one another and harmed tourists. There are also important health implications arising from artificial food sources where injury and disease have resulted. While the great majority of cases show negative impacts arising from supplemental feeding of wildlife, this is not always the case. Certainly there are psychological, social and economic benefits that are experienced on the human side of the interaction and, in a limited number of cases, the wildlife can be shown to have benefited as well. The issue of feeding wildlife for tourism is a controversial one with little consensus regarding how it should be managed. Approaches range from complete prohibition, to active promotion and management, to simply ignoring the practices. Little empirical research, inconsistent management and differing views of the role of animals in humans’ lives ensure that this issue will remain a contentious one worthy of further examination and consideration.

Sustainable Tourism and the Question of the Commons

Article

Oct 2002
ANN TOURISM RES

Helen Briassoulis

Sustainable development calls for wise management of natural, built, and sociocultural resources in destination areas. Resources created mainly for tourism are used in time by the local population as well. Many others are shared in common with local people in everyday life. More often than not, resources are overused and degraded, as is the unfortunate fate of most ‘common pool resources’. When this happens, sustainable development is severely threatened: economic wellbeing declines, environmental conditions worsen, social injustice grows, and tourist satisfaction drops. This paper analyzes the central role that common pool resources play in sustainable tourism development, outlines policy design principles for their management, and offers future research directions.RésuméLe tourisme soutenable et la question des biens communs. Le développement soutenable exige la gestion judicieuse des ressources naturelles, construites et socioculturelles des régions de destination. Certaines des ressources, initialement destinées au tourisme, peuvent être utilisées ultérieurement par la population locale. D’autres ressources sont partagées avec la population locale dans la vie quotidienne. La plupart du temps, les ressources son surexploitées et dégradées, comme c’est souvent le cas des biens communs. C’est alors que le développement soutenable est sérieusement menacé: les conditions économiques et environnementales sont détériorées, l’injustice sociale augmente et la satisfaction touristique baisse. Cet article analyse le rôle majeur joué par les ressources communes dans le développement du tourisme soutenable, donne des principes pour une politique de gestion et propose des directions de recherche.

Ecotourism Questioned: Case studies from Belize

Article

Jul 1996
ANN TOURISM RES

Ecotourism has become a buzzword within the tourism, conservation and rural development fields. Significant economic and political resources have been devoted to ecotourism on the assumption that it achieves conservation and development objectives. This article evaluates the extent to which tourism at case study sites in Belize achieves three ecotourism objectives: generation of financial support for protected area management, generation of local economic benefits and generation of local support for conservation. When using positive net financial impact as a standard, tourism does not achieve the first objective, but could do so with implementation of a modest user fee. Tourism achieves the second and third objectives. The methodologies utilized are presented to encourage their refinement and application elsewhere.RésuméL'écotourisme sous la loupe: une étude de cas pour Bélize. L'écotourisme est un mot en vogue pour le tourisme, la défense de l'environnement et le développement rural. On a affecté des ressources politiques et économiques considérables à l'écotourisme en supposant qu'il atteint ses buts pour le développement et l'environnement. On mesure le succès du tourisme à Bélize pour atteindre trois buts de l'écotourisme: fonds pour la gestion des zones protégées, bénéfices économiques locaux et soutien local pour l'environnement. Quand le critère est un bénéfice net, le tourisme ne réalise pas le premier but, mais pourrait le faire avec un modeste prix d'usager. Le tourisme réalise les deuxième et troisième buts. On décrit les méthodologies utilisées pour encourager leur perfectionnement et leur application.

Sustainable tourism as an adaptive paradigm

Article

Oct 1997
ANN TOURISM RES

Colin Hunter

Despite owing its origins to the general concept of sustainable development, the subject of sustainable tourism appears to have evolved largely in isolation from the continuing debate on the meaning of the former. This paper argues that such isolation has resulted in the emergence of an overly simplistic and inflexible paradigm of sustainable tourism which fails to account for specific circumstances. It is suggested that the concept of sustainable tourism be redefined in terms of an over-arching paradigm which incorporates a range of approaches to the tourism/environment system within destination areas. These approaches are outlined for a variety of abstract situations with the aim of demonstrating the legitimacy of different perceptions of sustainable tourism.RésuméLe tourisme soutenable comme paradigme adaptif. Bien qu'il doive ses origines au concept général du développement soutenable, le sujet du tourisme soutenable paraît avoir évolué en grande mesure indépendamment du débat continu de la question générale. Selon l'article, un tel isolement serait la conséquence de la naissance d'un paradigme de tourisme soutenable trop simpliste et inflexible qui ne réussit pas à rendre compte des circonstances spécifiques. On suggère que le concept du tourisme soutenable doit être redéfini en fonction d'un paradigme global qui contiendrait un choix d'approches au système du tourisme/ environnement des régions des destinations. Ces approches sont exposées à grands traits pour une variété de situations abstraites afin de démontrer la légitimité des différentes perceptions du tourisme soutenable.

Tourism routes as a tool for the economic development of rural areas - vibrant hope or impossible dream?

Article

Feb 2004
TOURISM MANAGE

Both eulogised and reviled as a development option, rural tourism is increasingly viewed as a panacea, increasing the economic viability of marginalised areas, stimulating social regeneration and improving the living conditions of rural communities. Less developed countries, afflicted by debilitating rural poverty, have considerable potential in attracting tourists in search of new, authentic experiences in areas of unexploited natural and cultural riches. This paper argues that the clustering of activities and attractions, and the development of rural tourism routes, stimulates co-operation and partnerships between local areas. Meaningful community participation, together with public sector support, presents opportunities for the development of small-scale indigenous tourism projects in less developed areas. This paper interrogates the development of rural tourism routes in South Africa and highlights factors critical to its success.

Sustainable rural tourism strategies: A tool for development and conservation

Article

Aug 2009

Bernard Lane

This paper reviews how the principles of sustainable tourism have special relevance to the development of rural tourism, and examines how those principles can be translated into practice by the writing and implementing of regional sustainable tourism strategies. It considers the advantages of this approach, and offers guide-lines for future practitioners. A case study is given of the development of a strategy for an area in northern England, Berwick-upon-Tweed.

Tourism and Economic Development: A Survey

Article

Jan 1997

M. Thea Sinclair

Faced with the problems of declining terms of trade for agricultural products and high levels of protection against manufacturs, many developing countries have turned to tourism as a possible alternative source of growth. This paper provides a comprehensive survey of the literature on tourism and economic development, identifying both the contribution that tourism can make to development and the costs that it entails. Single equation and system of equations models which have been used to estimate tourism demand are provided and evaluated. The estimated elasticity values indicate developing countries' potential to benefit from increasing expenditure on tourism but their susceptibility to deterioration in price competitiveness. The economic features of the main sectors of tourism supply - transportation, tour operators, travel agents and accommodation - are examined and the role of cross-country integration between firms, operating in imperfectly competitive contexts, is highlighted. Tourism's considerable contributions to foreign currency, income and employment generation are examined. The paper argues that many of the problems associated with the use of developing countries' environmental resources for tourism stem from market failure. Methods which can be used to value such resources are provided and implications for using the market mechanism to increase returns from tourism are suggested.

Environmental Entitlements: Dynamics and Institutions in Community-Based Natural Resource Management

Article

Feb 1999
WORLD DEV

Despite many approaches of neoclassical and endogenous growth theory, economists still face problems in explaining the reasons for income differences between countries. Institutional economics and the deep determinants of growth literature try to depart from pure economic facts to examine economic development. Therefore, this article analyzes the impact of institutions, geography, and integration on per capita income. Concerning theoretical reasoning, emphasis is on the emergence of institutions and their effect on economic growth. However, institutions can appear in different shapes since political, legal, and economic restrictions are not the only constraints on human behaviour. Norms and values also limit possible actions. Therefore, a differentiation between formal and informal institutions is made. Informal institutions are defined as beliefs, attitudes, moral, conventions, and codes of conduct. Property rights are assumed to be the basic formal institutional feature for economic success. Despite their direct impact on growth through individual utility maximization, property rights also make a statement concerning the political and legal environment of a country. Regarding the regression analysis, different religious affiliations are used as instrumental variables for formal and informal institutions. The regression results affirm a crucial role of informal and formal institutions concerning economic development. However, a high proportion of Protestant citizens encourage informal institutions that support economic growth, while a high Muslim proportion of the population is negatively correlated with growth-supporting formal institutions. --

Annual Report and Economic Review. Gaborone: Bank of Botswana

Bank
Botswana

Pacific Tourism Adaptation to Climate Change Risks.” Presentation to UNDP conference on climate change in the Pacific: Impacts on local communities

T Delacy

Tourism and the Environment in the Caribbean: An Economic Framework. Environment Department

J Dixon
K Hamilton
S Pagiola
L Segnestan

The Taxation of Tourism in Botswana

D Hartle

CBNRM Status Report of 2010-12

J E Mbaiwa

Interpretation and Sustainable Tourism: The Potential and the Pitfalls

J Sustain Tourism

B Bramwell
B Lane

The Moralisation of Tourism: Sun, Sand … and Saving the World

J Butcher

Colonialism and Development in the Contemporary World

C Dixon
M Heffernam

Government of Botswana). 1990. The Tourism Policy. Government Paper No. 2 of 1990. Gaborone: Government Printer

Botswana Budget Speech of 2014/15 Financial Year. Botswana Parliament, Government Printer

K Mathambo

From State Control of Wildlife to Co-management of Natural Resources-The Evolution of Community Management in Southern Africa

E Rihoy

Empowerment for Sustainable Tourism Development. Amsterdam: Pergamon

T H B Sofield

Internal Colonialism: Essays Around a Theme. Developing Areas Research Group. Edinburgh: Institute of British Geographers

D Drakakis-Smith
S Willams

Towards Visitor Impact Management: Visitor Impacts, Carrying Capacity and Management Responses in Europe’s Historic Towns and Cities

J Glasson
K Godfrey
B Goodey

Tourism, the MDGs and Climate Change in the South Pacific Islands

M Jiang
T Delacy
S Noakes

State of CBNRM Report

S Johnson

Poverty or riches: who benefits from the booming tourism industry in Botswana?

Abstract

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