Content uploaded by Godswill Megwai
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Godswill Megwai on Feb 03, 2017
Content may be subject to copyright.
338
I
nt. J. Green Economics, Vol. 10, Nos. 3/4, 2016
Copyright © 2016 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.
Exploring green economy strategies and policies
in developing countries
Godswill Megwai*
Swedish Center for Resource Recovery,
University of Boras,
501 90 Boras, Sweden
Email: godswillmegwai@yahoo.com
*Corresponding author
Ndey Isatou Njie
Division for Sustainable Development,
Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
United Nations, New York, NY 10017, USA
Email: isatounjie@un.org
Tobias Richards
Swedish Center for Resource Recovery,
University of Boras,
501 90 Boras, Sweden
Email: tobias.richards@hb.se
Abstract: This paper provides an account of green economy initiatives,
exploring national strategies, policy options and effectiveness so far in some
developing countries. The concept is recognised as a possible path to achieving
global financial stability. The article indicates that different courses of active
steps have been initiated which varies from country to country, depending on
their level of development, institutional capacity, government framework and
resources. This paper identifies green economy national initiatives and policies
along with its effectiveness in selected UN member states, namely Croatia,
Ethiopia, Kenya, Thailand and Guyana. The ‘6 Is’ policy categories were
applied as the assessment framework for evaluating the different policy
measures implemented in the selected countries
Keywords: green economy; initiative.
Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Megwai, G., Njie, N.I. and
Richards, T. (2016) ‘Exploring green economy strategies and policies in
developing countries’, Int. J. Green Economics, Vol. 10, Nos. 3/4, pp.338–357.
Biographical notes: Godswill Megwai is a researcher and currently studying
international project management (post graduate studies) in Chalmers
University of Technology, Sweden. He has also completed an MSc studies in
Energy and Material Recovery - Sustainable Engineering option in University
of Boras, Vastra Gotland, Sweden and a BSc degree in Chemical Engineering
from Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria respectively. Based on is
interest in sustainable energy, he has two publications in World Journal of
Exploring green economy strategies and policies 339
Engineering and Technology and International Journal of Power and
Renewable Systems. He is interested in sustainable materials and energy system
from a green economy perspective.
Ndey Isatou Njie, recently retired, was the Secretary of UN-Water as well as
the Chief, Water, Energy and Strategies Branch at the Department of
Sustainable Development (DSD) under the Department of Economic and
Social Affairs of the United Nations, New York. An UNESCO-IHE alumnus,
she has over 30 years of experience in water resources and environmental
management. Prior to joining DESA, she served as UNDP’s capacity
development practice leader for West and Central Africa and with IUCN as
strategic planning adviser for Africa under the strategies for sustainability
program. She was the first Executive Director for The Gambia National
Environment Agency (NEA), and led the national preparations for UNCED.
Tobias Richards is a Professor at University of Borås, Sweden since 2010 in
the field of Resource recovery with special emphasis on thermal treatment
methods of waste materials. He has a PhD in Chemical Engineering from
Chalmers University of Technology and made his postdoctoral studies at
University of Maine within the college of Engineering. He has published more
than 30 papers in reputed journals and is the editor of a new book in the area of
waste treatment: Resource recovery to approach zero municipal waste (Boca
Ratpon, Florida, USA, CRC Press, 2015) and has been involved in several
book chapters. He is also a member of the Scandinavian-Nordic section of the
combustion institute. He is a member of the scientific and industrial network of
waste refinery and resources.
1 Introduction
Recent uncertainties and crises related to the world economy indicate that around a
billion people still live in extreme poverty alongside increasing climatic and
environmental impacts suggest the need for a transition to a green economy. Prior to the
emergence of the green economy initiative, environmental and sustainable development
was first introduced in 1980 by the International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) with the goal of achieving sustainability via the conservation of living resources
(Lele, 1991). Furthermore, the Brundtland report in 1987 expresses sustainable
development as being “development targeted in meeting the needs of the present without
compromising the potentiality of future generations to meet their needs” (Lee et al.,
2012). This affirmed sustainable development as the platform for an integrative path to
economy policy. Also, when the first United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development (UNCSD) in Rio (1992) was held, the initiative of reconciling economic
growth with environmental protection and building a world of equity was declared
(Lee et al., 2012). The sustainable development concept, which has been deliberated on
for decades, comprises of three interconnecting systems: environmental sustainability,
social sustainability and economic sustainability. However, the world still faces global
issues, including economic and financial crises, increasing environmental degradation,
climatic impact and water scarcity and pollution (United Nations, 2012). The sustainable
development initiative has failed to rectify issues that ascribes with the “brown
340 G. Megwai, N.I. Njie and T. Richards
economy” due to the absences of social economic actors needed to significantly push this
strategy (Lee et al., 2012). In addition, the failure of sustainable development initiative
alongside current economic and environmental perturbance has stimulated the
development or consideration of green economy initiative which has become the centre
of political discourse (Newton, 2011). For this reason Henderson (2007) suggested that
fundamental strategy levels like policy models, assumptions, institutional inertia and
cultural values fuelling today’s drive toward increasing un-sustainability at all levels
need to be re-examined. However, following the document “The future we want” from
the Rio +20 outcome, the concept of “green economy” was affirmed by the General
Assembly as a vital instrument in attaining sustainable development and eradicating
poverty. It aims at rejuvenating national policy development, international cooperation
and support for sustainable development. The initiative builds on green growth and is
seen as a possible path to global financial stability (Vision, 2012). According to Vision
(2012), Rio+20 witnessed challenges during negotiations between member states due to
issues like; inadequate universal principles of what green economy policy measures
actually encompass; how it integrate with national priorities alongside objectives relating
to economic growth and poverty eradication; a lack of experience in designing,
implementing and reviewing the costs and benefits of green economy policies; the
emergence of other interrelated terminology, such as steady-state economy, sustainable
economy, etc. (Allen and Clouth, 2012). This paper identifies green economy initiatives
and policies along with its effectiveness in a few selected UN member states, namely
Croatia, Ethiopia, Kenya, Thailand and Guyana. These countries were selected to show
the extent to which green economy initiative can create a significant change in
developing regions of the world. Furthermore, the paper illustrate various forms national
green economy strategies and policy options identified, the progress made in
implementing the policies, the tools used, and the success achieved so far in these
countries. In addition, the ‘6 Is’ were used as the assessment framework for evaluating
the different policy measures implemented in the selected countries. These policy
categories include: Internalising, Incentivising, Institutions, Investment, Information and
Inclusion (Frechon, 2012; Green Economy Coalition, 2012; UNEP, 2012).
2 Green economy and policies
The phrase “green economy” was used for the first time in 1989, in a report that
suggested that economics could be a driving force in tackling issues pertaining to
environmental policies, tropical deforestation and the loss of resources in the developing
world (Pearce et al., 1989). Cato (2009) illustrates the label ‘green’ as linked with green
political ideology which focuses on meeting environmental goals through the
involvement of democratic and grass-roots activism (Söderbaum, 2009). Since 2008, the
term has continuously focused on how policies respond to increasing global crises. Most
developing and developed societies have embraced this concept in addressing current
economic challenges and success stories have been recorded (Pearce et al., 1989). The
UN and other non–government organisations have also agreed to facilitate awareness of
the concept of green economy. Although, no definition of green economy has been
agreed upon at the international level due to the political discourse of the concept (Cato,
2009). This political discourse includes discourse of economic security which can be
Exploring green economy strategies and policies 341
seen as an opportunity of embracing a radical, robust and principled understanding of
sustainable development that offers a normatively compelling and policy relevant path to
outlining a green political economy to underpin sustainable development (Barry, 2007;
Barry, 2010). Despite the lack of agreed conceptualisation of green economy, recent
publications show that at least eight separate definitions currently exist. For example,
UNEP defined it as an economy that results in improved human well-being and social
equity, whilst significantly mitigating environmental risks and ecological deficits.
Furthermore, it is low carbon, resource efficient and socially inclusive (UNEP, 2011).
Also, the green economy coalition document emphasises the concept as being a flexible
economy that creates an environment for a better quality of life for all within the
ecological limits of the planet (Allen and Clouth, 2012). The International Chamber of
Commerce considered it to be a collectively sustained pattern of economic growth and
environmental responsibility while supporting progress on social development (ICC,
2011). The Danish 92 Group expresses the concept as a process of transformation of
current systematic distortions of present mainstream economy which results in human
well-being and equitable access to opportunities for all people, while safeguarding
environmental and economic integrity in order to remain within the planet’s finite
carrying capacity. Rio+20 objectives and themes of the conference elucidate green
economy as being a lens for focusing on, and seizing opportunities to advance, economic
and environmental goals simultaneously (Allen and Clouth, 2012; Danish 92 Group,
2012). Irrespective of the definitions of the concept, Cato (2009) described the concept as
a radical agenda that threatens existing power structure and its deep skeptical view
regarding profit maximisation for the future. According to Bateman (1997), green
economy is seen as ‘an extension of the conventional economic approach to encompass,
among others, distributional equity, and environmental quality objective’ (Kennet, 2007;
Newton, 2011). Another, acknowledged the concept as a creator of an economic
condition where social and environmental justice thrives for the benefits of all humanities
alongside with non-human species, nature and its system (Kennet, 2007).
From this, the green economy concept indicates investments in economics sectors,
such as renewable energy, low-carbon transport, energy-efficient buildings, clean
technologies, improved waste management, improved freshwater provision, sustainable
agriculture, forestry and fisheries, that promote the Earth’s natural resources and avert
environmental risks (Frechon, 2012). In order to achieve this, national policy reforms and
the development of international policy and market infrastructure must be defined
clearly. Policies for implementing the green economy concept globally have experienced
significant growth. Some of these measures include environmental fiscal reforms,
environmental regulations, standards and certification schemes, payment for ecosystem
services, integrated natural resource management and the use of economic instruments to
promote sustainable practices and investment. Furthermore, a more informed policy and
planning environment have been highlighted as a possible path to a more socially
equitable and environmentally sustainable development especially in developing regions
(Frechon, 2012). Documents from Rio+20 acknowledge a mix of policy measures that
include “regulatory, voluntary and others applied at the national level”. Moreover,
policies considered by governments should support not only poverty eradication, the
enhancement of human well-being and job creation, but also the efficient use of resource
and energy, a reduction in the use of carbon and its emission, technological innovation
and environmental protection. Some developing and developed countries aim at
exploiting policy synergies (Vision, 2012; UNCSD, 2012). Recent publications by
342 G. Megwai, N.I. Njie and T. Richards
leading international organisations and experts, such as the UN and the World Bank,
OECD, Cosbey and ILO, show a topology of green economy policies that cover the
concept and a complementary policy addressing the three dimensions of sustainable
development.
3 National strategies for a green economy
Despite emerging international awareness in the design and implementation of green
economy policies, quite a number of countries are yet to develop an overall national
strategy. Previously, the development of national strategies for sustainable development
was promoted by international agreements. This new strategy is aimed at building on the
previous platform and addressing the ongoing global financial crisis more effectively.
3.1 Ethiopia
The Ethiopian government has embraced the green economy concept in tackling the
insecure provision of food, increase in GHG emissions, low gross domestic product per
capita and other challenges associated with conventional economic growth (EEPA, 2011;
FDRE, 2011; EPA, 2012). The vision of Ethiopia, based on a climate-resilient green
economy (CRGE) platform, is to achieve middle–income status by 2025. The CRGE is
divided into two components; a Green Economy Strategy (GES) which focuses on
mitigation and a Climate Resilience Strategy which aims at adaptation on agriculture,
forestry and land use (Bass et al., 2013). According to the country’s national growth and
transformation plan, the targeted goals are to increase agricultural productivity,
strengthening the industrial base and fostering export growth. Another target as at 2011
was to become a “green economy front-runner”, which lends belief in a sustainable
model of growth (EEPA, 2011; UNDP, 2011; EPA, 2012) nevertheless Bass et al. (2013)
highlighted Ethiopia’s success story as achieving the status of been one of the first
countries in Africa to develop a green growth strategy. Presently, the GES identifies and
prioritised more than 60 initiatives, which enable development of goals that limits
greenhouse gas emissions from 150 MtCO2e as at today’s level to 104.1 MtCO2e in
2030. In addition 475% increase of per-person GDP is envisaged, from 380 USD to more
than 1800 USD GDP per capita by 2030 (Bass et al., 2013; EEPA, 2015). Also, more
than 8% p.a. real gross domestic product growth was forecasted between 2011–2015 time
frame by the International Monetary Fund (FDRE, 2011) which expected to increase
further between 2015–2020 time frame (EEPA, 2015).
The country also aims at providing an enabling and favourable environment for
foreign investment to support its growth (EEPA, 2011; UNDP, 2011; EPA, 2012).
According to Bass et al. (2013), the GES has screened over 150 abatement technologies
which have resulted in some proposed bankable projects in order to attract international
climate finance. In order to protect the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia from
adverse impacts of changes in the climate caused by redirecting their economy onto a
green economy pathway, the government has initiated a climate-resilient green economy
strategy, which is summarised in Table 1.
Exploring green economy strategies and policies 343
Table 1 Summary of Ethiopia’s current green economy status (EEPA, 2011; FDRE, 2011;
UNDP, 2011; EPA, 2012; EEPA, 2015)
Vision To achieve a middle-income status by 2025 in a climate-resilient green
economy (CRGE)
National Strategy The Climate-Resilient Green Economy (CRGE)
Time Frame 2011 – 2015, 2015-2020 and 2020-2025
Strategic Objectives The CRGE strategy addresses both adaptations to climatic change and
mitigation objectives. The objectives of CRGE include:
Further stimulation of economic development and growth
Ensuring abatement and avoidance of future emissions, i.e. transition
to a green economy
Promoting pliancy to climate change
Implementation Plan Growth and transformation plan. This plan is built on a sectorial approach
and is based on four pillars:
Agriculture: Upgrading production practices (crops and livestock) for
higher food security and farmer income while reducing emissions
Forestry: Protecting and restoring forests for their economic and
ecosystem services (and also as carbon stocks)
Power: Bolstering the utilization of renewable energy sources for
generating electricity for domestic and regional markets
Transport, industrial sectors and buildings: Leapfrogging to modern
and energy-efficient technologies (IIED 2013).
Policy Options Institutional policy category – The initiative is governed by Ethiopia’s
Environmental Council (approves environmental standards and
directives independently) and other sub agencies and ministries, such
as the Environmental Protection Authority (allocates financial support
or carbon credit, measuring, reviewing and verification proceeds), the
Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MoFED) solicits for
international funds, the Ethiopian Development Research Institute
(EDRI): the ministerial steering committee decides on the overall
direction and also approves the sectoral and overall results, etc.
Investment policy category – Exploits the vast potential of
hydroelectric power, promotes large-scale of advanced rural cooking
technologies, improves efficiency in the livestock value chain and
reduces emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD).
Information policy category – Sectoral green economy programmes,
promotes participation of stakeholders, bi- and multilateral
development partners, etc.
Internalising policy category – Climate finance scheme via GHG
abatement platform, bi- and/or multilateral grants and pay-for-
performance deals, cap-and-trade permit (trading scheme or offset
market), carbon credit, etc.
344 G. Megwai, N.I. Njie and T. Richards
Table 1 Summary of Ethiopia’s current green economy status (EEPA, 2011; FDRE, 2011;
UNDP, 2011; EPA, 2012; EEPA, 2015) (continued)
Vision To achieve a middle-income status by 2025 in a climate-resilient green
economy (CRGE)
Targeted Sectors Agriculture, Forestry, Electrical Power, Transport, Industry and Building
Results National Improved Cook Stove Programme in Ethiopia: Ministry of
Water and Energy in partnership with UNDP, BARR Foundation,
Global Alliance for Clean Cook Stoves and others. To support the
distribution of 9 million improved cook stoves in Ethiopia by 2015.
CDM Project Bale Mountain Eco-region Emission Reduction Assets.
Up until 2017 the project will sequester 21 Mt CO2
b
y reducing the
current deforestation rate, rehabilitating the forest and related carbon
stocks and introducing sustainable forest management practices.
Humbo Assisted Natural Regeneration Project (Afforestation and
Reforestation). The project aims at sequestering 0.4 Mt CO2
b
y 2020
and is already generating income for the community from carbon
finance.
The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam Project (GERDP). With an
installed capacity of 6000 MW, the expected average production of
energy is more than 15 TWh p.a.
3.2 Kenya
Following the expiration of the economic recovery strategy for wealth and employment
creation in Kenya in the financial year 2007/2008, a new long-term development
model was launched called “Kenya Vision 2030”. The vision is to create “a globally
competitive and prosperous nation with a high quality of life by 2030”. The aim of this
initiative is to transform Kenya into a newly industrialised, middle income country with a
clean and secure environment. The vision has been implemented under the medium term
plans that cover initially the period 2008–2012 (Kenya, 2011; Kenya, 2012; UNEP,
2013).
Despite the emergence of the green economy concept as a panacea for current global
crises and sustainable development, Kenya still expresses caution in adopting this
concept due to the lack of a universal definition of the concept. Furthermore, Kenya’s
Position Paper (KPP) advocated green economy to foster rapid economic development,
address poverty eradication and improve social welfare. Also, Kenya’s green economy
assessment report, issued in November 2013, recommended the adoption of green
economy in Kenya along with the development of a strategy and implementation plan.
Some indicators, such as extreme weather conditions (flood and drought) that result in
the degradation and desertification of land and increasing unemployment rates, highlight
the need of having a green economy that acts as a blueprint for economic and sustainable
development (Kenya, 2012; Wachira, 2013). Table 2 illustrates the framework of
Kenya’s vision 2030.
Exploring green economy strategies and policies 345
Table 2 Summary of Kenya’s current green economy status (Kenya, 2011; United Nations,
2011; Kenya, 2012; UNEP, 2013; Wachira, 2013)
Vision To create “a globally competitive and prosperous nation with a high
quality of life by 2030”
National Strategy Kenya Vision 2030
Time Frame 2008–2030
Strategic Objectives The objectives of this initiative are based on 3 pillars:
Economic pillar: A consistent economic growth rate of 10 percent
gross domestic profit (GDP) by 2012 and beyond.
Social pillar: A just and cohesive society enjoying equitable social
development in a clean and secure environment.
Political pillar: A democratic political system that is issue-
b
ased,
people-centred, result-oriented and accountable.
Implementation
Plan
Medium-Term Plan (MTPs): This is based on the system dynamics
of the T-21 model, which integrates economic, social and
environmental aspects of development into a single framework.
For a green economy path, the plan is targeted towards specific
areas: conservation, pollution and waste management, high-risk
emergency zones, arid and semi-arid land, environmental planning
and governance.
Tools for
Implementation
Low-Carbon Pathway (LCP): A combination, and implementation
of, various green strategies with natural capital, e.g. efforts directed
at forests and biodiversity conservation, the promotion of organic
agricultural practices, the minimisation and recycling of wastes, the
development of renewable energy and the promotion of sustainable
p
roduction and consumption via National Cleaner Production
Centres.
Policy Options Incentivising policy category - A feed-in tariff policy for renewable
energy sources has been adopted (UNEP 2013). Long-term approach
mechanism and micro-financing of sustainable projects.
Information policy category –Flagship programmes for stakeholders
and private sectors include the Rural Electrification programme
(REP), Energy Access Scale-up Programme, a prospectus for the
Kenya Electricity Access Investment Programme, Rural
Electrification Master Plan (REMP) and Least-Cost Power
Development Programme (LCPDP). UNEP partners with Kenya for
support along with the EU.
Institutional policy category – Different ministries embark on
decision-making, integrated planning and resource management.
Some of the institutions governing the initiative include the Ministry
of Environment, water and natural resources and the Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries.
Investment policy category – Investing in energy, agriculture,
tourism, water, transport, waste, ICT, etc.
Targeted Sectors Energy, agriculture, tourism, water, transport, waste, ICT
Results Kenya’s Ministry of Energy adopted a feed-in tariff policy in March
2008 for renewable energy sources (including solar, wind, small-
hydro, biogas and municipal waste energy) which have the potential
of generating income and employment as well as contributing to the
supply and diversification of electricity generation sources.
346 G. Megwai, N.I. Njie and T. Richards
3.3 Croatia
Croatia’s accession as the 28th Member State of the European Union (EU) on 1 July 2013
creates a potential opportunity for changing the country’s economy and diverting it
towards following a green economy path. In 2011, about 1.38 million Croatians were
reported to be at risk of suffering from severe material deprivation, relative poverty and
low work potentiality. Also, the rate of unemployment in the age group 15-24 has
experienced an increase, reaching around 51.6% in March 2013 (Stubbs, 2013). This
further indicates the efficacy of promoting green jobs that is driven by employment
policies at national level (Aceleanu, 2015).
Despite entering the EU with the fifth highest level of poverty and social exclusion,
Croatia is seen to perform well in terms of gross energy consumption in the use of
renewable energy. In 2011, Croatia performed at 15.7%, which is above the EU average
of 13%, in achieving the 20% gross final energy target in EU2020 (Stubbs, 2013).
This has been identified as one of the green economy success stories by the UNEP.
The strategy used for achieving this was based on the National Energy Efficiency
Program (2008–2016) along with its national action plan from 2008–2010 to ensure
implementation. The Act on energy efficiency in final consumption, enforced in 2008,
was used as a tool to ensure energy management practices and to set limits for
energy consumption at all levels and sectors (United Nations, 2011). Furthermore,
the implementation of the EU Energy Performance of Buildings Directives (EPBD)
adopted in 2009 has resulted in a minimum energy performance requirement for both
new buildings and major renovations. This directive mandates an energy performance
certificate for all buildings. Further incentives have been generated based on the EPBD to
encourage Croatia to invest in other heating and electricity systems in the building sector.
A feed-in tariffs policy option was the tool for this success; other incentives, such as
subsidies for renewable heating and cooling production, are said to be underway (United
Nations, 2011). Irrespective of the success stories of the use of renewable energy
resources in Croatia, the need for radical change in both the social and economic sectors
remains. Croatia has experienced a continuous structural impact on unemployment and
the decimation of industrial production since the onset of the global financial crisis so, in
order to create a climate-resilient environment and provide maximum benefits for
Croatians, a framework was presented in 2013 (UNDP, 2013). Croatia shows further
commitment to the European Union and United Nations framework by its development
of a national strategy in 2012. The national strategy “Low Emission Development
Strategy (LEDs) of Croatia until 2050” was targeted at reducing emissions of greenhouse
gases and separating economic development from the exploitation of limited natural
resources. The key element of this initiative is a change in all behavioural patterns on
personal, corporate and social levels. The strategy integrates Kyoto Protocol goals, EU,
2020, Preliminary EU goal 2030 and the framework for Low Carbon Development
(2050). Table 3 indicates Croatia’s LEDs initiative (Kirac, 2013).
Exploring green economy strategies and policies 347
Table 3 Summary of Croatia’s current green economy status (UNDP, 2011; United Nations,
2011; Kirac, 2013; UNDP, 2013)
Vision To change patterns of behaviour to significantly reduce emissions o
f
greenhouse gases by 2050.
National Strategy Low Emission Development Strategy of Croatia (LEDS)
Time Frame By 2050
Strategic Objectives Improve the existing infrastructure and technology solutions
Promote innovations and transfer of advanced technology
Make symbolic structural changes in all sectors
Encourage investment cycle and growth in industrial production
Develop new activities
Increase competitiveness in the economy
Create new jobs from a sustainable perspective.
Implementation Plan A comprehensive approach, with inter-sectorial collaboration,
synergy, social inclusiveness, participation of all stakeholders, expert
analysis and strong political will. This also includes: Kyoto Protocol,
EU 20-20-20, Preliminary EU goal 2030 and framework for Low
Carbon Development 2050.
Policy Options Institutional policy category – The Ministry of Environment and
Nature Protection (MENP) is the governing institution. Other sectors
include: National Committee for Mitigation on Climate Change
(NCMCC), United Nations Development Programme (UNEP) in
Croatia for technical and logistic support, external expertise and
media and public non-governmental organisations. Reduction in
emissions of waste and greenhouse gases (emissions from the waste
sector decreased to under 0.5 percent).
Incentivising policy category – Subsidies such as the feed-in tariffs
for renewable energy sources, RES heating and cooling sub laws and
EPBD incentives. Leverage finances: polluter pays principle (ppp),
package disposal fee, returning fee, simulating fee, etc.
Internalising policy category – Emission trading schemes;
certification systems, e.g. the energy performance certification for
buildings; introduction of green taxes; use of fertilizers;
p
roper care
and use of biogas; improved management system of fertilizers
derived from animal waste; providing support on the basis of
sustainable production; and increase soil carbon tax payments on the
basis of carbon in the soil and not agricultural practice itself.
Investment policy category – Improve existing forest funds, EU
funds through the instrument IPA, coast project for green jobs, Gacka
River project in partnership with communities, NGOs, public and
private sectors.
Information policy category - Increasing public awareness of the use
and production of energy used in buildings.
348 G. Megwai, N.I. Njie and T. Richards
Table 3 Summary of Croatia’s current green economy status (UNDP, 2011; United Nations,
2011; Kirac, 2013; UNDP, 2013) (continued)
Vision To change patterns of behaviour to significantly reduce emissions o
f
greenhouse gases by 2050.
Targeted Sector Energy, Transport, Industry, Agriculture, Tourism and Waste
Management
Results Energy efficiency in building: Creation of green jobs, registration
of 6,500 public buildings with regular monitoring of energy
consumption (buildings are entered into the Energy Management
Information System thereby making CO2 emissions visible) and more
efficient management of resources. Energy saved: 194 TWh.
Waste management of plastic packaging: Recycling and reuse of
plastic
Source of renewable energy
The COAST Project: Mentoring and education; grants and loans;
reviving life in rural areas in Dalmatia thereby creating sustainable
values with local partners for local communities.
The “Every Drop Matters - Gacka River” project: Investing in a
visitors centre at “The Centre for Indigenous Species of Carstic Fish
and Crayfish”, with almost 2,000 visitors a year; helping to create
local, diverse sustainable tourism products and values with local
people in rural areas for the benefit of their communities.
3.4 Thailand
According to the country report of 2013, four national strategies were presented to
elevate Thailand’s low-income status to middle-income. Each of these strategies has a
specific task and targets, with the first focusing on capacity-building in order to boost the
country’s long term competitiveness for sustainable growth. The second strategy is
targeted at reducing social inequality between low-income and high-income earners by
providing more opportunities for the people based on economic, social and political
equality. The third pertains to the platform of growth in a green economy, the aim of
which is to promote quality of life and environment-friendly growth. The fourth strategy
strives to balance the other three strategies and sufficiency economies (ADBI, 2013;
PRD, 2013). Thailand’s government identifies green economy, which is integrated with
green growth, as a way to harmonise Thai society and initiate understanding of the
concept. Furthermore, it is seen as an economic tool that enhances green development,
promotes green production and consumption and also improves the organisation and
operation mechanism of the country. The Natural Resources and Environment Ministry
(NREM) is the foremost authority for this initiative. Under this strategic plan, an
environmental and carbon tax is to be used as a key financial mechanism in making the
country’s development sustainable. Also, a green GDP scale is expected to be drawn by
the Industry Ministry (IM) to measure the sustainability of the country’s development.
Table 4 illustrate the framework of Thailand’s green growth strategy.
Exploring green economy strategies and policies 349
Table 4 Summary of Thailand’s current green economy status (The Nation, 2012; UNEP,
2012; ADBI, 2013; PRD, 2013)
Vision Upgrading Thailand from a low-income to a middle-income country
National Strategy Green Growth Strategy
Time Frame 2014 -2018
Strategic
Objectives
Promote environment-friendly/green production and services
Promote mitigation of greenhouse gases and prepare for climate change
Improve capital natural resources and environment management
Encourage an environment-friendly culture
Implementation
Plan
Promote environment-friendly/green agriculture
Stimulate environment-friendly and green industries
Develop environment-friendly/green transportation
Promote environment-friendly/green tourism
Develop green cities
Policy Options Institutional policy category - The Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment oversee the strategy, with The Ministry of Industry
establishing measures, enforcing standards and regulating the
development plan on both national and regional levels.
Incentivising policy category - PPP (polluter pays principle); payment
for ecosystem services.
Internalising policy category - Using an environmental and carbon tax
as a financial mechanism, certification for green industries, etc.
Information policy category - CSR GREEN NETWORK-DIW:
Flagship project, EMS for SMEs project, Energy Management System,
Eco Industrial Town to become Green Industry.
Investment policy category - EU funds under the SWITCH Asia
Programme for sustainable public procurement (consumption and
production) and further green procurement policies.
Targeted Sectors Agriculture and Forestry, Industry, Waste, Transportation, Tourism,
Building and Construction
Results Successful voluntary carbon labelling - Carbon Reduction Label: 163
p
roducts made by 42 companies have been certified as reducing
p
rocess emissions by at least 10 percent. Carbon Footprint for
Products: 726 products made by 177 companies have undergone a
complete product life-cycle assessment and had their carbon footprint
calculated. Cool Mode Label: 18 fabrics produced by 6 manufacturers
have been recognized as using innovative fibre technology that is
especially suited to hot weather.
Partnership with Germany for green economy (UNEP 2012).
3.5 Guyana
In 2009 Guyana adopted a low carbon development strategy in the quest to achieve a
climate resilient economy, low carbon emissions and a low degree of deforestation. This
initiative was introduced due to the increasing impact of climate change, with a clear
expression of the inequality and injustice that exists in our world: problems caused
primarily by the rich, with negative impacts that are felt mainly by the poor. Furthermore,
350 G. Megwai, N.I. Njie and T. Richards
it is was structured to operate together with the initial phase of starting the transition to a
new low carbon economy (2009–2013) and the following phase of creating new
economic incentives on the same path for the 2013–2015 timeframe. The initial phase
outlines eight priorities that will be the focus of LCDS implementation and sets a
platform for further consultation and strategy development of Guyana’s long term low
carbon development (Ellis et al., 2009; Guyana, 2010; Guyana, 2013). Along with further
expansion of the country’s strategic economic infrastructure, the Guyana government
initiated a new wave of reforms in 2013. These aimed at stimulating investment and
economic growth and thereby creating green jobs, protecting vulnerable parts of society,
improving security and social services and addressing increased flooding induced by
climate change. The role that forests play in a green economy means that Guyana´s
pristine forest, its most valuable natural asset, are placed as a top priority in developing
the country’s economy: they currently generate an annual income of around $580 million
USD. This provides further funds for other social and economic needs of the country
(Guyana, 2010; UNEP, 2011; Guyana, 2013). Some of the goals of Guyana´s low carbon
development initiative are to transform the economy and thereby improve it and make it
more self-sustained, to improve social development and to achieve global recognition by
providing a model of how climate change can be addressed via low carbon development
in developing countries. A summary of the framework of Guyana’s low carbon
development strategy can be seen in Table 5.
Table 5 Summary of Guyana’s current green economy status (Guyana, 2010; Guyana, 2013)
Vision To transform Guyana’s economy whilst combating climate change
National Strategy Guyana’s Low Carbon Development Strategy (LCDS)
Time Frame By 2015
Strategic
Objectives
Transform the economy to deliver greater economic and social
development to the people via a low carbon development path.
Provide the world with a model of how climate change can be
addressed through low carbon development in developing countries.
Implementation
Plan
Invest in a strategic, low carbon, economic infrastructure that
includes a hydro-electric plant; enhance access to cultivated and
non-forested land; improve fibre optic bandwidth to facilitate the
development of low carbon business activities.
Enhance investment in high-
p
otential low carbon areas, e.g. fruits
and vegetables, aquaculture, outsourcing of business process and
ecotourism.
Reform existing forest-dependent sectors so that they operate at the
standards necessary to maintain the forests sustainably.
Create new economic opportunities and improve avenues leading to
services for Amerindian communities through improved social
services (including health and education), low carbon energy sources,
clean water and employment that do not threaten forests.
Improve services to Guyanese, which includes improving and
expanding job prospects, promoting entrepreneurship in the private
sector and improving social services with particular focus on health
and education.
Invest in an infrastructure adapted to the climate to protect the
p
eople and the productive land of Guyana from changing weather
patterns (i.e. flooding).
Exploring green economy strategies and policies 351
Table 5 Summary of Guyana’s current green economy status (Guyana, 2010; Guyana, 2013)
(continued)
Vision To transform Guyana’s economy whilst combating climate change
Policy Options Institutional policy category – The Office of Climate Change
(OCC) governs, co-ordinates and spearhead this initiative, and non-
governmental organizations assist the country’s climate change
agenda. Other supporting bodies include Guyana REDD Investment
Fund (GRIF) established to manage forest payments; Low Carbon
Strategy Project Management Office (PMO) established to drive
key projects; the Guyana Forestry Commission is the agency
that executes “REDD readiness” activities (TheREDDdesk 2014),
including the development and implementation of a monitoring,
reporting and verification system; and the Environmental Protection
Agency upholds and upgrades national standards and systems where
necessary, and also ensures loyalty to the operator’s standards
(Guyana 2013).
Investment policy category - The Guyana REDD+ Investment Fund
(GRIF) is for managing and monitoring forestry payments; upgrading
infrastructure and assets to protect against flooding through urgent,
near-term measures; enticing low-carbon investors to the country;
establishing the adaptations to climate change that are necessary in
the hinterland regions, including forest communities; switching to
flood resistant crops; and developing financial and risk/insurance
measures to boost resilience to post-flooding, etc. (Terracarbon 2009).
Information policy category - Education initiative to incorporate low
carbon development and the subject of climate change into the
national education curriculum; vocational training.
Incentivising policy category - Investment incentives via low-interest
loans; micro-financing; tax exemptions. Such local micro-finance
funds come from the Institute of Private Enterprise Development
(IPED) and the Small Business Develo
p
ment Finance Trust (SBDF),
for example.
Targeted Sectors Energy, Telecommunication, Construction, Agriculture, Aquaculture,
Industry, Forestry and Mining, Education, Water, Health, etc.
Results The ongoing Amaila Falls Hydropower Project, aimed at making
Guyana the world’s best user of renewable energy, is expected to be
commissioned by 2017.
Over 11,000 homes in almost 200 communities have been installed
with solar power, with approximately 400 of the people being mainly
Amerindian.
The 330kW run-of–the-river hydropower facility near the
Amerindian community of Kato provides its educational and medical
facilities with renewable power, as well as a steady supply of water.
Laying and installation of 560km overland fibre optic cable and
repeater stations are nearing completion. They comprise the
foundation for the next phase of work, which includes linkages to the
hinterland in general and the Rupununi in particular.
A total of 26,832 laptops have been distributed by the government
based on the “one laptop per family” project, with ongoing training
in their use.
Low carbon development is being incorporated into the primary
school curriculum.
Etc.
352 G. Megwai, N.I. Njie and T. Richards
4 Discussion
From the various national green economy initiative identified in the countries considered
in this work, Ethiopia’s initiative tends to be more explicit to the concept compared to
others which are built on different platforms like the green growth and low carbon
development strategies. Its national green economy strategy indicate a firm support to
poverty eradication, human well-being, social equity, job creation, the efficient use of
resources and energy, a reduction in the use of carbon and its emission, technological
innovation and environmental protection as outlined during Rio+10. Its initiative gives
a more comprehensive and integrated approach in addressing a wider range of
environmental, social and economic issues. Arguably, its initiative illustrates how
environmental justice can be approached through political intervention in correcting
economic failure which is responsible for environmental degradation (Kennet, 2007).
Some other strategies does not give a clear stand on green economy due to lack of
universal definition of green economy concept but Kenya’s vision 2030 initiative indicate
blueprints of the concept. This is traceable to the failure of sustainable development
initiative alongside current economic and environmental perturbance has stimulated the
development or consideration of green economy initiative which has become the centre
of political discourse (Newton, 2011). In addition, some other strategies focuses more on
transforming and advancing economic sustainability along with developing social equity
via low carbon pathway and low emission of greenhouse gas. For example Croatia
and Guyana adopted the low emission development strategy (LEDs) which is well
structured initiative but pays less emphasis on social development. This does not
undermine the fact that LEDs have a good connection with the green economy concept
regarding environmental and economic development which need to be socially inclusive.
According to Kennet (2007), inclusive approach to greening our economy ‘promotes
fairness, equity, participation, freedom, democracy with social and environmental justice
at its core’. This ideology also followed the green growth path that focus on development
of capacity building along with reduction of social inequality and attain economic
sustainability.
Effective policy options for implementing, measuring and monitoring from start to
finish of green economy initiative is vital in determining how impactful it will or will
simply end up as an illusion if not considered. Based on the complexity of designing the
right policies for this concept, the ‘6 Is’ helps to simplify this issue (Frechon, 2012;
Green Economy Coalition, 2012; UNEP, 2012). From the ‘6 Is’, institutional frame
work clearly illustrates how the commitment of high political leader and other non-
governmental organisations influences the implementation of green economy initiative
via regulating, coordinating, making decisions, issuing of licenses and that manage the
resources that are available for meeting mandatory targets, etc. For example Guyana,
where the offices of the president along with other chair the initiative by provision of a
translucent and proper dissemination of information, knowledge and financial resources
(Kemp et al., 2005; OECD, 2006; Allen and Clouth, 2012). Others also have a similar
institutional model where the prime minister governs the initiative along with other
ministries. Also, investment policies identified in most countries analysed, had be
tailored to targeted areas, such as national and human capital, infrastructure, agriculture,
employment, innovation and the environment. These areas of investment in green
initiative creates a condition where people, as well as non-human species, nature the
planet and its systems’ thrives and benefits each other (Kennet, 2007; Newton, 2011).
Exploring green economy strategies and policies 353
This policy pinpoints trade-offs and alliances between the economic, social and
environmental aspects is recommended (Allen, 2012). Most of these targeted areas if
invested rightly can be self-sustaining based on its effective cost analysis which entices
low-carbon investors. For example, the Guyana REDD+ Investment Fund (GRIF) for
managing and monitoring forestry payments, upgrading infrastructure and assets to
protect against flooding, etc (Terracarbon, 2009). The same still applies to other
countries, Like the EU funds under the SWITCH Asia program for sustainable
public procurement in Thailand; improvements to forests, via EU funds, in Croatia;
large-scale promotion of advanced rural cooking technologies in Ethiopia; and a power
generation plant through a partnership between the private sector and KenGen in Kenya
(KenyaInvest, 2012) indicate were green investment have been targeted (Tables 1–5).
Information policy category is identified as a key aspect that helps disseminate the
awareness of green economy initiative. According to Reardon (2007) establishing green
education at all levels provides optimistic message which creates a public concern on the
efficacy of green economy initiative. Guyana success story can be attributed partly to
providing an effective and sustainable model of communicating its initiative by
incorporating its strategy into its national educational curriculum and vocational training
compared to others which awareness are created via media centres, seminars, green
networking, flagship programs, etc. This illustrate how green and sustainable way of
thinking (i.e. a green mentality) can be incubated as a form of culture in a developing
society. Other policy options, namely internalising, incentivising and inclusive policy
categories, have been found to be instrumental in the successful implementation of a
green economy. It can be ascertained that this policy instrument encourages sustainable
practices (Allen and Clouth, 2012). Examples of this policies sub-categories adopted
among selected countries include feed-in tariffs prove to be instrumental in Kenya and
Croatia, low carbon scheme and certificate system in Ethiopia, cap and trade permit, the
polluter pays principle in Thailand and tax exemptions, low-interest loan and small
business development finance trust in Guyana.
In reconnecting the value and cost of interactions with the natural world and social
structures as stated by Kennet and Heinemann (2006), green economy national strategies
have created a considerable change in the respective countries. Guyana leads the league
among the success stories of this initiative (Table 5), by shifting the country to a low
carbon pathway with financing generated through preservation of its vast tropical forests.
Its strategy had successfully being built around Reducing Emissions from Deforestation
and Forest Degradation plus (REDD+). Further investment had also been channelled to
renewable energy (especially hydropower) and “green” rural development initiatives.
Also, the strategy had made a fore runner in providing a substantial model for how
climate change can be addressed and etc (Ellis et al., 2009; Guyana, 2010; Guyana,
2013). Kenya had also adopted a feed-in tariff policy for renewable energy sources
(Allen and Clouth, 2012) and initiated a geothermal power generation plant (2X70 MW)
project in Naivasha as well as a project for expanding the rice irrigation scheme at Tana
Delta from 2000–10000 hectares. In addition, Kenya-Tanzania-Uganda green jobs
program which promotes green youth entrepreneurship had created opportunities for both
young men and women (Allen and Clouth, 2012). Furthermore, tremendous progress
have being achieved from Ethiopia’s CRGE initiative which has become one of the
fastest-growing economies in Africa and the world (Allen and Clouth, 2012). Also, new
initiative on boosting household irrigation in Ethiopia highlights further intention of
Ethiopian government on greening the agricultural sector so as to boost food production,
354 G. Megwai, N.I. Njie and T. Richards
providing income for 5 million farmers and complement the government’s vision of
achieving middle-income status by 2025 (Allen and Clouth, 2012). In Croatia, the impact
of green economy initiatives through energy efficiency program and projects had being
described as ‘unique’, not only compared to other Southeast European countries but also
against the best performers in energy efficiency among European Union member states
(Allen and Clouth, 2012). The strategy have successively improved energy efficiency in
more than 7000 buildings, increased the degree of recycling and reuse of plastics, created
sustainable values with local partners, produced about $18 million in cost savings and cut
annual greenhouse gas emissions by 63,000 tons of CO2 equivalent. In addition,
hundreds of green jobs had be created from the public-sector energy audits introduced by
this program which have stimulated energy-efficiency investment projects worth $30
million (Allen and Clouth, 2012). Finally, Thailand had also achieved some level of
success by introducing solar power which has taken precedence over the deployment of
wind energy, typically the more cost effective of the two alternatives. Promotion of
biofuels which represent not only an option for reducing independence from fossil fuel
imports but they also offer significant potential for economic development, particularly
in rural areas. Furthermore, 163 products made by 42 companies were certified as
reducing process emissions and 726 products made by 177 companies had undergone
carbon footprint calculation from voluntary carbon labelling program. Its initiative had
earned a partnership with Germany for developing a green economy (UNEP, 2012).
5 Conclusions
Given the present global economic scenario and the adverse climatic changes taking
place along with the past and present experiences of most initiatives which have failed to
address major challenges, the need for adopting the green economy concept is more
important than ever before. This paper has attempted to illustrate that success achieved
by most of the countries adopting green economy concept can be traceable to the
involvement of a high political leader, along with the engagement of other agencies
(public and private) whose roles are clearly outlined. This was also pointed out by
Kennet and Heinemann (2006) that at the heart of greening our economies is the need of
integration of community or in other words the need for all round commitment of all
levels nationally.
It also acknowledges that the impact of green economy initiatives differs from
country to country depending on their level of development, institutional capacity,
government framework and resources. In addition, it can be outlined that an effective
institutional framework, structured incentives, well-designed investment and the proper
dissemination of information are key aspects in realising a green economy.
In spite of the successes achieved in these countries in this paper, there is need for
continuous improvement in identifying the correct tools for making a significant impact;
improving the policy design model; increasing awareness among citizens; continuity in
incorporating the concept into national circumstances; and further integration into
national budgets. Finally, whilst a green economy initiative proves to be a possible path
towards a sustainable world, there are still doubts as to its realisation especially in
developing regions.
Exploring green economy strategies and policies 355
References
Aceleanu, M.I. (2015) ‘Green jobs in a green economy: support for a sustainable development’,
Progress in Industrial Ecology, an International Journal, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp.341–355.
ADBI (2013) Thailand Country Report: Regional Workshop on Eco-Industry Cluster, Tokyo,
Japan, Asian Development Bank Institute.
Allen, C. (2012) ‘Issue 3: exploring green economy policies and international experience with
national strategies’, A Guidebook to the Green Economy, United Nations.
Allen, C. and Clouth, S. (2012) A Guidebook to the Green Economy Issue 1: Green Economy,
Green Growth, and Low-Carbon Development–History, Definitions and a Guide to Recent
Publications, United Nations Division for Sustainable Development, Department of Economic
and Social Affairs (UNDESA): New York, NY, USA.
Barry, J. (2007) ‘Towards a model of green political economy: from ecological modernisation to
economic security’, International Journal of Green Economics, Vol. 1, Nos. 3/4, pp.446–464.
Barry, J. (2010) ‘Towards a model of green political economy: from ecological modernisation to
economic security’, John Barry and Liam Leonard. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing:
pp.109–128.
Bass, S. et al. (2013) Making growth green and Inclusive: The case of Ethiopia.
Bateman, I. (1997) ‘Environmental and Economics Appraisal’, Environmental Management for
Environmental Science, O. Riordon (Ed.), Addison Wesley.
Cato, M.S. (2009) Green Economics. An Introduction to Theory, Policy and Practice, Earthscan,
London.
Danish 92 Group (2012) Building An Equitable Green Economy: 50.
EEPA (2011) The path to sustainable development Ethiopia’s Climate-Resilient Green Economy
Strategy. The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
EEPA (2015) Ethiopia’s Climate-Resilient Green Economy, Climate Resilience Strategy:
Agriculture and Energy EEPA (2011). The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
Ethiopia, Government of Ethiopia, Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI).
Ellis, K. et al. (2009) Policies for low carbon growth, Overseas Development Institute London.
EPA (2012) National Report of Ethiopia, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development (Rio+20).
FDRE (2011) Ethiopia’s Climate-Resilient Green Economy strategy. Green economy strategy,
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
Frechon, M. (2012) A Guidebook to the Green Economy.
Green Economy Coalition (2012) Principles for a green, fair and inclusive economy, Green
Economy Coalition.
Guyana (2010) A Low-Carbon Development Strategy, Transforming Guyana’s Economy While
Combating Climate Change Office of the President, Republic of Guyana.
Guyana (2013) Transforming Guyana’s Economy While Combating Climate Change. Low Carbon
Development Strategy Update. Guyana, Office of the President, Republic of Guyana.
Henderson, H. (2007) ‘Growing the green economy globally’, International Journal of Green
Economics, Vol. 1, Nos. 3/4, pp.276–298.
ICC (2011) Ten conditions for a transition toward a Green Economy, International Chamber of
Commerce.
IIED (2013) ‘Ethiopia: Can it adapt to climate change and build a green economy?’, Climate
Change, Green Economy. Retrieved 17.09, 2014, from http://www.iied.org/ethiopia-can-it-
adapt-climate-change-build-green-economy.
Kemp, R. et al. (2005) ‘Governance for sustainable development: moving from theory to practice’,
International Journal of Sustainable Development, Vol. 8, pp.12–30.
356 G. Megwai, N.I. Njie and T. Richards
Kennet, M. (2007) ‘Editorial: progress in Green Economics: ontology, concepts and philosophy.
Civilisation and the lost factor of reality in social and environmental justice’, International
Journal of Green Economics, Vol. 1, Nos. 3/4, pp.225–249.
Kennet, M. and Heinemann, V. (2006) ‘Green Economics: setting the scene. Aims, context, and
philosophical underpinning of the distinctive new solutions offered by Green Economics’,
International Journal of Green Economics, Vol. 1, Nos. 1/2, pp.68–102.
Kenya (2011) ‘Kenya vision 2030’, Retrieved 28.08.2014, 2014, from http://www.vision2030.
go.ke/.
Kenya (2012) Sustainable Development in Kenya: Stocktaking in the run up to Rio+20. Nairobi,
Kenya.
KenyaInvest (2012) Summary Of Vision 2030 Investment Projects. Kenya Vision 2030. Nairobi,
Kenya, Kenya Investment Authority.
Kirac, M. (2013) Transition to a low carbon economy: the case of Croatia in cultural heritage,
United Nations Development Programme, Croatia.
Lee, J.W. et al. (2012) Korea’s Green Growth: based on OECD Green Growth Indicators. Korea,
Statistical research institute, Korea.
Lele, S.M. (1991) ‘Sustainable development: a critical review’, World development, Vol. 19, No. 6,
pp.607–621.
Newton, A.C. (2011) ‘The green economy and the knowledge economy: exploring the interface’,
International Journal of Green Economics, Vol. 5, No. 3, p.231.
OECD (2006) Good Practices in the National Sustainable Development Strategies of OECD
Countries, Sustainable Development Studies. Paris, France, Organisation For Economic Co-
Operation And Development.
Pearce, D.W. et al. (1989) Blueprint for a green economy, Earthscan.
PRD (2013, 23/01/2013) ‘Four National Strategies to Be Used to Move Thailand Forward ".
Retrieved 03.09, 2014, from http://thailand.prd.go.th/view_news.php?id=6614&a=2.
Reardon, J. (2007) ‘Comments on Green economics: setting the scene. Aims, context, and
philosophical underpinnings of the distinctive new solutions offered by green economics’,
International Journal of Green Economics, Vol. 1, Nos. 3/4, pp.532–538.
Söderbaum, P. (2009) ‘Molly Scott Cato, Green economics, an introduction to theory, policy and
practice, Earthscan, London (2009) ISBN 978-1-84407-571-3, 224 Ecological Economics,
Vol. 69, No. 1, pp.206–206.
Stubbs, P. (2013) ‘The Prospects for a Green Economy in Croatia’.
Terracarbon, L.L.C. (2009) Reducing Deforestation and Forest Degradation while Promoting
Sustainable Development South American Regional Infrastructure Development, Forests and
REDD: Implications for Guyana.
The Nation (2012) Thai-German Ties: Thailand, Germany to speed up free trade agreement.
TheREDDdesk (2014) ‘Guyana REDD+ Investment Fund’, The REDD desk: a calloboration
resource for REDD readiness. 2014, from http://theredddesk.org/countries/actors/guyana-
redd-investment-fund.
UNCSD ( 2012) The Future we want, outcome of the United Nations Conference on
Sustainable Development (Rio+20). United Nations Conference onSustainable Development
(Rio+20). Rio, United Nations
UNDP (2011) The green economy: global challenges, croatian opportunities. A discussion on
sustainable development, Europski dom Zagreb, Jurišideva 1/1, United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) in Croatia.
UNDP (2011) UNDP Ethiopia 2011: Overview : Green Economy and Progress in Ethiopia, UNDP
Ethiopia.
Exploring green economy strategies and policies 357
UNDP (2013, 21 May 2013) ‘Low-carbon development - opportunity for economic growth and
new, green jobs’, Retrieved 28.08.2014, 2014, from http://www.hr.undp.org/content/croatia/
en/home/presscenter/articles/2013/05/21/low-carbon-development-opportunity-for-economic-
development-and-new-green-jobs/.
UNEP (2011) Forests in a Green Economy - Synthesis Report, United Nations Environment
Programme.
UNEP (2011) Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty
Eradication, United Nations Environment Programme.
UNEP (2012) Key achievements in 2012. Green Economy, United Nations Environment
Programme.
UNEP (2012) Measuring Progress Towards a Green Economy – draft working paper, United
Nations Environment Programme,.
UNEP (2013, 28.08.2014) ‘Green economy Advisory service: Kenya’s Pathway to a
Green Economy’. Retrieved 28.08, 2014, from http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/
AdvisoryServices/Kenya/tabid/56352/Default.aspx.
United Nations (2011) Green Economy success stories from the UNECE region. Seventh
“Environment for Europe” Ministerial Conference. U. N. E. Programme. Astana, Kazakhstan,
United Nations.
United Nations (2012) Water and a Green Economy inLatin America and the Caribbean(LAC),
United Nations.
Vision, I. O. C. (2012) ‘THE FUTURE WE WANT’,
Wachira, R. (2013) The Kenya Green Economy Assessment Report Green Economy Week.
Geneva, Switzerland, United Nations Environment Programme.
