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Scientific Review: The Role of Nutrients in Immune Function of Infants and Young Children Emerging Evidence for Long-chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
Abstract
Growing evidence suggests that long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) have critical roles in the growth and development of infants and children and may have beneficial long-term effects on health throughout life. Studies have shown that two LCPUFA in particular, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3) and arachidonic acid (ARA; 20:4n-6), have important roles in infant cognitive development, visual acuity, and growth. These two LCPUFA are naturally present in human milk and are permitted as supplemental ingredients in infant formulas available in many countries. The purpose of this monograph is to review published studies evaluating the roles of dietary LCPUFA in supporting immune system development and function.
... Vitamin B 6 , as well as folic acid, participates in the biosynthesis of nucleic acids and proteins, providing the one-carbon units, which are used in the synthesis of purines and deoxythymidylate, which serve as a basis for the DNA and RNA synthesis [6,17,30,31]. Thereby, vitamin B 6 is essential for synthesizing cytokines and antibodies, which determine the specific and nonspecific immunity. In a number of studies on adults, it was proved that vitamin B 6 hypovitaminosis affects the differentiation, prolife ration, and maturation of lymphocytes and, also, production of antibodies and T-cells activity [17,20,23,29]. ...
... Excessive synthesis of 5-MTHF leads to secondary deficiency of vitamin B9 with impairment of thymidine and purine synthesis, which are vital for DNA and RNA synthesis, resulting in decreased secretion of immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA, IgM) and cytokines [7]. These disorders are accompanied by inhibition of immune response to intracellular and extracellular pathogens [14,17,23,30]. ...
... Vitamin B 12 deficiency causes the decrease in the absolute number of lymphocytes, especially CD8+, and inhibition of their activity and activity of NK cells, abnormal increase in CD4+/CD8+ ratio, therefore affecting the cellular part of acquired immunity and functions of innate protection [6,7,30,36]. It should be noted that intravenous administration of methylcobalamin to adults at a dose of 500 mg/day during two weeks significantly decreased CD4+/CD8+ ratio due to proliferation of CD8+, increased activity of NK cells, which indicates the potential antitumor effect of vitamin B 12 and can partially explain the high risk of gastric cancer in anemia caused by vitamin B 12 and folic acid deficiency [17]. ...
... Besides, higher levels of B6 active form decreases inflammation in humans [37]. Its deficiency can lead to lymphocytopenia and consequent immune deficiency, decreasing antibody-mediated responses as well [38]. ...
... Animal and humans studies show folate deficiency association with depressive immune response, impairing, for example, the proliferation of T cells [38]. In rodent model antibody responses can be improper in this situation [29]. ...
... An adequate plasmatic iron level is able to modulate the IS, reducing the M1 macrophage's pro-inflammatory response in mice [69,70]. Its deficiency can reduce the immune response in humans [38,70] ...
The new coronavirus pandemic is affecting the entire world with more than 25 million confirmed cases in August 2020 according to the World Health Organization. It is known that the virus can affect several tissues and can progress to a respiratory failure in severe cases. To prevent the progression to this stage of the disease and minimize all the damage caused by coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) the immune system must be in its integrity. A healthy nutritional status are fundamental to efficient immunological protection and consequently a good response to SARS-CoV-2. Micronutrients and bioactive compounds perform functions in immune cells that are extremely essential to stop SARS-CoV-2. Their adequate consumption is part of a non-pharmacological intervention to keep the immune system functioning. This review has as main objective to inform how micronutrients and bioactive compounds could act in the essential immunological pathways could stop SARS-CoV-2, focusing on the functions that have already established in the literature and transposing to this scenario.
... Vitamin D is involved in a wide range of immunomodulatory activities, including the maintenance of immune barrier integrity [40-44, 47, 48], the production of antimicrobial peptides [99-The low level of vitamin D increases the risks, severity, morbidity, and mortality of several respiratory conditions, such as rhinitis, asthma, tuberculosis, chronic pulmonary disorders, viral respiratory infections, and possibly also the COVID-19 [106][107][108][109][110]. The potential role of vitamin D in the modulation of immune response to viral respiratory tract infection (ALRI) has been evidenced in a study involving a young patient with individual genetic polymorphisms of vitamin D receptors [111]. ...
... Vitamin C deficiency increased the risk and severity of several respiratory infections, including pneumonia [37,45,107,110,117]. Despite many conflicting and inconclusive pieces of evidence, the oral supplementation of vitamin C potentially shortens the symptoms of the common J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f cold in children. ...
... Zinc deficiency increases the risk and morbidity of inflammatory disorders, infections, and viral pneumonia, particularly in children and the elderly [37,93,107,110,127,143,144]. ...
COVID-19 rapidly turned to a global pandemic posing lethal threats to overwhelming health care capabilities, despite
its relatively low mortality rate. The clinical respiratory symptoms include dry cough, fever, anosmia, breathing
difficulties, and subsequent respiratory failure. No known cure is available for COVID-19. Apart from the anti-viral
strategy, the supports of immune effectors and modulation of immunosuppressive mechanisms is the rationale
immunomodulation approach in COVID-19 management. Diet and nutrition are essential for healthy immunity.
However, a group of micronutrients plays a dominant role in immunomodulation. The deficiency of most nutrients
increases the individual susceptibility to virus infection with a tendency for severe clinical presentation. Despite a shred
of evidence, the supplementation of a single nutrient is not promising in the general population. Individuals at high-risk
for specific nutrient deficiencies likely benefit from supplementation. The individual dietary and nutritional status
assessments are critical for determining the comprehensive actions in COVID-19.
... Lower respiratory tract infections (e.g., bronchitis and pneumonia) are more common in children under five years old than any other age group worldwide, and risk factors include air pollution and suboptimal breastfeeding [48]. Micronutrient deficiencies also have immunological consequences in infants and young children, and can increase morbidity and mortality from many diseases, including pneumonia, diarrheal disease, and measles [4,49]. Infection and undernutrition have a synergistic relationship, and micronutrient deficiencies cause specific immune impairments that affect both the innate and adaptive immune systems, such as impaired phagocyte and lymphocyte activity with zinc deficiency, or compromised development of neutrophils, macrophages and NK cells with vitamin A deficiency [50]. ...
... The development, maintenance and optional functioning of immune cells is dependent on adequate nutrition, evident at all stages of life [4,5,33,49,69]. Key immunomodulatory roles of certain micronutrients are outlined in Table 1. Immune defenses can be impaired by undernutrition, which increases susceptibility to infection [4,5,70]. ...
... In babies and infants, breast milk is the major nutritional influence and is formulated to ensure that nutritional needs are met [49,71]. Breastmilk contains various immunological components such as antibodies (e.g., antigen-specific IgA), anti-inflammatory cytokines and other antimicrobial factors, but also most of the micronutrients necessary to support neonatal development, including of the immune system [49,71]. ...
As humans age, the risk and severity of infections vary in line with immune competence according to how the immune system develops, matures, and declines. Several factors influence the immune system and its competence, including nutrition. A bidirectional relationship among nutrition, infection and immunity exists: changes in one component affect the others. For example, distinct immune features present during each life stage may affect the type, prevalence, and severity of infections, while poor nutrition can compromise immune function and increase infection risk. Various micronutrients are essential for immunocompetence, particularly vitamins A, C, D, E, B2, B6, and B12, folic acid, iron, selenium, and zinc. Micronutrient deficiencies are a recognized global public health issue, and poor nutritional status predisposes to certain infections. Immune function may be improved by restoring deficient micronutrients to recommended levels, thereby increasing resistance to infection and supporting faster recovery when infected. Diet alone may be insufficient and tailored micronutrient supplementation based on specific age-related needs necessary. This review looks at immune considerations specific to each life stage, the consequent risk of infection, micronutrient requirements and deficiencies exhibited over the life course, and the available evidence regarding the effects of micronutrient supplementation on immune function and infection.
... Reduced resistance to infection and cancer, Reduced delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction, impaired wound healing and concerning its supplement, antioxidant attributes defend leukocytes and lymphocytes from oxidative stress [42] For elderly people possible reduction in an incidence and period of pneumonia [41] For Children: reduced period and severity of respiratory disease signs [43]; amended outcomes in pneumonia, malaria, and diarrhoeic symptoms. As a result, Increased the risk of all types of infection (bacterial, viral, and fungal), however particularly diarrhea and pneumonia [44]. When less vitamin C situation, conjointly, will increase susceptibleness to infections like pneumonia [45], in all probability, as a result of low levels of antioxidants like vitamin C, could not counteract the oxidative stress distinctive in pneumonia [40]. ...
... It should be noted that the safety margins in micronutrient supplements ensure that consumption does properly not lead to oversupplementation and which food supplement labels ought to be carefully read to prevent misuse, and therefore, the potential for over-supplementation. There is not any single biomarker exists that exactly reflects the impacts of supplementation on the immune reaction, instead, clinical outcomes are used to determine the effectiveness of supplementation [44,49]. Even so, current information concerning the importance of micronutrients in immunity, the influences lack micronutrient on the risk and severity of infection, and therefore, the worldwide epidemic outbreak of an insufficient micronutrient position form is good for the utilization of targeted multiple micronutrient supplements to protect immunity over people's lifetime. ...
Coronaviruses belong to the order Nidovirales and have families such as Coronaviridae, Arteriviridae, and Roniviridae. Coronavirida has two subfamilies named Coronavirinae and Torovirinae. Alpha, beta, gamma, and delta are also four groups of the Coronavirinae subfamily. All viruses belonging to the order Nidovirales are coated and positive-sense single-stranded RNA with a viral genome length of 27 to 34 kilobases. The particles are composed of 20-nm-diameter polymers that resemble a solar corona or a royal corona in the view of electron microscopy, which is why members of the family have named it Coronavirus. In this review article, we briefly describe coronaviruses, how they spread, the pathogenicity, current prevention and treatment strategies, and the association and effect of food with the virus.
... Therefore, deficiency of these vitamins increases the chance of a viral infection. 77 Vitamin B complex, specifically B 6 (pyridoxine), deficiency affects the immune system in 3 ways, including the reduction of T lymphocyte differentiation, downregulation of cytokine signaling suppressor 1 manifestation, and enhancement of IL-4 secretion levels and reduction of IL-2 secretion rates. 78 Suitable supplementation may improve the impaired immunity instigated by a short-term insufficiency of vitamin B 6 . ...
... 105 A selenium-rich diet facilitates the reduction of oxidative stress, which modifies the viral genome to act less virulent in the host body. 77 Moreover, selenium deficiency not only damages immune functioning, but also alters the RNA viruses of normal virulence into agents of a more virulent nature and triggers their rapid mutation. 106 This phenomenon was the mobility of lipid rafts, which may affect the activation and movement of surface signaling molecules. ...
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a recently emerged pandemic caused by a novel virus known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). This disease is communicable and mainly affects the respiratory tract. The outbreak of this disease has greatly influenced human health and economic activities worldwide. The absence of any medication for this infection highlights the urgent need for the development of alternative methods for managing the spread of the disease. Our immune system operates based on a complex array of cells, processes, and chemicals that continuously protect our body from invading pathogens, including viruses, toxins, and bacteria. The present study was conducted to perform a comprehensive review of all dietary treatments for boosting immunity against viral infections. No study was found to explicitly support the use of any healthy foods or supplements to protect against COVID-19. However, this study offers details on well-researched functional foods and supplements that typically improve the immune response, which could be helpful against this newly emerged pandemic.
... Therefore, deficiency of these vitamins increases the chance of a viral infection. 77 Vitamin B complex, specifically B 6 (pyridoxine), deficiency affects the immune system in 3 ways, including the reduction of T lymphocyte differentiation, downregulation of cytokine signaling suppressor 1 manifestation, and enhancement of IL-4 secretion levels and reduction of IL-2 secretion rates. 78 Suitable supplementation may improve the impaired immunity instigated by a short-term insufficiency of vitamin B 6 . ...
... 105 A selenium-rich diet facilitates the reduction of oxidative stress, which modifies the viral genome to act less virulent in the host body. 77 Moreover, selenium deficiency not only damages immune functioning, but also alters the RNA viruses of normal virulence into agents of a more virulent nature and triggers their rapid mutation. 106 This phenomenon was the mobility of lipid rafts, which may affect the activation and movement of surface signaling molecules. ...
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a recently emerged pandemic caused by a novel virus known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). This disease is communicable and mainly affects the respiratory tract. The outbreak of this disease has greatly influenced human health and economic activities worldwide. The absence of any medication for this infection highlights the urgent need for the development of alternative methods for managing the spread of the disease. Our immune system operates based on a complex array of cells, processes, and chemicals that continuously protect our body from invading pathogens, including viruses, toxins, and bacteria. The present study was conducted to perform a comprehensive review of all dietary treatments for boosting immunity against viral infections. No study was found to explicitly support the use of any healthy foods or supplements to protect against COVID-19. However, this study offers details on well-researched functional foods and supplements that typically improve the immune response, which could be helpful against this newly emerged pandemic.
Altern Ther Health Med. 2020 Dec 29; AT6564. Online ahead of print
... Impact of Vitamin C defi ciency and supplementation on immune functions have been also studied. It's defi ciency increases oxidative damage [16], decreases Delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) response [17], and impairs wound healing [10]. Its defi ciency diminishes resistance to infections [8,10,17] and thereby increase incidence and severity of Pneumonia and other infections [16,18]. ...
... It's defi ciency increases oxidative damage [16], decreases Delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) response [17], and impairs wound healing [10]. Its defi ciency diminishes resistance to infections [8,10,17] and thereby increase incidence and severity of Pneumonia and other infections [16,18]. Supplementation of high dose of Vit. ...
... Allergy results when there is a breakdown in normal "tolerance" mechanisms, which leads to inappropriate and detrimental immune responses to normally harmless substances, including food allergens such as cow's milk protein, eggs, nuts, or shellfish [7]. At birth, the immune system is immature, but it develops with age, antigen stimulation, and appropriate nutrition [8]. ...
... At birth, the immune system is immature, but it develops with age, antigen stimulation, and appropriate nutrition [8]. In addition, bacterial colonisation occurs during the first weeks of life, and interactions between intestinal flora and the developing mucosa result in further development of immune responses and oral tolerance [7]. ...
The prevalence of food allergy in childhood appears to be increasing in both developed and transitional countries. The aim of this paper is to review and summarise key findings in the prevention and management of food allergy, focusing on the role of dietary components and nutritional habits in the development and optimal functioning of the immune system. Essential fatty acids, zinc and vitamin D are likely to enhance the anti-inflammatory and antioxidative barrier and promote immunologic tolerance. Additionally, nutritional components such as pre- and probiotics represent a novel research approach in the attempt to induce a tolerogenic immune environment. For all these reasons, the traditional avoidance diet has been, in recent years, completely reconsidered. New findings on the protective effect of an increased diversity of food introduced in the first year of life on allergic diseases are consistent with the hypothesis that exposure to a variety of food antigens during early life might play a role in the development of immune tolerance. Accordingly, therapeutic (and even preventive) interventions should be planned on an individual basis.
... Folate deficiency reduces the proportion of circulating T-cells (Caplan et al., 2007) and their proliferation in response to mitogen activation (Lockyer,2020). ...
The COVID-19 outbreak is a worldwide hazard and a pandemic. It affects primarily the respiratory system of the infected persons. The severity of infection depends on various factors such as individual health, age, lifestyle, gender, dietary habits, environment, and medications. COVID-19's catastrophic results are exacerbated by a high BMI and chronic conditions. The study's goal was to look at the effects of antioxidant foods on immune function and their possible involvement in the treatment of COVID-19 infection. The human immune cell is always active, and the activity of the immune system is improved when there is an infection requiring energy sources and substrates taken from the food. A range of vitamins and trace minerals has been found to have crucial functions in enhancing immune function and decreasing the chance of infection. The gut microbiota strives to empower and regulate the immune system. Dietary methods for achieving a healthy microbiome can also improve the immune system. According to worldwide standards, the best way to maintain the immune system is to consume a healthy balanced diet rich in plant and animal foods, as well as appropriate prebiotic and probiotic prophylactic supplements.
... Zinc promotes the proliferation of cytotoxic T-Cells and is also involved in antibody production, mainly immunoglobulin G antibodies (Rink and Kirchner, 2000;Maggini et al., 2008). The deficiency of Zn increases inflammatory disorder and viral pneumonia in the elderly and children (Caplan et al., 2007;Maggini et al., 2008;Savino and Dardenne, 2010). Zinc supplementation in children reduces susceptibility and severity as well as the duration of pneumonia and the common cold (Prentice, 2017;Read et al., 2019). ...
Fortification of food with mineral micronutrients and micronutrient supplementation occupied the center stage during the two-year-long Corona Pandemic, highlighting the urgent need to focus on micronutrition. Focus has also been intensified on the biofortification (natural assimilation) of mineral micronutrients into food crops using various techniques like agronomic, genetic, or transgenic. Agronomic biofortification is a time-tested method and has been found useful in the fortification of several nutrients in several crops, yet the nutrient use and uptake efficiency of crops has been noted to vary due to different growing conditions like soil type, crop management, fertilizer type, etc. Agronomic biofortification can be an important tool in achieving nutritional security and its importance has recently increased because of climate change related issues, and pandemics such as COVID-19. The introduction of high specialty fertilizers like nano-fertilizers, chelated fertilizers, and water-soluble fertilizers that have high nutrient uptake efficiency and better nutrient translocation to the consumable parts of a crop plant has further improved the effectiveness of agronomic biofortification. Several new agronomic biofortification techniques like nutripriming, foliar application, soilless activation, and mechanized application techniques have further increased the relevance of agronomic biofortification. These new technological advances, along with an increased realization of mineral micronutrient nutrition have reinforced the relevance of agronomic biofortification for global food and nutritional security. The review highlights the advances made in the field of agronomic biofortification via the improved new fertilizer forms, and the emerging techniques that achieve better micronutrient use efficiency of crop plants.
... It is well established that overt (clinical) micronutrient deficiencies adversely affect the immune system and predispose individuals to infections [58,[106][107][108] (Table 2). For example, micronutrient deficiency is known to increase the risk of morbidity and mortality associated with measles, pneumonia, and diarrheal disease [58,[109][110][111]all common infections encountered worldwide and among the leading causes of death [112]. Even in industrialized countries, multiple micronutrient deficiencies are widespread and may exacerbate the risk of infection [113,114]. ...
Immune support by micronutrients is historically based on vitamin C deficiency and supplementation in scurvy in early times. It has since been established that the complex, integrated immune system needs multiple specific micronutrients, including vitamins A, D, C, E, B6, and B12, folate, zinc, iron, copper, and selenium, which play vital, often synergistic roles at every stage of the immune response. Adequate amounts are essential to ensure the proper function of physical barriers and immune cells; however, daily micronutrient intakes necessary to support immune function may be higher than current recommended dietary allowances. Certain populations have inadequate dietary micronutrient intakes, and situations with increased requirements (e.g., infection, stress, and pollution) further decrease stores within the body. Several micronutrients may be deficient, and even marginal deficiency may impair immunity. Although contradictory data exist, available evidence indicates that supplementation with multiple micronutrients with immune-supporting roles may modulate immune function and reduce the risk of infection. Micronutrients with the strongest evidence for immune support are vitamins C and D and zinc. Better design of human clinical studies addressing dosage and combinations of micronutrients in different populations are required to substantiate the benefits of micronutrient supplementation against infection.
... One micronutrient, zinc may be deficient in people on plant-based diets, pregnant and lactating women, breastfed infants, alcoholics, and people with sickle cell disease. Zinc deficiency increases oxidative stress and inflammation by altering cytokine production (Calder et al., 2007;Savino and Dardenne, 2010). ...
Human malnutrition associated with zinc (Zn) deficiency is a growing problem in many areas. This study was conducted to assess wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypic variation of grain Zn concentration, grain germination, and grain yield in response to foliar application of Zn. Twenty‐four wheat genotypes, including several recombinant inbred lines (RILs) and commercial cultivars, were assessed in two separate experiments; one experiment sprayed with ZnSO4·7H2O dissolved in water at wheat heading growth stage and one without applying Zn foliar treatment. The range for grain (25.1–63.1) and endosperm (1.2–61.6 mg kg⁻¹) Zn concentrations were different between the two Zn treatments. Significant (p = .05) genotype × Zn treatment interactions showed that some genotypes were more responsive to Zn applications than others. The application of Zn increased the Zn concentration in the endosperm in 18 out of the 24 genotypes. For grain, Zn application increased the concentration in the grain in 21 out of the 24 genotypes. Grain yield and germination were increased in the Zn treated cultivars compared with non‐treated. In conclusion, foliar application of Zn improved traits in wheat, and identified genetic variation lays the foundation for genotype selection with respect to higher Zn concentration.
... Zinc deficiency causes thymic atrophy, lymphopenia, and compromised cell-and antibody-mediated responses that increase the rates and duration of infections. Zinc deficiency is characterized by decreased lymphocyte number and function, particularly T cells, increased thymic atrophy, altered cytokine production that contributes to oxidative stress and inflammation [65]; increased risk of bacterial, viral, and fungal infections (particularly diarrhea and pneumonia) [88] and diarrheal and respiratory morbidity [66,89]. Contrariwise, its supplementation produces the restoration of thymulin activity, increased numbers of cytotoxic T cells, reduced numbers of activated T helper cells (which can contribute to autoimmunity), increased natural killer cell cytotoxicity, and reduced incidence of infections [65]. ...
Background: Zinc is an essential nutrient for all forms of life and its deficiency affects the normal growth and development of human beings. Objective: The main aim was to investigate zinc nutritional status by serum zinc concentration (SZC) and dietary zinc intake and their association in cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in CF patients. Anthropometric measurements and respiratory and pancreatic tests were conducted. Hypozincemia was determined by SZC while using atomic absorption spectrophotometry and dietary zinc deficiency by prospective 72-h dietary surveys. Results: Mean SZC (87.2 ± 16.7 μg/dL) and dietary zinc intake (97 ± 26.9% Dietary Reference Intake) were normal. Three of 17 patients with CF (17.6%) had hypozincemia and four (23.5%) had a dietary zinc deficiency. No patient with dietary zinc deficiency had hypozincemia. A positive and significant association was observed between SZC and Z-score of BMI-for-age (p = 0.048) and weight-for-height (p = 0.012) and between dietary zinc intake and energy intake (EI, p = 0.036) and Z-score of weight-for-high (p = 0.029). Conclusion: SZC was associated with the nutritional status, expressed as BMI (Body Mass Index) and weight-for-height Z score, and dietary zinc intake with EI and weight-for-height Z-score. No patient with hypozincemia had dietary zinc deficiency. This situation should alert us to a marginal zinc deficiency and it may explain why there were no overlapping cases between the two groups. We suggest that probably 41% of the cases in this study would be at elevated risk of zinc deficiency and a zinc supplementation may be considered.
The immune system, one of the most sophisticated defence systems of the body, is capable of recognizing and eliminating the unlimited varieties of foreign and undesirable agents. A strong defence mechanism is needed for a balanced and disease-free body. However, modern lifestyles and stress generate changes in the endogenous system and physicochemical circumstances, which causes damage and modifies immunity, resulting in the beginning of free radicals, which causes diseases such as cancer, ageing, neurological and cardiovascular disorders. The simple remediation to these perturbations might be progressively used antioxidants which possess the strong potential to scavenge these free radicals. Several compounds like vitamin A, E, C along with lipoic acid and various enzymes possess rich antioxidant properties aiding and improving our body’s immune system from several diseases and ageing. The health-promoting capacity of the antioxidants along with its immunomodulatory effects makes them suitable for use in developing antioxidant-based therapeutics. This chapter focuses on the mechanism of antioxidant immunomodulation, as well as the sources, incidence, classification, and potential health implications.KeywordsImmune systemFree radicalsImmunomodulatorsAntioxidants
Breastfed infants require an adequate supply of critical nutrients for growth, tissue functions, and health. Recommended intakes for several nutrients are considerably higher in lactating than non-lactating women but are not always met with habitual diets. We report a randomized, double-blind clinical trial in 70 healthy lactating women in Germany evaluating the effects of supplementation with multiple micronutrients, lutein, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) compared to placebo on maternal nutrient status and milk composition. The primary endpoint was the effect on the change of human milk DHA content (as a proportion of total milk fatty acids) during 12 weeks of supplementation. Maternal blood and milk biomarkers were measured as secondary endpoints. Supplementation increased maternal milk DHA by 30% compared to a decline in the placebo group. Supplementation also increased maternal blood DHA (17%), eicosapentaenoic acid (4%), 25-OH-vitamin D (24%), vitamin B12 (12%), lutein (4%), and beta carotene (49%), while homocysteine decreased. No significant difference in the number of adverse events was observed between supplementation and placebo groups. In conclusion, multi-micronutrient supplementation was safe and increased maternal blood and milk concentrations of selected nutrients in healthy women.
The immune system undergoes some adverse changes throughout aging, many of which have been implicated in the increased morbidity and mortality related to infection in the elderly. In addition to intrinsic alterations in the immune system with aging, the elderly are more likely to have poor nutritional status, which further affects the already impaired immune function. Micronutrient deficiencies are a recognized global public health problem, and poor nutritional status predisposes to certain infections. Immune function may be ameliorated by restoring deficient micronutrients to recommended levels, thereby increasing resistance to infection and supporting faster recovery when infected. This review looks at the effects of micronutrient supplementation on immune function during aging.
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