No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Wounds of the fathers: The next generation of Holocaust victims
... With regard to the Holocaust, studies have indicated an association between parental and offspring PTSD in selected populations of children of refugees, war veterans, or victims of other major traumas. The notion that trauma could be passed on to future generations was first considered in the context of Holocaust survivors and their offspring when clinical anecdotes indicated that these children displayed increased psychological problems that could not be resolved by classic psychotherapy (Barocas & Barocas, 1979;Danieli, 1981). Compared to others, offspring of Holocaust survivors (OHS) were described as having an increased vulnerability to stress and were reported to display symptoms that would be expected if they had actually lived through the Holocaust (Barocas & Barocas, 1979). ...
... The notion that trauma could be passed on to future generations was first considered in the context of Holocaust survivors and their offspring when clinical anecdotes indicated that these children displayed increased psychological problems that could not be resolved by classic psychotherapy (Barocas & Barocas, 1979;Danieli, 1981). Compared to others, offspring of Holocaust survivors (OHS) were described as having an increased vulnerability to stress and were reported to display symptoms that would be expected if they had actually lived through the Holocaust (Barocas & Barocas, 1979). From here, researchers were interested in whether this phenomenon was carried across to the third generation, otherwise known as grandchildren of Holocaust survivors (GHS; Fossion et al., 2003). ...
... Several possible mechanisms of intergenerational transmission of trauma have been proposed in consideration of Holocaust survivors and their children. Biological models of transmission postulate that symptoms of PTSD can be genetically passed on via stress hormones (e.g., cortisol; Barocas & Barocas, 1979;Danieli, 1981), whereas socialization models of transmission suggest that symptoms of PTSD may be learned behaviors that children observe and imitate from their parents (Kellermann, 2001). Others still have proposed that the traumatic experience affects the formation of healthy attachment between parent and child (Sagi-Schwartz et al., 2003;Schwerdtfeger & Nelson Goff, 2007), making the child more vulnerable to experiencing symptoms of PTSD themselves. ...
There is ongoing discussion across the literature as to whether parental exposure to potentially traumatic events, such as the Holocaust, have a carry-on effect across generations. This systematic review examines the presence of intergenerational trauma effects in children and grandchildren of Holocaust survivors. A systematic search of PsycINFO, PTSDPubs, PubMed, Web of Science Core Collection and Embase identified observational studies that examined posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in children and grandchildren of Holocaust survivors. A quantitative estimate of the overall standardized mean difference was then calculated and between-study heterogeneity explored. A total of 13 separate samples across 10 studies met inclusion criteria. For children of Holocaust survivors, there was a moderate size association (Standardized Mean Difference [SMD] = .43), suggesting increased levels of PTSD symptoms for children of survivors compared to control. For grandchildren of Holocaust survivors, the association was near trivial (SMD = .06), indicating that grandchildren of survivors had a slightly increased level of PTSD symptoms. Our review suggests that PTSD symptoms may be elevated among offspring of Holocaust survivors, but that this effect is not evident in grandchildren and that other factors no doubt explain the magnitude of PTSD symptoms. There was insufficient evidence to indicate that grandchildren of Holocaust survivors have elevated levels of PTSD symptoms when compared to the general population.
... Bread served as the currency within the camp, allowing for survival as well as securing coveted positions or medications. This memory of the risk of death by malnutrition explains the tendency for HS mothers to overfeed their children (Barocas and Barocas 1979). Barocas et al. highlighted the anxiety of HS mothers during pregnancy, fearing they would not be able to ensure the survival of their unborn children. ...
... Barocas et al. highlighted the anxiety of HS mothers during pregnancy, fearing they would not be able to ensure the survival of their unborn children. They also noted that these HS women maintained throughout their parenting lives the fear of being unable to feed their children properly, leading them to hoard food in cupboards and unnecessarily stockpile supplies in anticipation of a future disaster (Barocas and Barocas 1979). ...
Introduction
Holocaust survivors experienced extreme trauma, including physical abuse and malnutrition, leading to various eating disorders. The aim of this study was to compare the eating behaviours of Children of Holocaust Survivors (CHS) with those of children of non‐Jewish parents who had at least one parent in France during World War II (CW), and to explore the influence of parental relationships with food on these behaviours.
Methods
CHS and CW participants were recruited via social media for an online survey that collected demographic data, family war history, parental hunger experiences, and the prevalence of family silence about the war.
Results
Among 522 CHS and 100 CW, no significant difference was found in overall dietary behaviour. However, CHS were more likely to value holiday culinary traditions for themselves (77.6% vs. 40%), their parents (68.5% vs. 40.2%), and their children (61.1% vs. 32.1%). CHS whose parents experienced hunger were more likely to keep large food stores (69.5% vs. 51.2%), eat quickly (38.7% vs. 24.2%), eat all the food (61.1% vs. 47%), and overeat (55.5% vs. 45%).
Conclusion
This study, the first of its kind in a large cohort, highlights the lasting impact of the Holocaust on eating behaviour in CHS.
... This type of collective multigenerational trauma is typically called historical trauma (HT; Brave Heart, 1998). Most early scholarly work centered on Holocaust survivor families (e.g., Barocas & Barocas, 1979;Danieli, 1981), but the concept has since been extended to Indigenous Peoples (e.g., Bombay et al., 2009;Brave Heart & DeBruyn, 1998), African Americans (e.g., Cross, 1998;Degruy-Leary, 2017), and various refugee groups (e.g., Sim et al., 2018;Tay et al., 2019). ...
... Early work on mechanisms of trauma transmission mostly focused on the effects of family dynamics and parenting patterns in Holocaust survivors. Identified deleterious parental patterns include overcontrolling parenting (Barocas & Barocas, 1980), dysregulated communication about Holocaust experiences (Wiseman, 2008), high expectations coupled with high criticism (Klein, 1973), and emotional numbness and detachment (Barocas & Barocas, 1979;Danieli, 1981;Klein, 1973). Additionally, specific attachment patterns, including overprotective-fearful parenting and child parentification, have been shown (Eland et al., 1990). ...
The transgenerational impact of trauma is an emergent focus in the field of trauma research. A growing body of evidence suggests important consequences for the descendants of trauma survivors, at the individual, as well as the collective, and systemic levels. After a brief introduction to the main concepts and a summary of the key findings by population, the current article proposes a novel comprehensive model: the historical intergenerational trauma transmission model (HITT model). The HITT model comprises five higher-order dimensions, including family vulnerability, offspring vulnerability, family resiliency, offspring resiliency, and historical moral injury. In addition, we propose insidious trauma as an important contextual variable that affects the impact of historical trauma (HT) on mental health and functioning. This is the first conceptual HT model designed to be applicable across populations, and that can be utilized by both researchers and clinicians. The components of the theoretical model, the research and clinical implications of this approach, as well as future directions are discussed.
... Leichteste Anzeichen irgendwelcher antisemitischer Äusserungen rufen bei ihnen eine unangemessene Wutreaktion hervor. Diese übertriebenen Verhaltensweisen zeigen auch Barocas undBarocas (1979)auf, indem sie bei Kindern von Überlebenden grossen Ärger und Ressentiments gegenüber den Deutschen feststellten.Branik (1992), welcher eine Untersuchung mit 18 Jugendlichen durchführte, stellte fest, dass die Jugendlichen direkte Erfahrungen mit Antisemitismus, in Form von 76 Beschimpfungen, Stellungnahmen, Vorurteilen usw. hatten, welche in ihnen eine tiefe Verletzlichkeit auslöste. ...
... hatten, welche in ihnen eine tiefe Verletzlichkeit auslöste. Die Empfindlichkeit gegenüber kleinsten Bemerkungen bezieht sich nicht allein auf die erwähnten Erfahrungen mit Antisemitismus und ist keineswegs nur bei Jugendlichen anzutreffen, deren Familien unter dem Holocaust direkt gelitten haben.Barocas undBarocas (1979)schreiben: "die zitierten Empfindlichkeiten gegenüber realen, latenten oder auch nur vermeintlichen Konfrontationen mit dem Antisemitismus in Deutschland zeugen von tiefen narzisstischen Wunden, die den Verletzungen entstammen, die dem eigenen Volk und ggf. den Eltern und Grosseltern in der Nazi-Zeit zugefügt wurden und offenbaren das tiefsitzende Gefühl, beschädigt, bedroht oder verletzbar zu sein." ...
... 17,18 Since the earliest studies in the 1970s, the volume of research has increased considerably. [19][20][21][22] However this has yielded conflicting results, with some studies identifying an increased prevalence of psychological symptoms 20,[23][24][25] whereas other studies have found no effect or even increased resilience to other stressors. 26,27 These differences may reflect various factors, including the particular characteristics of the genocides and the subsequent experiences of those studied, related both to the genocide and to demographic, socioeconomic and other factors. ...
... 17,18 Since the earliest studies in the 1970s, the volume of research has increased considerably. [19][20][21][22] However this has yielded conflicting results, with some studies identifying an increased prevalence of psychological symptoms 20,[23][24][25] whereas other studies have found no effect or even increased resilience to other stressors. 26,27 These differences may reflect various factors, including the particular characteristics of the genocides and the subsequent experiences of those studied, related both to the genocide and to demographic, socioeconomic and other factors. ...
Background
: The health consequences of genocides on children of survivors are increasingly discussed but conclusions have been conflicting.
Methods
We systematically reviewed studies from five electronic databases (EMBASE, PILOTS, PUBMED, PsycINFO, Web of Science), which used a quantitative study design and included: (i) exposure to the genocides of Armenians in Nazi Germany, Cambodia, Rwanda and Bosnia; (ii) mental health outcomes; (iii) validated instruments; (iv) statistical tests of associations. Study quality was appraised using a quality assessment tool for genocide studies. PRISMA reporting guidelines were followed.
Results
From 3352 retrieved records, 20 studies with a total of 4793 participants involving 2431 children of survivors and 2362 controls met the eligibility criteria. Studies were conducted in seven countries: Australia, Canada, Italy, Israel, Norway, Rwanda and the USAs over the past seven decades, using the Genocide Studies Quality Assessment Tool. Data from the high quality studies provide no consistent evidence that children of genocide survivors are more likely to have mental health problems than comparators who were not children of genocide survivors.
Conclusions
Methodological characteristics were associated with findings: studies investigating random samples of genocide survivors did not find an impact of genocides on health of children of survivors. Potential confounders (e.g. recent life events, poverty) need further investigation. Future studies of the impact of genocides on mental health should report using a standardized structure, such as the quality tool used here.
... The literature on intergenerational trauma, particularly that on survivors of the Holocaust and other genocides, notes that parents who have experienced trauma are often overprotective and hypervigilant around the safety of their children, keeping the family system physically and emotionally close and protected from perceived external dangers [5,170]. Such characteristics make a family system more susceptible to an imbalance between relational closeness and distance, and, certainly, individuation and separation difficulties among children of trauma survivors have been frequently identified within the research on families of trauma survivors [171,172]. ...
Intergenerational trauma, violence, and maltreatment, in which symptoms or experiences of an ancestor’s trauma repeat or otherwise manifest in subsequent generations, presents a weighty societal challenge to which a multiplicity of therapeutic intervention strategies have been applied. Theoretical perspectives are antecedent to clinical and social intervention, informing decisions in both policy and practice. However, these frequently remain subliminal or imperceptible in the discourse, resulting in interventions that remain somewhat dislocated from their theoretical foundations. This narrative review seeks to summarize and discuss each of these theories as they apply to intergenerational trauma, violence, and maltreatment, and to reveal their potential association with specific intervention models or approaches. It positions flexibility between theories and the integration of theories as opportunities to reach new and enhanced understandings and to engender distinctive therapeutic interventions. An enriched understanding of the theories explaining intergenerational trauma, violence, and maltreatment, a deeper appreciation for the pertinence of theory for practice, and an incitement to blend theoretical perspectives in unique ways is, herewith, reached.
... In the second generation, there is also a deepening of the experience of failure, because that generation was raised to compensate for the damage experienced by their parents, and this experience is often present in the treatment of cancer. Recovery can also be hindered by excess secondary gains stemming from an overprotective parenting relationship, which is well documented for parents of Holocaust survivors (36). ...
Introduction: Getting sick with cancer is a traumatic event for the affected person and can result with various psychological difficulties, and invasive methods of treatment further deepen them. The previously experienced psychological trauma of a close person can influence the response of a person who is currently experiencing trauma, because the far-reaching power of posttraumatic consequences extends through a natural biological barrier far into the next generation (the so called "transgenerational impact of traumatization"). Objective: To assess the impact of transgenerational transmission on the development of PTSD in women with breast cancer. Methods: The sample consisted of 120 women treated at the Oncology Department of University Hospital Center Osijek, included in liaison psychiatric treatment. A detailed clinical examination with a psychiatric interview was used with the application of DSM-IV diagnostic criteria, a specially structured non-standardized questionnaire for the assessment of etiological factors and the Los Angeles Symptom Checklist of PTSD symptoms (LASC) for determining PTSD. Results: No statistical significance was obtained between the presence of a family member with cancer and the average total score on the LASC in women with newly diagnosed breast cancer. Conclusion: Although there was no correlation between the existence of a family member suffering from cancer and the development of PTSD in the test subjects, during psychotherapy procedures we observed the existence of symptoms that did not meet the criteria for establishing a diagnosis of PTSD, but could interfere with the development of various psychological responses. By including cancer patients in psychotherapy procedures, we can prevent the development of more severe psychological responses in the second generation, which due to the genetic influence in the inheritance of the disease, will develop cancer, and the psychological disorder associated with it, and achieve a far reaching effect on strengthening adaptation mechanisms.
... Travmanın nesiller arası aktarımı terimi ilk olarak H. Barocas ve C. Barocas (1979) tarafından Holokost'tan kurtulanların çocukları bağlamında kullanılmıştırve 1960'larda bu felaketlerden sağ kalanların yetişkin çocuklarını görmeye başlayan klinisyenlerin tanımladığı bir kavramdır. Çalışmalarda bu bireylerin ebeveynlerinin travmatik deneyimlerinin etkilerini çeşitli şekillerde yansıttıkları bir dizi duygusal güçlükle karşı karşıya kaldıkları gözlemlenmiştir. ...
z İnsanlık tarihi kadar eski olan travma kavramı sanat, edebiyat, bilim, felsefe gibi pek çok farklı disiplinin ortak çalışma konusu olmuştur. Travma tek bir olayda ortaya çıkabileceği gibi, büyük afetler, toplu kıyımlar gibi çok büyük ölçülerde meydana gelebilir. Travmatik durum gerçek bir tehdit ile kişinin baş etme gücü arasındaki dengesizliktir. Olayın meydana geliş şekli, var olan destekler, psikopatolojik yatkınlık, önceki travmaların varlığı gibi çeşitli nedenlerden ötürü etkileri kişiden kişiye göre farklılık gösterebilir. Günümüzde gelişimsel psikopatoloji alanında deneyimler arttıkça ilgi anıların zihinde nasıl saklandığına, bu anıların günlük algıları nasıl etkilediğine ve dış gerçeklikle nasıl anlamlandırıldığına kaymıştır. Çocukluktan hatta doğumdan itibaren yaşanılan olayların her bir birey üzerinde farklı etkiler yaratabildiği gerçeğinin yanı sıra her bir deneyim aynı şekilde mi ruhsallığa işlenir? Yapılan çalışmalar travmatik deneyimin travmatik olmayan bir olaydan farklı bir şekilde kodlandığını göstermiştir. Travmatik deneyimin sadece seçilmiş bir kısmı, açık işlem için gerekli olan "bilinçli" odak dikkatiyle işlenebilir. Travma sırasında duygusal selleri azaltma ihtiyacı, dikkatin bir deneyimin travmatik unsurlarından uzaklaşmasına neden olabilir ve bazı travmalar kişinin öznel baş etme gücünü aşar ve ruhsallığın hayatta kalabilmesi için disosiye edilir. Özellikle çok ağır toplu yaşanan travmatik durumlarda travma bir hayalet gibi nesillerin bir gölge gibi takip eder. Abstract The concept of trauma, which is as old as the history of humanity, has been the subject of joint work of many different disciplines such as art, literature, science and philosophy. Trauma can occur in a single event, but large disasters can occur in large scale, such as mass killings. The traumatic situation is the imbalance between a real threat and a person's coping power. For a variety of reasons, such as the occurrence of the event, existing support, psychopathological predisposition, presence of previous traumas, the effects may vary from person to person. Today, as experiences in the field of developmental psychopathology grow, the interest has shifted to how the memories are stored in the mind, how these memories affect daily perceptions and how it is made meaningful with external reality. In addition to the fact that events from childhood and even births can have different effects on each individual, is each experience processed the same way with spirituality? Studies have shown that traumatic experience is coded differently from a non-traumatic event. Only a selected part of the traumatic experience can be processed with a conscious focus that is required for the open operation. The need to reduce emotional floods during trauma can lead to distraction from the traumatic elements of an experience, and some traumas transcend one's subjective coping power and are dissociated to survive spirituality. In traumatic situations, especially in very severe mass trauma traces like a ghost, generations like a shadow.
... Bu gözlemcilerden biri olan Ruppert (2011), bireylerde zaman zaman meydana gelen, nedeni belli olmayan, birtakım kaygı, korku veya bireyin günlük hayatta yaşadıkları olaylarla uyumlu olmayan ruhsal sıkıntılar yaşadıklarını belirtmiştir. Bu sıkıntılar arasında dünyanın güvensiz olduğu düşüncesi, kronik mutsuzluk, her daim tehlikeye karşı korku, duygu ifadesinde zorluk, ayrılık anksiyetesi, aile işlevselliğine dair algıların bozulması gibi durumlar gözlemlenmektedir (Baracos ve Baracos, 1979;Danieli, 1981 Likert'in geliştirmiş olduğu derecelendirmelerin toplamıyla oluşan yaklaşımda, ...
... Also, the activism during the Living Memorial project by children, grandchildren, and other relatives of Holocaust survivors can be understood not just as grief activism but also as victim activism. Psychological studies confirmed that the generation that followed Holocaust victims was also traumatised (Barocas & Barocas, 1979;Yehuda et al., 1998). Victim activists are individuals who became advocates of a given issue after being the victim of a certain phenomena, like domestic violence, crime, or sexual abuse. ...
The paper investigates the emotional, grief-based resilience-building of a social movement, the Living Memorial in Hungary. The movement was initiated in 2014 as the Hungarian government announced the installation of a memorial of the German occupation of 1944, which denied the responsibility of the Hungarian state in the Holocaust. The Living Memorial aimed to contradict the government’s memorial by offering an inclusive remembrance through telling personal, family stories. A grounded analysis revealed three different actions were realised by the Living Memorial, which all enhanced the resilience of the group on different levels. The discussion of personal and family stories and sharing grief reinforced the collective identity of the group. The personal remembrance also helped to deconstruct the government’s memorial. The political discussions and presentations raised the political consciousness of the participants and strengthened their self-image as competent political actors. It is also revealed that resilience in the case of the Living Memorial was built by a continuous process of reframing and community-building and also by the simultaneous recall and rationalisation of grief and relating emotions.
... Staff diversity is important, but so is incorporating diversity into the culture of the program. Recognizing issues, like historical trauma (Barocas & Barocas, 1979;DeGruy, 2005) or the underdiagnosing of PTSD in certain BIPOC populations are both important concepts for staff training. Adopting cultural humility must also become an organizational philosophy that guides all practices in an institution. ...
Graduate students of multiple racial identities in predominantly White institutions enter social work programs with a wide range of knowledge about and experiences of White Supremacy, particularly the ways in which structural forms of racism continue to inflict harm, block opportunities, and perpetuate wealth inequities. In addition, White students are often challenged to grasp the ways they have been socialized to participate in perpetuating White Supremacy. This wide range of knowledge and experiences makes it likely that students will experience a range of emotions and defensive resistance necessitating skillful pedagogical design and facilitation of class interactions. Intentional use of theoretical frameworks with experiential activities can deepen self-awareness and understanding of the systemic nature of White Supremacy (Okun, 2010). In this manuscript, four students and two instructors discuss their learning experiences within a course addressing White Supremacy for students of multiple racial identities in a predominantly White institution. Post-course dialogue amongst these multiracial authors identified six core areas of learning when examining intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural racism, cultural wealth of BIPOC peoples, and anti-racism actions. Two primary implications for education are: Weave conceptual frameworks with interpersonal experiential activities throughout the course design, and attend to interactional power dynamics during class meetings.
... Bu bulgular, dünyanın güvensiz bir yer olduğu algısı, aile işlevselliği algılarında bozulma, kronik mutsuzluk, duygularını ifade etmede zorluk çekme, tehlikeli durumlara yönelik süreğen bir korku hissi, ayrılık anksiyetesi olarak sayılmaktadır. 55,56 Travmanın doğrudan aktarımı üzerine yapılan araştırmalarda travma mağdurlarının yüksek oranda Travma Sonrası Stres Bozukluğu (TSSB) semptomları taşımalarına bağlı olarak ikinci kuşakta da travmaya bağlı stres belirtilerinin de yüksek oranda olduğu, bu kişilerin stres verici olaylar karşısında daha hassas ve psikopatoloji geliştirmeye daha yatkın olduğu belirtilmektedir. [57][58][59] PSİKOTARİH AÇISInDAn ÇOCUK YETİŞTİRME TARzLARI vE ÇOCUKLUK ÇAĞI TRAvMALARI Tarih ve psikoloji disiplinlerini harmanlayarak, insanlık tarihinin gelişimini bir ya da daha çok psikolojik kurama da-yandırarak analiz eden psikotarih, ebeveynlerin çocuk yetiştirme tarzları ve çocukluk çağı travmalarına geniş bir perspektiften ele almaktadır. ...
ÖZET Epigenetik, DNA dizisindeki değişikliklerden kaynaklanmayan fakat kalıtsal olan, gen ifadesi değişikliklerini inceleyen bilim dalına denmektedir. Epigenetiğin araştırma alanları arasında beslenme alışkanlıkları, egzersiz gibi çevresel faktörlerin genlerin aktivitesini düşürmesi veya yükselt- mesi ile ortaya çıkan rahatsızlıklar, yaşam tarzı sayılabilir. Bilim insanları epigenetikle ilgili çok uzun yıllardan günümüze kadar pek çalışma gerçekleştirmişlerdir. Gerçekleştirilen bu çalışmalar ne- siller boyu süren epigenetik aktarımın önemini ortaya koymaktadır. Ailemizde deneyimlediğimiz geçmişimiz, ebeveynlerimizden öğrendiğimiz pratikler, hem kendimizin hem de ebeveynlerimizin ya- şantıladığı travmatik yaşantıların davranışlarımızın üzerinde yarattığı izler kuşaklar arası aktarıl- maktadır. Çocukluk çağı travmaları ve ebeveyn pratiklerinin kuşaklararası aktarımında çeşitli mekanizmalar bulunmaktadır. Aile içerisinde söze dökülmeyen veya davranışsal boyuta geçmeyen dinamiklerin ve ebeveynlerimizin travmatik yaşantılarının davranışın epigenetik boyutuna etkisi var- dır. Çalışmalar açık ve net bir şekilde anne babamızdan hatta anneanne/babaanne ve dedelerimizden çok daha fazlasını aldığımızı göstermekte, özellikle kişinin ruhsal bütünlüğünü bozan çocukluk çağı travmalarının aktarımının hayatımızı farkında olarak ya da olmayarak şekillendirdiği bilinmektedir. Gen ifademiz, gen kodlarımızın yanı sıra bizim bizden önceki kuşakların çevresel koşullarına ve hayat şekillerine tahmin edilenden çok daha kuvvetli bağlarla bağlanmış bulunmaktadır. Çocukluk çağı travmaları ile aile ve ebeveyn pratiklerinin sonucunda ortaya çıkan davranışların hem ruh sağ- lığımıza hem de epigenetik boyutlara etkilerini incelemek hangi hücrelerden oluştuğumuzu tanıma- nın yanısıra, travmatik yaşantıların olumsuz sonuçlarının tedavisi için ve bir sonraki kuşaklara işlevsel bir yaşam alanı bırakmak açısından önemlidir.
ABSTRACT Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression that are not caused by changes in the DNA sequence. Disorders caused by the slowing down or speeding up of gene activity due to environmental factors such as dietary habits and exercising, and lifestyle can be counted among the research interests of epigenetics. Scientists have done countless studies for many years in the field of epigenetics. These studies reveal the importance of the transmission of epigenetic changes from gen- eration to generation. Our past that we experienced in our family, the practices we learned from our par- ents and the marks left on our behavior by the traumatic experiences that both we and our parents have experienced are transferred through generations. There are certain mechanisms acting on the intergen- erational transmission of childhood traumas and parental practices. Unspoken or unestablished intrafa- milial dynamics and our parents’ traumatic experiences affect the epigenetic aspect of the behavior. Studies clearly demonstrate that we inherit a lot more from our mothers and fathers, even from our grand- mothers/grandfathers, and show that the transmission of childhood traumas, which affects a person’s psychological integrity, shapes our lives within our knowledge or without even realizing it. Besides our gene codes, our gene expressions are tied with much stronger bonds than estimated with the environ- mental conditions and lifestyles of previous generations. Examining the effects that childhood traumas and behaviors that occur as a result of family and parental practices have on both our mental health and the epigenetic aspects thereof is important in identifying the cells that create us, and in treating the neg- ative consequences of traumatic experiences and passing down a functional life space to the next generations.
... The term Second Generation of HSs appeared in professional literature around the 1970s', particularly in articles from psychologists and psychiatrists who treated CHSs (Barocas & Barocas, 1979). Among the symptoms reported were depression, anxiety, phobias, guilt, and issues relating to separation and individuation similar those reported by survivors (Solkoff, 1992). ...
The aim of this review is to synthesize qualitative research on the lived experiences of grandchildren of Holocaust survivors (GHSs). A systematic search yielded 18 studies covering a period of two decades. Four main themes emerged; (i) the responsibility to teach and transfer the Holocaust legacy to future generations, (ii) experiences of family life, (iii) struggles integrating the Holocaust-related past into current life and (iv) fears and anxieties. Findings highlight the role of trauma related communication within families of survivors in the transmission of the trauma narratives. Implications for trauma informed practice are discussed. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Historical trauma research focuses on examining impacts from HTEs on health outcomes for populations with histories of mass trauma (Brave Heart 1998;Duran 1995;Walters and Simoni 2002;Yehuda et al. 1998). This research first emerged to evaluate mental health outcomes of the descendants of holocaust survivors (Barocas and Barocas 1979;Phillips 1978;Yehuda et al. 1998Yehuda et al. , 2001. This work examined how impacts from this traumatic episode were transmitted intergenerationally to the survivor's descendants by means of biological, and cultural pathways Yehuda et al. (1998Yehuda et al. ( , 2001. ...
Recently, Black, Indigenous, and other People of Color (BIPOC) have encountered an escalation in adverse social conditions and trauma events in the United States. For individuals of Mexican ancestry in the United States (IMA-US), these recent events represent the latest chapter in their history of adversity: a history that can help us understand their social and health disparities. This paper utilized a scoping review to provide a historical and interdisciplinary perspective on discussions of mental health and substance use disorders relevant to IMA-US. The scoping review process yielded 16 peer reviewed sources from various disciplines, published from 1998 through 2018. Major themes included historically traumatic events, inter-generational responses to historical trauma, and vehicles of transmission of trauma narratives. Recommendations for healing from historical and contemporary oppression are discussed. This review expands the clinical baseline knowledge relevant to the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of contemporary traumatic exposures for IMA-US.
... In addition to intergenerational effects, data suggests transgenerational effects of stress. For example, offspring of Israeli Holocaust survivors had a higher incidence of PTSD, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and substance abuse disorders three generations downstream (Barocas and Barocas, 1979;Dasberg, 1987;Scharf, 2007;Yehuda et al., 2008Yehuda et al., , 2015. Overall, these data suggest that parental traumatic stress make offspring more vulnerable to mental illness. ...
Although most humans will experience some type of traumatic event in their lifetime only a small set of individuals will go on to develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Differences in sex, age, trauma type, and comorbidity, along with many other elements, contribute to the heterogenous manifestation of this disorder. Nonetheless, aberrant hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity, especially in terms of cortisol and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) alterations, has been postulated as a tenable factor in the etiology and pathophysiology of PTSD. Moreover, emerging data suggests that the harmful effects of traumatic stress to the HPA axis in PTSD can also propagate into future generations, making offspring more prone to psychopathologies. Predator stress models provide an ethical and ethologically relevant way to investigate tentative mechanisms that are thought to underlie this phenomenon. In this review article, we discuss findings from human and laboratory predator stress studies that suggest changes to DNA methylation germane to GRs may underlie the generational effects of trauma transmission. Understanding mechanisms that promote stress-induced psychopathology will represent a major advance in the field and may lead to novel treatments for such devastating, and often treatment-resistant trauma and stress-disorders.
... Travmanın nesiller arası aktarımı terimi ilk olarak H. Barocas ve C. Barocas (1979) tarafından Holokost'tan kurtulanların çocukları bağlamında kullanılmıştırve 1960'larda bu felaketlerden sağ kalanların yetişkin çocuklarını görmeye başlayan klinisyenlerin tanımladığı bir kavramdır. Çalışmalarda bu bireylerin ebeveynlerinin travmatik deneyimlerinin etkilerini çeşitli şekillerde yansıttıkları bir dizi duygusal güçlükle karşı karşıya kaldıkları gözlemlenmiştir. ...
Abstract
The concept of trauma, which is as old as the history of humanity, has been the subject of joint work of many
different disciplines such as art, literature, science and philosophy. Trauma can occur in a single event, but large
disasters can occur in large scale, such as mass killings. The traumatic situation is the imbalance between a real
threat and a person's coping power. For a variety of reasons, such as the occurrence of the event, existing
support, psychopathological predisposition, presence of previous traumas, the effects may vary from person to
person. Today, as experiences in the field of developmental psychopathology grow, the interest has shifted to
how the memories are stored in the mind, how these memories affect daily perceptions and how it is made
meaningful with external reality. In addition to the fact that events from childhood and even births can have
different effects on each individual, is each experience processed the same way with spirituality? Studies have
shown that traumatic experience is coded differently from a non‐traumatic event.
Only a selected part of the traumatic experience can be processed with a conscious focus that is required
for the open operation. The need to reduce emotional floods during trauma can lead to distraction from the
traumatic elements of an experience, and some traumas transcend one's subjective coping power and are
dissociated to survive spirituality. In traumatic situations, especially in very severe mass trauma traces like a
ghost, generations like a shadow.
Keywords: Intergenerational transmission of trauma, memory, death of time
... 85 Evidence from small-scale studies from the 1960s and 1970s, indicates signs of psychopathology in children of holocaust survivors. 86 More recently, trauma exposure in holocaust survivors was shown to induce neuropsychiatric changes in their children and be associated with alterations in some epigenetic marks, in particular DNA methylation in FK506 binding protein 5 gene. 87 The children of holocaust survivors had increased susceptibility to PTSD, primarily women survivors, 88,89 which could be related to low cortisol level. ...
Traumatic stress is a type of environmental experience that can modify behavior, cognition and physiological functions such as metabolism, in mammals. Many of the effects of traumatic stress can be transmitted to subsequent generations even when individuals from these generations are not exposed to any traumatic stressor. This book chapter discusses the concept of epigenetic/non-genomic inheritance of such traits involving the germline in mammals. It includes a comprehensive review of animal and human studies on inter- and transgenerational inheritance of the effects of traumatic stress, some of the epigenetic changes in the germline currently known to be associated with traumatic stress, and possible mechanisms for their induction and maintenance during development and adulthood. We also describe some experimental interventions that attempted to prevent the transmission of these effects, and consider the evolutionary importance of transgenerational inheritance and future outlook of the field.
... Der Individuations-und Separationsprozeß der Kinder stellte eine ernste Bedrohung des familiären Gleichgewichts dar. Trennung konnte bei den Eltern alte Vernichtungsängste wieder erwecken (Barocas u. Barocas, 1979). Vor allem bei Eltern, die ihre massive Traumatisierung nur abwehren konnten, indem sie ihre traumatischen Erfahrungen verleugneten bzw. ...
... and their children and grandchildren (Barocas and Barocas 1979;Danieli 1982;Davidson 1980a;Davidson 1980b;Epstein 1979;Klein 1987;Last and Klein 1981;Major 1996;Nadler et al. 1985;Schwartz et al. 1994;Sigal and Weinfeld 1989;Solomon et al. 1988;Yehuda and McFarlane 1997). (Baker and Kervorkian 1995;Harkness 1993;Matsakis 1988;Rosenheck and Fontana 1998;Rosenheck and Nathan 1985;Solomon et al. 1988), and in Germans whose fathers served in concentration and extermination camps (Bar-On 1989). ...
This essay is theoretical. It suggests that groups of humans respond to threats automatically and outside of individual conscious awareness. The literature concerning the effects of stress and trauma in relationship to three units of analysis—the brain, the individual and the group—are presented and theoretical links between them described.
Four interdependent facets of a speculative model of a group response-to-threat process are posited: 1) Building on recent modeling from neuropsychology, three distinct forms of memory are described, including their different qualities and how the resulting memory complex of a particular event changes, over a person’s life and when transmitted through generations. 2) The roles that individuals play at the scene of a traumatic event described in the traumatology literature are compared and contrasted with the roles members of a family assume when anxious, as described in the family therapy literature. A set of post-threat roles is suggested to coherently relate them. 3) Modeling from the study of the social insects is presented that describes how complex group processes can result from simple interactions between individuals without a need for conscious awareness. It is suggested that similar emergent processes evolved in humans, and further, that the emergent processes that occur in both ants and humans can be accounted for in part by epigenetic algorithms, and that the process can be modeled mathematically. 4) Finally, the essay proposes a self-regulatory, three-step process that emerges in groups of humans when they are threatened.
Hypotheses generated by the model, case studies and other avenues for further research are explored. Implications suggested by the model for practical interventions—with threatened, stressed or traumatized individuals, families, corporations, communities or nations—are presented. The application of the model to certain historiographical and international problems is suggested.
The repetition of child abuse and neglect over generations has been extensively observed and researched, however the problem remains poorly understood and narrowly conceptualised. This discussion, which is loosely centred on the Australian child protection context, examines the wider research on intergenerational trauma and resilience in other cohorts of survivors and goes on to consider the potential implications of this knowledge for child protection policy and practice. It reveals that an ancestor’s experiences of harm and adversity may result in non-deterministic vulnerabilities toward trauma-related symptomology in descendants which is often activated in times of stress or perceived threat, including parenthood and statutory child protection interventions. The indivisibility of intergenerational trauma and recovery is also evident in the literature, signposting resilience and recovery strategies that may be utilised and further developed to support families when there has been harm to children over generations. Overall, the broader knowledge on intergenerational trauma has the scope to shape more holistic, empathetic, pre-emptive, and strength-focused approaches within contemporary child protection contexts.
This paper is about the psychological effect of war. By the welding of the explanatory potential of psychoanalysis and anthropology, it argues that victims of armed conflict, particularly if protracted, construct a melancholic response (Yordanova, 2018). Often, people on the move are met with hostility by the host countries or may find themselves in the social periphery. This fosters ambivalence towards the new environment as an expression of vulnerabilities. The paper suggests an intergenerational aspect to the above dynamic, too. Children, exposed to violence, lack the emotional and cognitive maturity to grasp what they have lived through. Yet, overwhelmed with their own feelings of loss, their parents fail to help them deal with the trauma. Thus, children identify with the parents’ complicated grief and the assumption of an idealized pre-war past versus scarce future opportunities. Finally, the paper examines the intersections between individual war trauma, cultural memory and power dynamics in post-conflict societies. Using my field work in Sarajevo (2012, 2018), I argue that war survivors avoid the construction of a consistent war narrative in the first person because they need the state-recognized version of history to be re-written (Yordanova, 2015). The ambiguity of their experience in war, the inadequacy of language to convey horror, and the clash of private memories with the official discourse drive them to alternative forms of expression. Survivors and their children use art, humour, tattoos, scarring, and landscape to explain the war and get connected to each other. In the post-war environment, the narrative of veterans who were most exposed to warfare becomes muted in order not to challenge the political status-quo.
This critical phenomenological study sought Native American student perspectives on intention and desired faculty response following self-disclosure of personal challenges in college writing assignments and discusses implications for faculty and for implementing trauma-informed writing pedagogy with students who are historically marginalized.
We use the recent destructive Irish residential real estate bubble and its parlous economic and social consequences to explore the role of repressed ancestral suffering in driving institutional and broader societal responses to contemporary events. We demonstrate how a traumatic past can become interwoven in the fabric of the social order, rendering state and parastatal organizations and their leaders powerless. The concept of intergenerational transmission of trauma is key to our analysis. We show how the Irish obsession with owning property and land is a psychic attempt to transcend the traumatic past to “inhabit” an idealized pre‐colonial land leading to emergent feelings of empowerment, euphoria and omnipotence. We also explain why the Irish real estate bubble is being re‐enacted so soon. The potential to enhance interpretation through insights from literature, drama, and poetry is illustrated.
This essay explores the craving for polymorphous perverse relationships of a son of a Holocaust survivor mother. The material presents the interplay of two levels which shaped the patient’s character structure and object-relating: the active behavior of the mother to her developing child and the mother’s internal struggles, which the son could not help but sense and accommodate. This theme is illustrated by means of a detailed description of the first phases of a case study, in which the patient realized that he enacted his own pathological relationship with his mother, as well as his mother’s traumatic Holocaust past through his polymorphous perverse relationships. This enactment, which was also expressed in the transference, was achieved by means of a compulsive, repetitive technique of intimacy, which served to hide a weak, unintegrated self, and which decreased his sexual and affective needs.
In the ‘Fifth Gene Technology Report’, renowned experts provide an overview of current developments and their applications in the dynamically evolving research field of gene and biotechnologies. They examine, among other topics, genetic diagnostics, somatic gene therapy, the development of vaccines, stem cell and organoid research, green gene technology, synthetic biology, gene drives, genome editing, epigenetics and single cell analysis. In addition to reporting on the current state of affairs in this field, the authors also discuss society’s perception of gene technologies and ethical and legal issues relating to them, such as genome edit-ing, cerebral organoids and big data in personalised medicine. Moreover, the interdisciplinary task force ‘Gentechnologiebericht’ (Gene Technology Report) offers recommendations on action that could be taken in relation to the key issues. With contributions by Karla Alex, Sina Bartfeld, Meik Bittkowski, Inge Broer, Lorina Buhr, Stephan Clemens, Wolfgang Van den Daele, Hans-Georg Dederer, Tobias J. Erb, Nina Gasparoni, Heiner Fangerau, Boris Fehse, Jürgen Hampel, Louise Herde, Ferdinand Hucho, Ali Jawaid, Aida Khachatryan, Sarah Kohler, Alma Kolleck, Martin Korte, Cordula Kropp, Alfons Labisch, Markus Lehmkuhl, Melanie Leidecker-Sandmann, Annette Leßmöllmann, Isabelle M. Mansuy, Lilian Marx-Stölting, Andreas Merk, Yannick Milhahn, Fruzsina Molnár-Gábor, Stefan Mundlos, Staffan Müller-Wille, Angela Osterheider, Anja Pichl, Barbara Prainsack, Jens Reich, Marlen Reinschke, Ortwin Renn, Hans-Jörg Rheinberger, Arnold Sauter, Hannah Schickl, Silke Schicktanz, Volker Stollorz, Constanze Störk-Biber, Jochen Taupitz, Jörn Walter, Eva C. Winkler, Martin Zenke and Michael M. Zwick.
Die Child Survivors, deren seelische Entwicklung am nachhaltigsten von der Nazi-Verfolgung geprägt und beschädigt wurde, werden oftmals noch heute nicht wahrgenommen und anerkannt. Während Tilo Held in der Zeitschrift Psyche (8/2014) über eben diese Gruppe erklärte, »die Zeit ihrer Implikation in Forschungsprojekte ist vorbei«, widmen sich die Autoren mit ihrer Forschungsarbeit den psychosozialen Spätfolgen der Verfolgung der Child Survivors und postulieren eine vierte Sequenz des traumatischen Prozesses im Alter. Anhand der Auseinandersetzung mit Child-Survivor-Tagungen im Jahr 2014 in Berlin werden Mikroprozesse des Szenischen Erinnerns der Shoah dargestellt, die sich sowohl auf die Trauma-Tradierung als auch auf zentrale Konflikte im deutsch-jüdischen Verhältnis im post-nationalsozialistischen Deutschland beziehen, wie sie sich auch im Forschungsprojekt des jüdischen Psychoanalytikers in Deutschland mit seinem nicht-jüdisch-deutschen Kollegen zugetragen haben. Das Einbrechen des Szenischen Erinnerns der Shoah in die Forschungsbeziehung wird als Manifestation einer konträren Holocaust Imagery verstanden. Einige Fallvignetten illustrieren das »Szenische Erinnern der Shoah« der Child Survivors.
Im vorliegenden Beitrag wird zunächst dargestellt, was unter Aufstellungsarbeit verstanden wird, sodann in das Feld der transgenerationalen Weitergabe psychischer Konstellationen und Symptome bzw. deren Wurzeln und Verarbeitung eingeführt. Epigenetische und psychologische Erklärungen werden detaillierter beschrieben. Anhand von kurzen illustrierenden Beispielen wird gezeigt, wie die Thematik transgenerationaler Weitergabe mithilfe von Aufstellungen anamnestisch erhoben, exploriert und bearbeitet werden kann. Abschließend erfolgt eine kritische Würdigung.
In this paper, I revisit the theory of an intergenerational transmission of Holocaust trauma. The theory argues that psychological symptoms and ego impairments observed in Holocaust survivors’ children are unique: a consequence of a vicarious exposure to their parents’ traumatic experiences. Using qualitative and quantitative research methods, I reviewed fifty-five case descriptions of children of Holocaust survivors. Though many decades have passed since the inception of this theory, the psychoanalytic literature continues to discuss the ongoing psychological difficulties of survivors and their offspring. I posit that the discourse of trauma that emerged in the wake of the analyses of the children of Holocaust survivors also reflects external factors and unconscious vicissitudes related to the sharing of a “chosen trauma.” I liken the creation of the theory about the Holocaust survivors’ children to the construction of a monument. Within that monument the anxieties, projections, and theoretical and political ideologies, as well as the unconscious experiences, of theorists are contained.
This commentary addresses several problematic aspects of Gomolin’s paper, which includes a critique of the theory of transgenerational transmission of Holocaust trauma. These aspects are the following: a) the author’s evaluation of psychoanalysis and her validation of analytic theory; b) the author’s criticism of common psychoanalytic concepts relating to trauma; c) the approach to the universal theory of transgenerational transmission of trauma; d) the inaccurate use of concepts and the weakness of the author’s arguments; e) the lack of evidence of her conclusions; f) the author’s political bias and the way she relates to her Jewish identity.
How could one practice psychoanalysis after Auschwitz? After the War, psychoanalysts in North America, using ego psychology, searched for ways to acknowledge the collective and individual traumas of the Holocaust and preserve psychoanalysis’s roots in intrapsychic conflict. They explored how Holocaust trauma was transmitted to the children of survivors. We discuss Gomolin’s important review of this literature on the transmission of Holocaust trauma to the next generations and its continued repercussions. These psychoanalysts’ efforts were instrumental for the recognition of post-traumatic stress disorder and in drawing psychoanalysts’ attention to the importance of the Holocaust experience for their patients. As Gomolin elucidates, their motivations and goals were multiply determined. Their efforts were also harmful, however, because they concluded that the survivors’ experiences and memories of the Holocaust were generic and a screen for the survivor syndrome, which was inevitably transmitted to their children as a survivor complex. This reduced the myriad and complex experiences of individual survivors and their children to the contents of a psychoanalytic theory. We highlight that qualities of attachments and relationships and the sturdiness of values differed before the War in the individuals who survived. They survived with varying levels of self-cohesion and abilities to improvise in life-threatening situations. The traumas of the Holocaust were unequal and who survived was most often decided by random luck. We discuss the importance for survival of relationships before and during the Holocaust. In addition, disavowal and omnipotent fantasies could make the difference between life and death. Recovery depended on delaying mourning, on new relationships, and becoming parents. The transmission of Holocaust experiences was mediated by parental empathy and eventually by finding memorial spaces to mourn.
This review summarizes studies on the intergenerational influence of the Palestinian disaster in 1948 (i.e., NAKBA). For the purposes of this review, it was investigated whether second-generation individuals were affected by war-related trauma to which first-generation individuals were exposed. In this study we examined the intra-family trauma communication style (i.e., disclosure/silencing) as a mediator variable. A path model was constructed to demonstrate how the influence of traumatic experiences was transmitted to the second generation. Finally we investigated the factors that might affect the willingness of Palestinians to reconcile with Jews and the state of Israel. This thesis includes a review and three articles, which consider the topic from different perspectives. In the first chapter, a literature review of the existing publications on the topic of the transgenerational impact of trauma and displacement is presented and the outstanding research questions are discussed. The subsequent three chapters refer to the results of the current study and finally a chapter summarizes the results in German.
Even today, there is inadequate awareness and recognition of Child Survivors whose psychic development was most seriously and lastingly marked and impaired by Nazi persecution. Based on their research the authors describe the delayed psychosocial consequences of the persecution of Child Survivors and postulate a fourth sequence of the traumatic process in old age. The authors discuss their involvement in the Child Survivors Conferences held in Berlin in 2014, and they describe micro-processes in the “scenic memory of the Shoah” related both to trauma transmission itself and to central conflicts in German-Jewish relations in post-Nazi Germany. Case vignettes illustrate the Child Survivors’ scenic memory of the Shoah.
Dass die Folgen des Holocaust für Angehörige der jüdischen Kultur und Religion sich bis weit in die Nachkommen fortgesetzt haben, wird nicht bezweifelt. In dem Artikel wird der Begriff der Generationenfolgen jedoch auch für die Angehörigen der deutschen und österreichischen Mehrheitsgesellschaft verwandt. Eine Gleichsetzung zwischen Opfer- und TäterInnenseite ist damit jedoch in keiner Weise impliziert, vielmehr geht es um eine offene Spurensuche. Unter Einbezug eines umfassenden Forschungsprojekts und einer langjährigen Recherche zu Nachkommen nach dem Holocaust und Nationalsozialismus ist der Artikel dem Anliegen gewidmet, ein besseres Verständnis für Spätfolgen und transgenerationale Phänomene traumatischer Belastungen zu ermöglichen und psychotherapeutisch vermitteln zu können.
Full textFull text is available as a scanned copy of the original print version. Get a printable copy (PDF file) of the complete article (292K), or click on a page image below to browse page by page. Links to PubMed are also available for Selected References.
1472
Selected References
These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.
Lără E, Day NE, Hakama M. Trends in mortality from cervical cancer in the Nordic countries: association with organised screening programmes. Lancet. 1987 May 30;1(8544):1247–1249. [PubMed]
Full textFull text is available as a scanned copy of the original print version. Get a printable copy (PDF file) of the complete article (292K), or click on a page image below to browse page by page.
1472
Large numbers of young people have joined jihadists groups in the Syrian/Iraqi conflict. Why would these young people decide to become jihadist fighters? What are the representations of the West they hold and how do these representations shape their decision? Drawing on the psychotherapeutic work with Syrian and Iraqi asylum seekers, this paper seeks to explain the most intimate reasons of young Muslim would-be fighters to join the Islamic State militias.
Nowadays it is generally acknowledged that the Nazi persecution, as well as other extreme experiences during World War II, left deep mental scars. There is also a growing realization that children of traumatized parents can struggle with more or less severe psychological problems. Albeit initially piecemeal, around the end of the 1960s, (auto)biographical and scientific publications about the “second generation” began to appear. The majority of the publications relates to survivors of Nazi concentration camps, in particular to Jewish survivors (Chapters 1–3). The literature is considerably less voluminous about the offspring of war sailors and former civilian Resistance fighters. Nevertheless, physicians, psychologists, psychiatrists, and social workers come in contact with these now adult children regularly. Their general impression is that the problems and complaints of these “children” are closely associated with the experiences of their parents during World War II.
Over the past three decades, since the publication of the first article (Rakoff, Sigal, and Epstein, 1966) suggesting the transmission of effects of the Holocaust traumata to the second generation, several hundred articles and dozens of doctoral dissertations have been written on this topic. Clinical reports suggest special characteristics of children of survivors, and particular problems in the relationships between children and parents in survivor families, supporting the hypothesis of intergenerational transmission of Holocaust trauma. Empirical studies, on the other hand, have rendered a much less consistent view. Many of the early empirical works have been criticized (Solkoff, 1981) for biased samples, lack of control groups, reliance upon anecdotal data, and presumption of psychopathology. Studies conducted during the past 15 years have remedied many of these methodological flaws. Most importantly, the number of controlled studies significantly increased after the 1970s, and the focus shifted onto nonclinical samples drawn from the generational population.
Die psychologische Literatur über die Nachkommen der Holocaust-Überlebenden umfaßt viele Aufsätze und Bücher, und auch jetzt, 45 Jahre nach Kriegsende erscheinen neue Arbeiten über das Thema. Erstaunlicherweise wurde diese Literatur weder systematisch überprüft, noch wurde eine umfassende Literaturübersicht über dieses Thema veröffentlicht. Die vorliegende Arbeit wurde unternommen, um dieser Notwendigkeit Rechnung zu tragen.
Der als Holocaust-Syndrom nach (1961) besser bekannte traumatische Prozess, welcher nun generell als durch NS-Verfolgung provoziertes komplexes PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder) (APA, 1994) nach (1992) bezeichnet und im ICD-10 als F 62.0: Andauernde Persönlichkeitsänderung nicht in Folge einer Schädigung oder Krankheit des Gehirns (WHO, 1992) diagnostiziert wird, ist kollektiv und eben dauerhaft. Wie die Shoah selbst jedoch sind ihre posttraumatischen Folgeerscheinungen in ihren zerstörerischen Auswirkungen für die betroffenen Menschen unvergleichbar, im therapeutischen Sinne ein Kapitel für sich. Die Ursache ist die industrielle und planmäßige, als unumgänglich festgelegte Vernichtung durch Massenermordung, legitimiert durch von der Staatsmacht und der Gesellschaft festgelegten pseudowissenschaftlichen Grundsätze.
The belief that the actions or experiences of one family member are transmitted intergenerationally predates written history and is multicultural. It has been handed down for many centuries among Japanese cultures (Motoyama, 1992) as well as specific Native American tribes (Nahwegahbow, 1995). It can be found in both Eastern and Western religious traditions. For example, the pre-Vedic verbal tradition in India describes the transmission of positive effects (Ledgerwood, 1979). The writings, dated 15th century b.c., sacred to both the Jewish and the Christian traditions (The Holy Bible, Exodus, 34:7, Numbers 14:18) as well as Talmudic writings in the Jewish tradition from the fourth to fifth century c.e. (a.d.) (Talmud, Sota 34a) depict the transmission of negative effects. This belief has found its way into “New Age” psychological and physical healing practices that are often based upon the ancient healing and spiritual traditions of several cultures (see Grisgam, 1988, opening quotation).
As a witness the survivor is both sought and shunned; the desire to hear his truth is countered by the need to ignore him. ... Too close a knowledge of vulnerability, of evil, of human insufficiency, is felt to be ruinous. ... The ostracism of outsiders, or bearers of bad news, as we feel compelled to defend a comforting view of life, we tend to deny the survivor’s voice. We join in a “conspiracy of silence.” (DesPres, 1976, pp. 41–42)
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.