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The determinants of goal acceptance and commitment
... On the other hand, dispersed debts can lead to experiential choices. This should occur because consumers experience a lower level of commitment with debt payment and allow themselves to indulge in licensing effect of task accomplishment (LOCKE et al., 1988). ...
... They also found that dispersed accounts instead could influence the consumer to be less attempt to amount the debt, being more demotivated to repay their debts. Also, even the goal pursuit states that small tasks lead a more achievement (LOCKE et al., 1988). ...
... Research shows that consumers assess the distance and difficulty degree of goal, which defines their commitment (LOCKE et al., 1988). The main statement of this study affirms that consumers engagement strongly depends on which stage of the goal it is focused on, the progress, or what they already achievedthis leads to keeping motivation. ...
Pesquisas anteriores sugerem que a concentração da dívida afeta a motivação dos consumidores e leva às melhores decisões financeiras. No entanto, pouco se sabe sobre sua relação com a presença de opções de compra, especificamente, escolhas materiais versus experiências. Para preencher esta lacuna, este estudo propõe investigar como a estratégia de gestão da dívida (concentrada vs. dispersa) influencia as preferências experienciais versus bens materiais. Dois experimentos foram conduzidos no laboratório e Mturk. Os principais achados sugerem evidências de que a concentração de vencimentos influencia os consumidores a pagar mais saldos de cartão de crédito. No entanto, esse efeito de concentração é atenuado pela distância temporal. Além disso, contas dispersas levam os consumidores a gastar mais, não com experiências como previa, mas com mercadorias. Os resultados sugerem que a concentração da dívida leva os consumidores a preferir bens materiais em detrimento de experiências. Isso pode ajudar os consumidores a perceber que fatores externos podem influenciar seu processo de compra mais do que as características das compras e pode ser útil para os consumidores adotarem uma estratégia de concentração de datas de vencimento para organizar melhor suas finanças. Os resultados contribuem para o desenvolvimento de teorias sobre como a gestão da dívida influencia o comportamento subsequente. Além disso, foi demonstrado como um novo antecedente para as preferências de compra de material (vs. experiência).
... The goal commitment model advanced by Locke et al. (1988) argued that "authority" and social influence do have an effect on goal commitment. Furthermore, the findings of Klein and Kim (1998) support the premise that supervisor support does influence employees' goal commitment and performance. ...
... While people might behave in certain ways to achieve higher-level goals sometime in the future, one can argue that in a mandated adoption environment, such as the one this research attempts to study, social influence is expected to play an influential role (Kinory & Canada, 2020). The goal commitment model advanced by Locke et al. (1988) argues that "authority" and social influence do have an effect on goal commitment. Furthermore, the findings of Klein and Kim (1998) support the premise that supervisor support does influence employees' goal commitment and performance. ...
A knowledge worker's goal commitment is critical to the success of system implementation in the organization. This paper investigates an individual's information formality motivation and social influence as important determinants in developing goal commitment in the system implementation based on the social psychology and information management literature. An empirical test of the proposed model was conducted in the field test (n = 148). PLS was used to analyze the model and supported the validity of the results. Social influence and information formality influence knowledge worker's goal commitment (R2 = 0.36) as expected. Social influence has a higher effect on goal commitment than information formality motivation. The results of this study will help us understand the antecedents of goal commitment in the system implementation based on the social influence theory and personal information management model. The paper includes implications for the designers and information system (IS) managers to effectively understand knowledge worker's goal commitment in the organization.
... Other approaches have looked outside the individual to general contextual factors that influence performance, such as the availability of temptations in one's environment (Milyavskaya and Inzlicht, 2017) or social contexts that provide goal support (Briskin et al., 2019). Yet other approaches have focused on goal-related factors that improve performance, such as higher goal commitment (Locke et al., 1988), goal specificity (Locke and Latham, 1990), or the extent to which goals align with an individual's interests and values (Sheldon and Elliot, 1999). ...
Self-regulation research highlights the performance trade-offs of different motivational states. For instance, within the context of regulatory focus theory, promotion motivation enhances performance on eager tasks and prevention motivation enhances performance on vigilant tasks (i.e., regulatory focus task-motivation fit). Work on metamotivation-people's understanding and regulation of their motivational states-reveals that, on average, people demonstrate knowledge of how to create such task-motivation fit; at the same time, there is substantial variability in this normative accuracy. The present research examines whether having accurate normative metamotivational knowledge predicts performance. Results revealed that more accurate metamotivational knowledge predicts better performance on brief, single-shot tasks (Study 1) and in a consequential setting (course grades; Study 2). The effect was more robust in Study 2; potential implications of this variability are discussed for understanding when and why knowledge may be associated with performance.
... Opportunity costs occur when a decision has been made in favor of a certain action. Alternative courses of action are ruled out as soon as a person is committed to a goal (Locke et al., 1988). Opportunity costs are consequently linked to the goal of the action. ...
Several major theories have been established in research on motivation in education to describe, explain, and predict the direction, initiation, intensity, and persistence of learning behaviors. The most commonly cited theories of academic motivation include expectancy-value theory, social cognitive theory, self-determination theory, interest theory, achievement goal theory, and attribution theory. To gain a deeper understanding of the similarities and differences among these prominent theories, we present an integrative framework based on an action model (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018). The basic model is deliberately parsimonious, consisting of six stages of action: the situation, the self, the goal, the action, the outcome, and the consequences. Motivational constructs from each major theory are related to these determinants in the course of action, mainly revealing differences and to a lesser extent commonalities. In the integrative model, learning outcomes represent a typical indicator of goal-directed behavior. Associated recent meta-analyses demonstrate the empirical relationship between the motivational constructs of the six central theories and academic achievement. They provide evidence for the explanatory value of each theory for students’ learning.
... An aspiration level for each numerical goal variable is held by the individual, and is updated through comparison with past performance outcomes and peer performance outcomes (Cyert and March, 1963;Lant, 1992;Blettner et al., 2015). Aspiration levels may also be explicitly specified by the organization, but as goal commitment research shows, ultimately the individual's commitment determines the actual aspiration level (Locke et al., 1988). The satisficing heuristic means that performance above the aspiration level is "good enough" and thus seen as insufficient reason to search for improvements in organizational behavior (Cyert and March, 1963;Levinthal and March, 1993). ...
Organizational goals are assigned to individuals, and thus differ from goals that individuals voluntarily adopt. The Carnegie School has a significant research stream on how organizations are affected by goals, with a focus on how disappointing performance disrupts regular organizational behavior and triggers a search for alternative actions. We have a good understanding of the organization-level process of setting aspiration levels, triggering search for alternatives, and making decisions, but the individual-level mechanisms contributing to it are less well known. An assessment of the progress of Carnegie School research so far reveals a list of research questions that should be resolved in order to understand how individual updating of aspiration levels, triggering of search, directing of search, and decision-making help explain organizational responses to goals. The role of construal, or interpretation, in guiding these processes is a central theoretical mechanism that needs further investigation.
... As problem redefinition involves a reconsideration of goal states, literature on multiple goal pursuit and goal adaptation may help explain why individuals decide to return to their original problem definition. Theories of motivation (e.g., expectancy-valence theory, goal-setting theory, and control theory) suggest that the instigator of goal change is perceived discrepancy between what is expected and what actually occurs (Campion and Lord 1982;Hollenbeck and Klein 1987;Locke et al. 1988;Lord and Hanges 1987;Wanous et al. 1983). A model of goal adaptation by Swait et al. (2018) proposes that adapting the weight one places on prior goals depends on the goal's attainability. ...
This entry examines the process of problem redefinition. Problem definition is discussed as it fits into the larger creative problem-solving process. Specifically, the distinctions between problem redefinition and problem definition are detailed. A formal definition of the problem redefinition process is formed from these qualifications. Theoretical and empirical works on redefining problems to produce creative solutions are examined to better understand the utility of the redefinition process. Literature from organizational science, social and cognitive psychology, and design thinking is reviewed to elucidatethe problem redefinition process. Both individual-level and group-level problem redefinition processes are considered. A brief discussion of research on goal change is provided to further describe how and why problem redefinition occurs. Finally, the role of the possible is discussed to capture the essence of problem redefinition.
... It is important for leaders to equip employees with the necessary tools and skills to be able to take on new roles and requirements, and to explain the reasons behind the change and focus on these and their (sub)goals and how to achieve these goals. Goal-setting theory proposes that clear goals are pivotal for higher organizational performance because they guide employees' attention to organizational goals, motivating employees to be committed to these goals (Locke & Latham, 1990;Locke et al., 1988), and to stay committed to the change within the organization. Whether employees have a clear understanding of their responsibilities in achieving organizational goals in the workplace strongly affects organizational efficiency as employees' responsibilities are integrated into the organizational framework. ...
Organizations operate in dynamic environments, which not only requires organizations to adjust, but also for employees to adapt quickly to align with new or adjusted organizational goals. Servant leadership has been shown to help employees develop and grow and behave in a moral and fair manner which are important elements for successful change. We aim to provide a further understanding of the associations between servant leadership and organizational outcomes during changing times. Drawing on the theories of social exchange and goal-setting, and the norm of reciprocity, we propose the mediating role of organizational goal clarity in the associations between servant leadership and five organizational outcomes. The hypotheses are tested in four studies: a two-wave time-lagged survey study conducted in a service company going through a merger, and three experimental studies. The results show that servant leadership relates positively to goal clarity and negatively to uncertainty of employees during organizational change. Furthermore, organizational goal clarity positively mediates the associations between servant leadership and employees’ organizational change commitment and service performance (e.g., organizational citizenship behavior, customer service and customer orientation). This investigation provides a theoretical and empirical validation of a mechanism through which servant leaders enhance organizational performance during changing times.
... Goal commitment is defined as an attachment and determination to reach a goal (Locke et al., 1988) which is crucial in transforming desire into behavior (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018), promoting a sense of self-control (Baumeister et al., 2007), and initiating implemental processes (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018). More feasible and more subjectively important goals have been found to yield higher levels of goal commitment (Atkinson, 1957;Gollwitzer, 1990;Locke & Latham, 1990) and goal commitment in population samples can be predicted by goal expectancy and goal importance levels (Oettingen et al., 2001). ...
Background and objectives
Engaging in goal-directed activities is a core difficulty of people with negative symptoms in schizophrenia. A previously developed goal pursuit model of negative symptoms (Schlier et al. 2017) postulates that negative symptom severity correlates with a tendency to set more avoidance- than approach-oriented goals. This shift in goal orientation correlates with low levels of goal expectancy, goal importance, and goal commitment. We explored whether these alterations translate into reduced goal-directed behavior (i.e., reduced goal striving and goal attainment).
Methods
We conducted a one-week diary-study in a population sample (N=91). Participants were assessed for subclinical negative symptoms at baseline. Next, they set a daily goal and completed an online survey measuring goal orientation, goal characteristics, goal pursuit, and goal attainment once per day for one week.
Results
Multilevel regression analyses and structural equation models showed that negative symptoms correlated with a tendency to set less approach-oriented goals with reduced goal expectancy and goal commitment. Goal orientation, expectancy, and commitment mediated the association between negative symptoms and reduced goal pursuit and attainment.
Limitations
We used a community sample, thus our results need to be replicated in a clinical sample of people with motivational negative symptoms.
Conclusions
Our results support the hypothesis that dysfunctional goal pursuit processes explain why negative symptoms lead to reduced goal-directed behavior. Interventions focusing on goal setting and goal expectations could be promising in improving goal-directed behavior in people with negative symptoms.
... Not all scholars view motivation as the process of ever actualizing needs which the individual need to fulfil to get satisfaction. Some such as Lawler and Porter (1967); Locke, Latham and Erez (1988); Latham and Pinder (2005); Oldham and Hackman (1981); etc. Describe motivation as a constant interaction between the individual and the environment. Nonetheless, further investigation in all theories is not necessary for the current study. ...
The current paper is aimed at investigating and proving the link between motivation and various outcomes such as – a propensity for staying in the company; psychological tension among employees; pride of working in the current company; engagement; work satisfaction; initiative in work. Our main goal is to prove the direct link between, the so-called “match factor” and the work outcomes. The study was held in the form of a survey among two groups, totalling 596 respondents in various sectors of the economy. And the results were tested with regression analysis for proving a significant influence of the match factor. Based on the result testing, we concluded that there is a direct link between motivation and work outcomes.
... (Okumbe, 1999); accordingly, employees are committed work so as to realize objectives. The theory suggests that employees should first set goals, then responds and performs towards the achievement of the goal (Locke et al., 1988). Therefore, the Goal Setting Theory starts at value, and value judgments which build emotions to achieve goals set. ...
The study sought to assess the influence of teacher performance appraisal and development implementation on the Secondary Students’ Examination Scores in Public Schools in Kenya. The study specifically sought to determine the extent to which the appraisal of Teacher knowledge and application, appraisal on professional development of teachers and the appraisal of teachers' time management on Secondary Students’ Examination Scores among public schools in Kenya. Optimizing descriptive cross-sectional survey research design, the study targeted all secondary school teachers in Kenya. The study adopted a simple random sampling technique using a ratio of 3:1 to ensure all the 200 schools were given a fair chance to participate in the study; further, a purposive sampling technique was also used to identify key informants. Primary data was collected through an online structured questionnaire. Qualitative and quantitative analysis was done by use of descriptive and inferential statistics respectively. The study concluded that appraisal of teachers' continuous professional development, appraisal of teachers' knowledge and application and the appraisal of teachers' continuous time management greatly influences their performance hence improving students' academic performance. The study recommends the enhancement of TPAD during the next review phase to embrace and connect parameters in the appraisal tool and students’ examination scores. Further, TSC in liaison with the ministry of education and the respective school principals should take deliberate effort to plan and set aside funds to enhance professional training, workshops, seminars, and conferences through which the teachers will be enlightened on how to enhance their professional knowledge and application while considering independent evaluators to enhance credibility, validity and reliability of teacher rating.
... Also, self-determination theory implicitly acknowledges meaningfulness (Deci et al., 1994;Gagné & Deci, 2005). It argues that intrinsically motivated individuals are more likely to internalize external regulation for those activities that they presume as personally meaningful (Gagné & Deci, 2005) and draws parallels to the goal-setting theory that posits that meaningfulness at work supports the acceptance of imposed goals (Locke et al., 1988). Table 3 summarizes the asf for impact as the second outcome factor (consistency threshold = 0.8, coverage threshold = 0.85). ...
This research seeks to improve our understanding of how intrinsic motivation is instantiated. Three motivation theories, flow theory, self-determination theory, and empowerment theory, have informed our understanding of the foundations of intrinsic motivation at work. Taken jointly, they suggest six causal factors for intrinsic motivation: (1) perceived competence, (2) perceived challenge, (3) perceived autonomy, (4) perceived impact, (5) perceived social relatedness, and (6) perceived meaningfulness. Integrating different theoretical perspectives, I employ a case-based configurational approach and conduct coincidence analyses on survey data from a German public utility to analyse the nuanced interplay of these six causal factors for intrinsic motivation. My data show that high perceived meaningfulness or high perceived autonomy is sufficient for high perceived intrinsic motivation and at least one of the two conditions must be present. Further, my findings reveal a common cause structure in which perceived impact is not a causal factor for intrinsic motivation but an additional outcome factor. Subsequent analyses shed light on possible roles of the remaining proposed causal factors by drawing a tentative causal chain structure. The results of this study enhance our understanding of the causal complexity underlying the formation of intrinsic motivation.
... Because pulling hard is worthless if you are not pulling in the same direction. At last, team members will form a team aligned with the organization's goals [78]. Assuming, of course, that those goals are well defined otherwise the whole venture will go astray [79]. ...
In most companies and organizations, performance is related to talent management and skills to analyze what and why people are working on. However, many companies do fail to implement a long-term strategy for the performance enhancement activities, considering the talents they have recruited. In this article, we propose a tool for HR work, in context of talent management and how to utilize people skills and productivity analytics to improve team performance and related KPIs. A project data-based case study is illustrated, in which a set of developer and content marketers were analyzed as core team members. In practice, the presented framework makes an important contribution to decision-making activities, where people analytics and proper software tools are used to build new novel knowledge into talent pool of the team. With the framework-based analysis, it is possible to analytically compare team members’ performance and enhance the team’s skill and structural development which means that we can employ analytics to find best performers and set their roles for more optimally working teams. Our research supports the concept of using the right framework can make a big positive difference in team analytics.
... As such, they may be useful for self-monitoring of team members' behaviors towards achieving team goals. When members are involved in setting team goals, they will adhere to those goals more closely and internalize them (Klein, Wesson, Hollenbeck, & Alge 1999;Locke & Latham, 2013;Locke, Latham & Erez, 1988;Tubbs, 1986). Indeed, goal effects are enhanced by having people write at length about them (Locke & Latham, 2019). ...
... As such, they may be useful for self-monitoring of team members' behaviors toward achieving team goals. When members are involved in setting team goals, they will adhere to those goals more closely and internalize them (Klein, Wesson, Hollenbeck, & Alge, 1999;Locke & Latham, 2013;Locke, Latham, & Erez, 1988;Tubbs, 1986). Indeed, goal effects are enhanced by having people write at length about them (Locke & Latham, 2019). ...
... In the meta-analysis, grade goal is the self-assigned goal standard (Richardson et al., 2012). As such it is similar to the construct of goal commitment (Locke, Latham, & Erez, 1988), i.e., the intensity to which students feel committed to finish their studies. In current literature reviews, commitment to meaningful personal goals is also extracted as an important factor for study success (Gonida & Peixoto, 2019). ...
In the light of growing university entry rates, higher education institutions not only serve larger numbers of students, but also seek to meet first-year students' ever more diverse needs. Yet to inform universities how to support the transition to higher education, research only offers limited insights. Current studies tend to either focus on the individual factors that affect student success or they highlight students' social background and their educational biography in order to examine the achievement of selected, non-traditional groups of students. Both lines of research appear to lack integration and often fail to take organisational diversity into account, such as different types of higher education institutions or degree programmes. For a more comprehensive understanding of student diversity, the present study includes individual, social and organisational factors. To gain insights into their role for the transition to higher education, we examine how the different factors affect the students' perception of the formal and informal requirements of the first year as more or less difficult to cope with. As the perceived requirements result from both the characteristics of the students and the institutional context, they allow to investigate transition at the interface of the micro and the meso level of higher education. Latent profile analyses revealed that there are no profiles with complex patterns of perception of the first-year requirements, but the identified groups rather differ in the overall level of perceived challenges. Moreover, SEM indicates that the differences in the perception largely depend on the individual factors self-efficacy and volition.
... As most valuable for workplace motivation should be considered -Expectancy theory [24 ]; Lower and Porter's model [14]; Equity theory [21,1]; Goal setting theory [12][13]; Job characteristic model; [19]. ...
Research background: Numbery of researches of the world markets, directed the attention to the link between the low labor productivity and the competitiveness of the enterprise. Consequently, low competitiveness on microlevel, leads to similar levels of competitiveness on macrolevel. In particular labor is the main source for added value in different industries. Therefore, everything linked to the effectiveness of the labor is crucial. Workplace motivation is one of the most important aspects of the economic system of enterprises in the global economy. The motivators used on the workplace, could be, and often are, very important in the aspect of effectiveness of the labor. Therefore, examining the mostly used motivators on a workplace, could give very valuable information to theorist and practitioners. Purpose of the study: Showing the ever-worsening problem of, and finding the causes of the low labor productivity in Bulgaria, as a main cause for the low competitiveness on the global markets. Finding the most important motivators according to workers in governmentally owned enterprise.
Methods: The methods used in the current research are metanalytical for attestation the labor productivity on national level. Survey among workers, using 5-point Likert scale.
Findings & Value added: We describe the most important motivators in a Bulgarian governmentally owned enterprise. Our main finding is related to the link between human motivation and the productivity of the labor.
... Goal commitment reflects one's determination to reach a goal, even in the face of obstacles (Locke et al., 1988). Goal commitment can promote goal inhibition, which refers to the de-activation or suppression of alternative goals . ...
A longstanding tradition in communication research is that people have goals for communicative encounters. Communication research has evolved to better acknowledge that goals are malleable and can change during interactions. Drawing upon the history of communication goals theorizing and research, we elaborate three properties emerging from the juxtaposition of goals and time. We then explore theoretical accounts of goal change and options for data acquisition. We end with speculation on how goal dynamics might stimulate new questions about interpersonal communication and, perhaps, move the field into a new phase of inquiry.
... First, PGA is one of the main determinants of goal commitment (Klein et al. 2013). Several studies indicate that commitment to a goal declines as that goal becomes subjectively more difficult to attain (see Locke et al. 1988). Conversely, higher levels of PGA are associated with enhanced commitment, particularly in the early stages of goal pursuit (Huang et al. 2017). ...
Previous research suggests that solution-focused (SF) questions may be superior to problem-focused (PF) alternatives for a range of practical and psychological outcomes. However, a great deal remains unknown regarding the effects of specific SF (or PF) approaches and the mechanisms through which they occur. The aim of this pre-registered study was to investigate the extent to which SF questions targeting resources have a more positive effect on perceived goal attainability (PGA) and goal commitment than PF questions targeting obstacles or a combination of PF & SF questions targeting both resources and obstacles. 115 students aged 15–16 were randomly assigned to either (i) a SF condition targeting resources, (ii) a PF condition targeting obstacles or (iii) a combined-approach condition targeting both. All participants were asked to identify a challenging area of study before answering condition-specific questions. Although not all statistically significant, results indicated that the SF group had higher mean PGA and goal commitment than both the PF and combined PF & SF group. Effect size estimates were small-to-medium for PGA and small for goal commitment. Results of a mediation analysis suggested that condition had an indirect effect on goal commitment through enhanced PGA. Qualitative data analysis suggested that the PF question was more likely than the SF question to elicit thoughts of self-regulation, whereas the SF question was more likely to elicit thoughts of tools and resources. These findings are consistent with those from previous research and broaden our understanding of SF (vs PF) questions.
... Participative goal setting [67]. ...
Background
Older people are more likely to be living with cancer and multiple long-term conditions, but their needs, preferences for treatments, health priorities and lifestyle are often not identified or well-understood. There is a need to move towards a more comprehensive person-centred approach to care that focuses on the cumulative impact of a number of conditions on daily activities and quality of life. This paper describes the intervention planning process for CHAT& PLANTM, a structured conversation intervention to promote personalised care and support self-management in older adults with complex conditions.
Methods
A theory-, evidence- and person-based approach to intervention development was undertaken. The intervention planning and development process included reviewing relevant literature and existing guidelines, developing guiding principles, conducting a behavioural analysis and constructing a logic model. Optimisation of the intervention and its implementation involved qualitative interviews with older adults with multimorbidity (n = 8), family caregivers (n = 2) and healthcare professionals (HCPs) (n = 20). Data were analysed thematically and informed changes to the intervention prototype.
Results
Review findings reflected the importance of HCPs taking a person-centred (rather than disease-centred) approach to their work with older people living with multimorbidity. This approach involves HCPs giving health service users the opportunity to voice their priorities, then using these to underpin the treatment and care plan that follow. Findings from the planning stage indicated that taking a structured approach to interactions between HCPs and health service users would enable elicitation of individual concerns, development of a plan tailored to that individual, negotiation of roles and review of goals as individual priorities change. In the optimisation stage, older adults and HCPs commented on the idea of a structured conversation to promote person-centred care and on its feasibility in practice. The idea of a shared, person-centred approach to care was viewed positively. Concerns were raised about possible extra work for those receiving or delivering care, time and staffing, and risk of creating another “tick-box” exercise for staff. Participants concluded that anyone with the appropriate skills could potentially deliver the intervention, but training was likely to be required to ensure correct utilisation and self-efficacy to deliver to the intervention.
Conclusions
CHAT&PLAN, a structured person-centred conversation guide appears acceptable and appealing to HCPs and older adults with multimorbidity. Further development of the CHAT&PLAN intervention should focus on ensuring that staff are adequately trained and supported to implement the intervention.
... Measures of goal setting typically assess the strength and direction of a person's motivation (Ajzen, 1991). Thus, measures of goal setting include measures of intentions (e.g., "I intend to achieve X"; Triandis, 1980), commitment or motivation (e.g., "I am strongly committed to achieving X"; Locke, Latham, & Erez, 1988), or readiness to change (e.g., precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance; Prochaska & DiClemente, 1984). Measures of goal setting also include the level of concern or the level of importance that people associated with different outcomes (e.g., "How important is it to you to achieve a healthier weight", Vinkers, Adriaanse, Kroese, & de Ridder, 2014; "In order to protect the environment, we should all be willing to reduce our current standard of living", Bruderer Enzler, Diekmann, & Liebe, 2019). ...
Despite extensive evidence that time perspective is associated with a range of important outcomes across a variety of life domains (e.g., health, education, wealth), the question of why time perspective has such wide-reaching effects remains unknown. The present review proposes that self-regulatory processes can offer insight into why time perspective is linked to outcomes. To test this idea we classified measures of time perspective according to the dimension of time perspective that they reflected (e.g., past, present-hedonistic, future) and measures of self-regulation according to the self-regulatory process (i.e., goal setting, goal monitoring, and goal operating), ability, or outcome that they reflected. A systematic search identified 378 studies, reporting 2,000 independent tests of the associations between measures of time perspective and self-regulation. Random-effects meta-analyses with robust variance estimation found that a future time perspective had small-to-medium-sized positive associations with goal setting (r+ = 0.25), goal monitoring (r+ = 0.19), goal operating (r+ = 0.32), self-regulatory ability (r+ = 0.35), and outcomes (r+ = 0.16). Present time perspective, including being present-hedonistic and present-fatalistic, was negatively associated with self-regulatory processes, ability, and outcomes (r+ ranged from -0.00 to -0.27). Meta-analytic structural equation models found that the relationship between future time perspective and outcomes was mediated by goal monitoring, goal operating, and self-regulatory ability, but not goal setting. As the first test of why time perspective is associated with key outcomes, the findings highlight the central role of self-regulation processes and abilities for understanding why people with certain time perspectives experience better outcomes.
... Two key actions for arousing strong commitment are making the attainment and the rewards of the goal important, and facilitating a belief the goal can be reached (Locke & Latham, 2002). In general, harder goals produce better performance (Latham & Locke, 1979;Locke, 1968;Locke & Latham, 2002;Locke, Latham, & Erez, 1988), but the potential drawback is that the overuse of high or hard goals over time may lead to weakened self-regulatory capacity and unethical behavior (Welsh & Ordóñez, 2014). When a supervisor takes the time to collaborate with, and understand a team member's own values and goals, it is another way to promote engagement (Miller & Rollnick, 2013;Stewart, 2012). ...
The purpose of this exploratory, quantitative study was to determine the extent and importance of the presence of the spirit of motivational interviewing (SMI) in Utah Business Magazine’s, “Best Businesses to Work for in Utah”, and if present, determine the possible relationship between the components of SMI, partnership (P), acceptance (A), compassion (C), and evocation (E) (PACE) with Herzberg’s (1987) job satisfaction factors achievement (AMI) and recognition (RMI). A custom designed survey instrument was used to survey six “Best Businesses to Work for in Utah”. Descriptive statistics were used to determine the extent and importance, and multivariate linear regression analyses determined if the four components predicted achievement and recognition. The SMI was extensively present and very important. Both achievement and recognition were statistically related to SMI and its four elements, PACE. When both achievement and recognition variables were combined to form a new variable, achievement and recognition framed by motivational interviewing (ARMI), SMI accounted for 62.2% of the variance. When leaders applied SMI, team members felt a sense of partnership, felt accepted, knew the team leader was an advocate for them, and was respectful and appreciative of their talents and experience. They also had a sense of achievement and recognition. Further research recommendations included a study of the relationship between SMI and engagement, a similar study to this one, but with a more diverse population, a more thorough study of each of the principles and components of motivational interviewing (MI), and the development of a business oriented, Motivational Interviewing Assessment: Supervisory Tools for Enhancing Proficiency (MIA:STEP) inspired training manual for business applications.
... Concurrent validity with Goal Commitment. Peer influence has also been connected to one's determination to reach a goal, known as goal commitment (Locke, Latham, & Erez, 1988). One example is through modeling-individuals exposed to high-performing role models perform better than those with low-performing models (Earley & Kanfer, 1985). ...
Despite its negative reputation, peer pressure might not always be adverse. Recent research has explored the potential for positive peer influence, in which adolescents encourage and support one another toward positive outcomes. To further investigate this possibility, measurement tools are needed. To that end, the researchers conducted three studies to create and validate a scale that measures adolescents’ perception of the positive peer influence they experience. The scale was created using deductive scale development and exploratory factor analysis to create items and determine the factor structure. It showed good model fit, and convergent, discriminant, incremental, and concurrent criterion validity were supported. The scale was then validated using an adolescent sample. This measure can serve as a tool for researchers and practitioners to determine what other positive outcomes can be linked to positive peer influence and how it can contribute to a flourishing life.
There is plenty of evidence on a positive influence of social relationships on work-related attitudes and behaviors. Besides, online social networks (OSNs), made possible by Web 2.0, have become a global phenomenon and have a considerable impact on the way people communicate and interact with each other. Our purpose is to evaluate the effect of using OSNs on the worker's attitudes and behaviors, particularly in the context of Higher Education. In this sense, we used a questionnaire, to evaluate the attitudes of 157 faculty members. To assess the use of OSNs, we resorted to a dichotomous variable. After analyzing and discussing the results we conclude that the use of OSNs influences the worker's performance, but not Job satisfaction, Organizational commitment or extra-role performance. The relationships we propose in what concerns the worker's attitudes are all empirically proved. Lastly, we describe the study limitations and we suggest some perspectives for future research.
Although negative feedback is a dynamic phenomenon that changes over time, most research has taken a static approach to its analysis. In this study, we address this gap by applying goal-setting theory and taking a dynamic approach to negative feedback. Using a three-wave survey design, we examined whether, why, and when negative feedback change influences employees’ task performance. Our analysis of multi-source and multi-wave data (n = 127) shows that increase of negative feedback over time negatively influences employees’ task performance by reducing their goal commitment. We also find that the indirect negative effect is weakened when employees have a high growth mindset. These findings highlight the dynamic nature of negative feedback and thus open up a new and promising research direction.
The purpose of this research was to investigate the effectiveness of a probabilistic reward scheme to motivate workers and increase their performance. Across seven experiments (three of which are in the online appendices) testing three different real effort tasks, we compared two novel probabilistic reward schemes with two traditional non-probabilistic reward schemes. In our flagship “single lottery” probabilistic scheme, worker performance was associated with the accumulation of lottery tickets in the worker’s own personal lottery with a moderate jackpot on offer. It was possible for the worker to accumulate all tickets and thus guarantee the jackpot. We found that the single lottery scheme increased motivation and performance relative to other probabilistic and non-probabilistic schemes with the same expected values. There was also evidence that the single lottery scheme was particularly effective for lower-ability workers relative to the non-probabilistic schemes. We argue that the single lottery scheme uniquely benefited from optimism bias and the goal gradient effect. Considering perceptions of (un)fairness associated with probabilistic reward schemes – at least at first – we discuss what labor contexts are appropriate for the introduction of a probabilistic reward scheme.
Sales compensation plans affect salespeople's prospecting activity and sales opportunity coverage because they shape behavior in terms of how reps manage their territory and broader portfolio of customers. Drawing on goal-setting theory, the authors propose and test a theoretical framework which unearths a "double-edged" sword moderating effect whereby the number of pursued sales opportunities impacts the main effect of sales compensation plan type on resultant sales (performance). The reported empirical study examines salesperson data prior to and after the implementation of a new compensation plan. We then utilize the metaphor of the "double-edged" sword to further explicate the findings, whereby the volume of sales opportunities is found to moderate sales goal and quota achievement (i.e., amplifying the main effect). The research also finds that pursuit of too many sales opportunities can become overly burdensome, thereby overloading salespeople and reducing goal commitment and performance. Implications for both research and practice are discussed.
The COVID-19 global pandemic will likely change how organizations conduct business. For example, a white paper from McKinsey claims that flexible and remote work arrangements (e.g., “working-from-home”) will become increasingly frequent in the “new normal” that will follow the COVID-19 pandemic. Our work is motivated by the premise that in a post-pandemic workplace, traditional management practices like unilaterally assigning goals and displaying contingent rewarding behaviors will likely be replaced by positive management practices. In this context, positive management practices include allowing employees to self-set their goals and displaying authentic leadership behaviors while managing them. However, whether these positive management practices are more efficient in sustaining performance is unknown. Our study benchmarked positive management practices against traditional management practices in a remote work environment, using three individual performance metrics: goal attainment, goal commitment, and perceived task efficacy. In a panel laboratory experiment consisting of a baseline measurement and two work sessions, we randomly assigned participants to an authentic vs. transactional leadership condition (amateur actor recording) and one of three possible goal-setting types (assigned, self-set, “do-your-best”). Our results show that participants in the authentic leadership × self-set goals condition outperformed all other experimental conditions. Further, a post hoc analysis revealed a serial mediation effect of (a) goal attainment and (b) goal commitment at time 1 on perceived task efficacy reports at time 2.
Background
Continuing professional development (CPD) for opioid agonist therapy (OAT) has been identified as a key health policy strategy to improve care for people living with opioid use disorder (OUD) and to address rising opioid-related harms. To design and deliver effective CPD programs, there is a need to clarify how they work within complex health system and policy contexts. This review synthesizes the literature on OAT CPD programs and educational theory to clarify which interventions work, for whom, and in what contexts.
Methods
A systematic review and realist synthesis of evaluations of CPD programs focused on OAT was conducted. This included record identification and screening, theory familiarization, data collection, analysis, expert consultation, and iterative context-intervention-mechanism-outcome (CIMO) configuration development.
Results
Twenty-four reports comprising 21 evaluation studies from 5 countries for 3373 providers were reviewed. Through iterative testing of included studies with relevant theory, five CIMO configurations were developed. The programs were categorized by who drove the learning outcomes (i.e., system/policy, instructor, learner) and their spheres of influence (i.e., micro, meso, macro). There was a predominance of instructor-driven programs driving change at the micro level, with few policy-driven macro-influential programs, inconsistent with the promotion of CPD as a clear opioid crisis policy-level intervention.
Conclusion
OAT CPD is challenged by mismatches in program justifications, objectives, activities, and outcomes. Depending on how these program factors interact, OAT CPD can operate as a barrier or facilitator to OUD care. With more deliberate planning and consideration of program theory, programs more directly addressing diverse learner and system needs may be developed and delivered. OAT CPD as drug policy does not operate in isolation; programs may feed into each other and intercalate with other policy initiatives to have micro, meso, and macro impacts on educational and population health outcomes.
This paper studies how the compensation of high‐wage workers is associated with organizational performance. Based on organizational justice arguments, cognitive evaluation theory (CET), and self‐determination theory (SDT), we hypothesize that bonuses contingent on organizational performance tends to negatively impact the positive relationship between base pay and organizational performance. We use data from two distinct industry environments to show that the interaction between base pay and bonus pay is associated with reducing organizational performance for high‐wage workers. More specifically, bonus pay relates to a decrease in the relationship between base pay and organizational performance.
The familiar state of tension associated with an incomplete collection or an unfinished jigsaw puzzle is predicted by Lewin’s (1926; 1935) field theory. This feeling evokes a drive to completion—a phenomenon we label the incompleteness effect —which is useful to marketers endeavoring to cross-sell products and services. In three studies using online product configurators, we find that consumers faced with visual representations of incomplete product category collections, such as an evening drinks menu or a puzzle with its pieces representing services, are significantly more likely to complete the collection or finish the puzzle by cross-purchasing from a greater number of product or service categories as compared to those using a conventional online shopping format. We identify theoretical mechanisms through which the incompleteness effect works and potential moderators for the effect. Findings suggest that managers offering products or services across several categories can increase cross-selling by eliciting people’s drive toward completion.
This study investigates whether venture capitalists (VCs) influence the internationalization of small firms and whether such impact differs between foreign and domestic VCs. Our findings, based on in-depth interviews with top decision-makers from two VCs and four portfolio ventures, indicate contrasts between the perceptions of VCs and portfolio firms, so that the former claim to have a higher impact than what is perceived by the latter. Additionally, our evidence about the differential impacts of foreign versus domestic VCs runs counter to the literature and suggests that the purported stronger impact of foreign VCs may have been over-emphasized in the literature. Two contingencies are revealed that seem to affect the impact of the VC and of its nationality on the internationalization of investee firms: breadth of the industry (global versus local industries) and firm’s vocation (born global firm versus local leader).
Keywords:
venture capital; investment funds; internationalization; small ventures
Performance goals are one of the most prevalent management controls used in practice to address motivational concerns. Goals influence employees’ affective state by enabling them to evaluate their performance against a standard and determine if their performance is satisfactory. The objective of this paper is to understand and extend the current management accounting literature on goals and their effect on employee effort via affect. I address this objective in three ways. First, I conduct a systematic review of the management accounting literature to determine what we know about goals and determine if the literature acknowledges the important effects that goals have on affect. From the literature review, I note the paucity of research that examines the affective consequences of using performance goals. Second, I discuss some of the prominent theories from psychology that explain the relationship between goals and affect and provide suggestions for research questions. Third, I develop an experimental manipulation using online participants to demonstrate that goal attainment and goal failure lead to significant positive and negative affective reactions, respectively. By sharing my research method, I provide a starting point that accounting researchers can employ to examine how affect can influence effort, which has an important causal linkage with performance outcomes.
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Complex service innovations constitute a cornerstone in the strategy of numerous industrial companies. The industrial sales force assumes an important role in the selling of these complex service innovations. For firms a key challenge in this respect resides in ensuring the sales force’s motivation for the selling of such innovations and effectively solving customers’ business problems. Past research frequently discussed monetary sales incentives as an effective tool to reinforce desired employee behaviors, but, to date, the discussion has failed to produce conclusive guidance for practitioners as to whether monetary sales incentives in fact can facilitate selling of complex service innovations. To clarify the effects of monetary sales incentives in this respect, we draw on self‐focus theory to disentangle how complex service innovation selling is shaped by the interplay of salesperson service incentives (i.e., the extent to which variable compensation depends on service turnover) and salesperson share of variable compensation (i.e., the percentage of compensation that depends on performance). To test these interactive effects, we use a multiple‐source data set including 294 salespeople, and matched objective firm data. The results reveal that when service incentives are high, the share of variable compensation exhibits an inverse u‐shaped effect on a salesperson’s problem‐solving behavior, which is an important predictor of innovative service selling success. In addition, the share of variable compensation increases work effort, which in turn drives innovative service selling success. These findings shed light on the intricate “human”, employee‐related side of service innovation management and provide actionable implications for managers how to increase their firms’ innovative service selling success. This article is part of the Special Issue on ˝The Human Side of Innovation Management.ʺ
Seeing oneself as a physically active person is one of the strongest predictors of physical activity behaviour and self-regulatory strategies. Determining whether and how physical activity self-perceptions can be stimulated may help low-active individuals who do not see themselves as a physically active person become more active. Cross-sectional research has tested the Physical Activity Self-Definition (PASD) model among active samples; longitudinal studies among low-active adults have yet to be done. The purpose of this study was to test the predictive power of the PASD model among low-active adults over a 16-week physical activity intervention. Participants completed surveys of validated questionnaires in-person at baseline (pre-intervention) and at 16-weeks (end of intervention) at one of two primary care facilities. The final sample included 119 low-active adults. Partial least squares-structural equation modeling indicated that the original model had small-medium predictive power (Q² = 0.22; SRMR = 0.13 [.05, .07]; RMSE = 1.13; MAE = 0.9; BIC = 1348.40). Two paths were added in the revised model (perceived wanting—PASD; perceived ability—perceived commitment), which explained an additional 4% and 5% of the variance in perceived commitment (R² = 0.62 [.48, .72]) and PASD (R² = 0.74 [.64, .80]; all p’s < .001), respectively. The revised model had medium predictive power (Q² = 0.25; SRMR = 0.11 [.05, .06]; RMSE = 1.1; MAE = 0.87; BIC = 1332.84) All path coefficients remained positive and significant at p ≤ .001. Among low-active adults, perceived wanting and perceived ability may be more salient when engaging in physical activity and regarding themselves as a physically active person. Findings may support practitioners and health care professionals in designing physical activity interventions to foster PASD among low-active adult populations.
Numerous authors have taken it for granted that people represent themselves or even have something like “a self”, but the underlying mechanisms remain a mystery. How do people represent themselves? Here I propose that they do so not any differently from how they represent other individuals, events, and objects: by binding codes representing the sensory consequences of being oneself into a Me-File, that is, into an event file integrating all the codes resulting from the behaving me. This amounts to a Humean bundle-self theory of selfhood, and I will explain how recent extensions of the Theory of Event Coding, a general theory of human perception and action control, provide all the necessary ingredients for specifying the mechanisms underlying such a theory. The Me-File concept is likely to provide a useful mechanistic basis for more specific and more theoretically productive experimentation, as well as for the construction of artificial agents with human-like selves.
Commonsense and theorizing about action control agree in assuming that human behavior is (mainly) driven by goals, but no mechanistic theory of what goals are, where they come from, and how they impact action selection is available. Here I develop such a theory that is based on the assumption that GOALs guide Intentional Actions THrough criteria (GOALIATH). The theory is intended to be minimalist and parsimonious with respect to its assumptions, as transparent and mechanistic as possible, and it is based on representational assumptions provided by the Theory of Event Coding (TEC). It holds that goal-directed behavior is guided by selection criteria that activate and create competition between event files that contain action-effect codes matching one or more of the criteria—a competition that eventually settles into a solution favoring the best-matching event file. The criteria are associated with various sources, including biological drives, acquired needs (e.g., of achievement, power, or affiliation), and short-term, sometimes arbitrary, instructed aims. Action selection is, thus, a compromise that tries to satisfy various criteria related to different driving forces, which are also likely to vary in strength over time. Hence, what looks like goal-directed action emerges from, and represents an attempt to satisfy multiple constraints with different origins, purposes, operational characteristics, and timescales—which among other things does not guarantee a high degree of coherence or rationality of the eventual outcome. GOALIATH calls for a radical break with conventional theorizing about the control of goal-directed behavior, as it among other things questions existing cognitive-control theories and dual-route models of action control.
Ever since philosophers argued what drives people in a certain direction in their behavior and motivation. From the start of the motivation theory as a part of phycology and later as part of labor management, scholars tried to explain the reason of a certain behavior and consequently the possible interactions on the workplace in order to direct and maintain a behavior, beneficial for the organization. In the beginning, scholars adopted the view, that people are ever needing individuals, who are motivated only within the aspect of fulfilling their needs. Later, the focus of scholars tilted to a fundamentally different direction. Our goal in this paper is to examine the motivational theory in the aspect of the retrospective analysis and its application in the modern enterprise.
Goal setting is an important component in successful teaching and learning, but relatively little is known about its impact on course persistence and achievement in massive open online courses. Using an experimental design and employing a variety of data including student writings, content‐related assignment attempts, and quantitative achievement in the courses, we compared the outcomes of two groups of learners who were given different writing prompts at the beginning of their course. While no overall effects of writing prompt type on the dependent variables were observed, highly statistically significant differences were found when goal writings were more closely examined and compared via qualitative coding. When learners’ written responses to prompts contained either learning or performance goals, those participants both achieved more and engaged in learning longer than participants whose written responses did not fall into either of these categories.
Practitioner notes
What is already known about this topic Goals are related to students’ behaviors and performance.
Performance goals’ influences on learning have inconsistent results, while learning goals are considered beneficial.
What this paper adds The effects of conscious goal setting in massive open online courses (MOOCs) may be different from traditional learning contexts.
Having either learning and performance goals results in better persistence and performance than not having these goals.
Implications for practice and/or policy More interventions should be designed to help MOOC learners set and commit to their goals.
Use MOOC learner's learning and performance goals to promote learning and persistence.
Sales management is an integral part of virtually all market exchanges. Marketing team, sales opportunities, salesperson skills, firm sales resources, digital platforms, and sales compensation plan create a marketing-salesperson-firm dynamic underlying the sales prospecting framework. Firm’s managers continuously strive to deal with these manifold elements of such dynamic context. This article offers an overview of the sales prospecting effort and sheds light on how firms generate superior performance by managing three interconnected elements. The marketing team (e.g., generating leads), salesperson competence (e.g., individual and team competence), and the firm being ready to deploy sales structure (e.g., sales platform) result in superior performance. By thinking outside the box, the authors propose the Salespeople Prospecting Framework with multiple associations based on previous marketing, sales, and retail research. The authors discuss implications for managing the sales funnel and offer suggestions for further research investigation.
This study aimed to examine when and how a pro-environmental value statement is effective at stimulating pro-environmental behavior. Specifically, it examines whether the effect of pro-environmental value statements on pro-environmental behavior depends on participation in goal setting and whether that effect is explained by goal commitment. Few recent empirical studies examine the behavioral effects of value statements, despite the potential of this informal control to stimulate appropriate behaviors. Also scarce are studies on management control examining the effects of different types of control on pro-environmental behavior. Pro-environmental behaviors are important in the business environment as they promote a reduction in pollutants and contribute to the effective design of environmental management systems and to environmental performance. Thus, it is important to identify how management control mechanisms can promote or inhibit this type of behavior. The contribution to the management control literature is to show in which context and through which process value statements can be an effective informal control. In addition, the practical implication is that decentralized organizations can benefit from the use of value statements as a control mechanism, providing they enable participation in goal setting. Participants were recruited via the Amazon Mechanical Turk platform and they had to decide about compliance with an environmental agreement in an experimental study. I manipulate the presence of a pro-environmental value statement and the participation in setting the profit goal. Research findings indicate that a pro-environmental value statement reduces commitment to the profit goal and thus increases environmental compliance, but only when the goal-setting is participative. When the goal-setting is imposed, a pro-environmental value statement does not affect commitment and environmental compliance. The main contribution is to indicate that decentralized organizations can stimulate appropriate behaviors by communicating prioritized values through a value statement when participation in goal setting is allowed.
Introduction - Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) are informal learning environments. Since a few years, MOOCs are being reused and integrated in formal medical education. However, what constitutes optimal integration is still unclear. In this mixed methods study protocol we describe how we will investigate three MOOC integration designs using the same MOOC.
This study holds multiple objectives - (1) Describe motivation profiles in medical students that learn in integrated MOOCs, and discern if motivation profiles are associated with specific MOOC integration designs; (2) investigate how psychological needs of medical students are satisfied or frustrated in different MOOC integration designs; (3) investigate the relationship between autonomous motivation to learn in an integrated MOOC and use of self-regulated learning skills in that MOOC; (4) uncover processes that are involved in goal acceptance or rejection of medical students in integrated medical MOOC designs with assigned learning goals; and (5) identify obstacles medical students encounter when learning with assigned learning goals in integrated medical MOOCs.
Methods and analysis - Objectives 1 and 2 will be pursued with a cross-sectional study design, objective 3 with an observational cohort study design and objectives 4 and 5 with a qualitative interview study design. All medical students in one of three MOOC integration designs at Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC) will be invited to participate. Primary endpoints for objectives 1 and 2 are motivation profiles, and variety in need satisfaction and frustration. For objective 3 the primary endpoints are autonomous motivation and self-regulated online learning. For objectives 4 and 5 primary endpoints are process themes regarding goal acceptance or rejection, and perceived obstacles when working with assigned online learning goals.
Ethics and dissemination - This study has been approved by the Educational Research Review Board of the LUMC. Planned dissemination of findings include three presentations at (inter)national conferences and three research articles.
Within the context of industrial exhibitions, few researchers have explored how booth staffing decisions affect the booth personnel's reactions and conduct at trade shows. In the current study, Narver and Slater's market orientation dimensions are considered as the predictors of exhibitor's booth personnel commitment. Besides, this study explores the impacts of exhibitor's booth personnel commitment on booth worker's role clarity, goal acceptance, and work effort. Finally, the influences of work effort on three forms of booth staff's information behavior are tested. The data collected from five different B2B exhibits in Taiwan support eleven of the twelve hypotheses. Based on the analytic results, the present research adds theoretical and managerial implications to the existing literature of industrial exhibitions. In particular, it highlights three issues for exhibitors to consider, which include process ambiguity, interaction adaptation, and informational paradox.
We examine how employees respond to bonuses and penalties using a proprietary dataset from an electronic chip manufacturer in China. First, we examine the relative effects of bonuses and penalties and observe a stronger effect on subsequent effort and performance for penalties than for bonuses. Second, we find that the marginal sensitivity of penalties diminishes faster than that of bonuses, indicating that the marginal effect of a bonus may eventually exceed that of a penalty as their value increases. Third, we find an undesirable selection effect of penalties: penalties increase employee turnover, especially for skillful and high-quality workers. These results may help inform our understanding of the observed limited use of penalties in practice due to their bounded effectiveness and possible unintended consequences.
Data Availability: The confidentiality agreement with the company that provided data for this study precludes the dissemination of detailed data without the company's consent.
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