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Why Are Women Underrepresented in Top Management of Public Organizations?

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Abstract and Figures

The high number of women in public organizations is not to be found in the same proportions in the managerial structures. The great majority of women accomplish non-managerial assignments while their presence in the second and first level of management is rather low. In this paper, we intend to see why women are so poorly represented in the managerial positions and more exactly in the top management. Romania has registered in the last years a significant increase in the number of women who have top management positions in the private sector; women continue to be underrepresented in public organizations. There are several causes why women are so poorly represented in the managerial positions and more exactly in the top management: society's beliefs related to the woman's and man's role; marriage and children; a lack of facilities (kindergarten) for working women; men's prejudices; the omnipresence of men's values in organizational cultures. There are many questions regarding the men's acceptance of women's values in their managerial activities. Romania is a feminine country where people are less competitive and the roles of the genders are not predetermined. Following the low indexes for masculinity values, Romanian women do not need special policies for representation and their promotion in top management positions. Our research is based on a survey realized in 12 public organizations in Bistrita – Nasaud County, Romania and we intend to see what are the values of women in top management, their strengths and weaknesses (comparing with those of men managers), what kind of problems they faced in their top management positions, if there are prejudices regarding women managers and, finally, the possible reasons for the low number of women in top management of public organizations. The main problem for women being underrepresented in top management of public organizations represents their own values – a low level of competition, cooperation instead of performance, and a more attention paid to family and their personal life. In addition, even there are maintained some prejudices regarding the role of women, based on moral and religious values, we may observe a lack of confidence of top manager women in their abilities as the strengths recognized are considered in the same time as weaknesses. Even there are some difficulties faced by women managers in their promotion, there is a women's preference not to involve in top management (no matter of their personal reasons – family obligations and responsibilities, a need of intimacy and defense of their personal life or a wish to not be exposed they or their families). Moreover, many appointments in top management of public organizations are made on political criteria and women think that politics is an arena where they feel that do not belong. Women's access to the work market is nowadays guaranteed by the countries' legislations and also required by their needs. In the past, the main roles assumed by women were those of mother and wife, but in the future women will be present in the social and political life by assuming roles that have traditionally belonged to men. The high number of women in public institutions, companies and other organizations is not to be found in the same proportions in the managerial structures. The great majority of women accomplish non-managerial assignments while their presence in the second and first level management is rather low. Why women are so poorly represented in the managerial positions and more exactly in the top management? We may identify several causes: 1. Society's beliefs related to the woman's and man's role; 2. Marriage and children; 3. A lack of facilities (kindergarten) for working women; 4. Men's prejudices; 5. The omnipresence of men's values in organizational cultures.
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Why Are Women Underrepresented in Top Management of Public Organizations?
Cornelia Felicia Macarie
1
Simona Claudia Creţa
2
Abstract
The high number of women in public organizations is not to be found in the same proportions in the
managerial structures. The great majority of women accomplish non-managerial assignments while their
presence in the second and first level of management is rather low. In this paper, we intend to see why
women are so poorly represented in the managerial positions and more exactly in the top management.
Romania has registered in the last years a significant increase in the number of women who have top
management positions in the private sector; women continue to be underrepresented in public
organizations. There are several causes why women are so poorly represented in the managerial positions
and more exactly in the top management: society’s beliefs related to the woman’s and man’s role; marriage
and children; a lack of facilities (kindergarten) for working women; men’s prejudices; the omnipresence of
men’s values in organizational cultures. There are many questions regarding the men’s acceptance of
women’s values in their managerial activities. Romania is a feminine country where people are less
competitive and the roles of the genders are not predetermined. Following the low indexes for masculinity
values, Romanian women do not need special policies for representation and their promotion in top
management positions. Our research is based on a survey realized in 12 public organizations in Bistrita
Nasaud County, Romania and we intend to see what are the values of women in top management, their
strengths and weaknesses (comparing with those of men managers), what kind of problems they faced in
their top management positions, if there are prejudices regarding women managers and, finally, the possible
reasons for the low number of women in top management of public organizations. The main problem for
women being underrepresented in top management of public organizations represents their own values a
low level of competition, cooperation instead of performance, and a more attention paid to family and their
personal life. In addition, even there are maintained some prejudices regarding the role of women, based on
moral and religious values, we may observe a lack of confidence of top manager women in their abilities as
the strengths recognized are considered in the same time as weaknesses. Even there are some difficulties
faced by women managers in their promotion, there is a women’s preference not to involve in top
management (no matter of their personal reasons family obligations and responsibilities, a need of
intimacy and defense of their personal life or a wish to not be exposed they or their families). Moreover,
many appointments in top management of public organizations are made on political criteria and women
think that politics is an arena where they feel that do not belong.
Women’s access to the work market is nowadays guaranteed by the countries’ legislations and also
required by their needs. In the past, the main roles assumed by women were those of mother and wife, but
in the future women will be present in the social and political life by assuming roles that have traditionally
belonged to men. The high number of women in public institutions, companies and other organizations is
not to be found in the same proportions in the managerial structures. The great majority of women
accomplish non-managerial assignments while their presence in the second and first level management is
rather low.
Why women are so poorly represented in the managerial positions and more exactly in the top
management? We may identify several causes:
1. Society’s beliefs related to the woman’s and man’s role;
2. Marriage and children;
3. A lack of facilities (kindergarten) for working women;
4. Men’s prejudices;
5. The omnipresence of men’s values in organizational cultures.
1
PhD Lecturer, “Babes – Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
2
Assistant, PhD candidate, “Babes – Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
The contemporary trend in management style is toward multiple management, which is mainly adopted by
women because it fits better the feminine traits. Will men adopt feminine features in order to manage
organizations or will they accept the women’s presence in key positions?
Until the 1960’s women were present in the leadership area only as secretaries and directors’ wives. In that
period, a checking of his wife preceded the appointment of a man in a top management position; she had to
correspond to the company’s exigencies as a future wife of a top management husband, whom she had to
accompany to all the important meetings, where her behavior and attitude could influence the company’s
image. Nowadays, this type of wife does not exist anymore; the companies are not interested when they
promote their staff in the life’s partners of their employees not to mention that also women not only men
are promoted into management positions.
A well known representative of the science of management said once: “For the management jobs the
organizations want […] people able to capitalize the instinct and the intuition as well as the analysis and
rationing, people that can be harsh but also sensible, firm but also friendly, people that can bring together
all these necessary contradictions. Thus there will be as many women as possible” (Handy, 1994).
In the last few years the countries legislations guarantee women’s access on the labor market, including
those at the management level and it stops women’s discrimination at their job. Some progress has to be
made also in the appointments of women in the middle and top management positions. In the European
Union, women represent approximately 40% of the European labor work, while only 10% of the European
managers are women
3
. This situation is not similar in all the countries of the European Union. In countries
such as the UK, Denmark, France and Portugal the weight of the hired women is over 40% whereas in
other countries such as Italy, Greece, Ireland and Luxemburg are only 34%-37%.
This situation cannot be found in all activity areas because there are industrial sectors (mechanics,
constructions, transport) and top leadership on the other hand that have remained a men’s privilege.
Women are present mostly in the bureaucratic jobs or in the services, but also in the public sector and in
education. The female managers are concentrated in the medium and low levels of the management “only
few managing to break the glass ceiling”
4
(Cole, 2004, Vinnicombe and Colwill, 1998) to accede to top
management positions.
Why women are not well represented in the management positions and especially in top management
positions? There are some possible reasons such as:
1. Society’s culture regarding the role of the woman and the role of the man
Women are regarded differently by one society or another in their role of breadwinner of a home or/and
professionals. The woman is mainly wife and mother and the man is the one who earns the necessary
resources for the family. This attitude is preserved even by women, through the way they educate their
children: little girls are guided to learn to cook, to wash the dishes, to clean the house, to iron the clothes, to
develop their manual skills, to take care of the younger brothers; boys are guided to take sport exercises, to
study, to play, to drive the car. In other words, girls are prepared to become especially wives and mothers
while boys are prepared to develop themselves professionally and to have a career.
2. Marriage and children
The organizations treat differently men’s marriage and women’s marriage: married men are a good
investment for an organization because having a family they are taken care and supported well in their
work while married women are not well appreciated because they neglect their career in favor of the
family. Because of this attitude, the great majority of professionals avoid the marriage in favor of the
professional career. The researches made by the British Management Institute reveal that only 58% of the
female managers are married compared to 93% of male managers; among married female managers, only
half of them have children, compared to 90% of the male managers that have children. Further, many
female managers are divorced or separated.
Even if they do not have children, female managers still have the traditional family tasks, which only few
men assume. The key problem of the professional seems to be the finding of a male partner to support her
3
European Community Commission Employment in Europe 1993, Directorate-General for Employment,
Industrial Relations and Social Affairs, Brussels
4
Glass ceilingrefers to women’s difficulties in trying to reach what was and still remain a world of men;
an analogy, which try to describe the subtle and transparent barrier that stop women to reach more higher
positions in organizations.
and to share with her the family responsibilities without the feeling that the woman threatens him by her
success or by the fact that she gets higher wages.
3. Few benefits and facilities for the working mothers
The problem of the maternity leaves (also for men) is different solved by the legislations of the countries
varying from 15 months for maternity leave in Sweden, 18 months in Germany, 16 months in Holland, paid
considering one’s income, up to the lack of maternity leave in the UK for half of the employed women.
In July 1994, the European Court for Justice forbade by the law the firing of women on assumption that
they are pregnant under the accusation of sexual discrimination. In October 1994, a directive of the
European Union gave the pregnant women the right to 14 weeks of maternity leave.
In the last years, in Romania maternity and parent’s rights were the subjects of public and political debates,
current laws being changed several times. Nowadays the law settles the benefits of the pregnant women and
of the parents
5
in the following way:
Maternity leave: antenatal and postnatal of 126 calendar days of which minimum 42 days
paid;
Leave for raising your child of 2 or 3 years for children with problems. The indemnity is
starting with 1 January 2006 of 800 RON and starting with 1 January 2007 it will be of 600
RON and 200 RON allocations.
Taking care of young children is another problem for woman, especially those with managerial attributes
that continue their activity after they have to face maternity leave. The best government facilities for taking
care of the children are provided in Europe by the Nordic countries (Finland and Denmark). In the rest of
Europe parents have to manage on their own having very high expenses. There are also parents for who the
companies provide own centers for taking care of children.
In Romania there work both government and private facilities.
4. Typical myths or male prejudices
Men have developed across time some attitudes and beliefs of the women’s performances in leadership
positions. Literature registers such stereotypes that still work. Flanders (1994) identifies the following
typical myths:
”Women don’t like power or they are afraid of it.”
“Women lack leader qualities or they don’t know how to impose themselves.”
“Women are not ruthless enough at their working place.”
Another author, Letitia Baldrige (1985), gives some examples of “inexact and stereotype way of thinking
that can harm to a woman’s career, if it is expressed or silent thought by some colleagues”:
If she imposes herself it means she is not feminine;
If she talks soft she is not skilful enough for the business world;
If she is married and has children she will neglect her work;
If she is married she shouldn’t be taken into consideration for a future promotion that will
request to change her home in a different city because she wouldn’t leave her husband;
If the company invests time and money in her training she will get pregnant and therefore she
will abandon her job;
As a woman it is obvious that she can’t have the same possibilities as her male colleagues.”
Very often one can notice that women are judged after different standards than men, regarding behavior,
attitude, abilities and qualities. In reality, there are few evidences to support these male prejudices, not
enough for the discrimination of women in management. Despite all these, it still exists and until it will be
removed women will be considerably disadvantaged in the management career.
5. The domination of the male values in the organizational cultures
Recent proves (Vinnicombe and Colwill, 1998) showed that there are differences between the two sexes at
the work place: “women earn less than men and climb the hierarchy ladder slower”; “men behave as people
with a superior status while women have an inferior status”; “men are more aggressive psychologically and
5
Government Ordinance no. 158/17.11.2005 regarding and health’s leaves and inseminations, Official
Gazette, Romania, no. 1074/29.11.2005 and Government Ordinance no. 148/03.11.2005 regarding family
support for child raising, Official Gazette, Romania, no. 1008/14.11.2005
less preoccupied by education than women”; “women have better vocal qualities than men”; “men interrupt
the persons they talk to more frequently than women and usually the interrupted persons are women.”
The male dominance at the work place is not just the consequence of the male prejudices regarding the
women in the management positions but it is also the lack of the real experience of the women in leadership
for decades. The organizations are dominated by organizational cultures made by men for men. Researcher
Marshall J. (1993) identifies two male and female value groups that define the organizational cultures
which they consider “as qualities accessible for both sexes …Women and men are both the same but also
different.” These values are according to the author the following:
Male values: Self-assertiveness, Separation, Control, Competition, Concentrated perception,
Rationality, Clarity, Discrimination, Activity.
Female values: Interdependence, Cooperation, Receptivity, Merging, Acceptance, Emotional
tonus, The Being, Intuition, Synthesis.
In western societies male values predominate, which lead to the hypothesis that women are considered
inferior to men. Male values impose in organizations an autocratic and direct style while feminine values
are characteristics of the democratic and participative style. The management literature of the last few
decades registers the proliferation in organizations of the participative management style that assures better
results than the authoritarian one. How will male managers react to this pressure of the present? Will they
adopt feminine values in their attitude and their behavior, or will they encourage a massive presence of
women in top management of the organizations?
In the last, years Romania adopted many values and principles regarding public management from
occident. A recent study realized by Interact and Gallup Romania have aimed to research the way
Romanian values influence managerial practices. The study was based on the five cultural dimensions of
Geert Hofstede
6
who identified four basic dimensions regarding the differences between national cultures
(there was also a fifth additional dimension):
Power Distance Index (PDI) shows the extend in which people from a specific culture
perceive social inequality;
Individualism (IDV) shows the extend in which cultural values encourage individual
autonomy in groups that they belong to;
Masculinity (MAS) versus femininity refers to distributions of roles between the genders, to
the importance of being female or male; it shows the peoples choices between competition
and promotion or cooperation and harmony;
Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) refers to anxiety level of a particular nation, and its
acceptance of what is new;
Long-Term Orientation (LTO) refers to the period of time for which people make plans
and expect results. Associated with long-term orientation is perseverance and the values
associated with the short-term orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations.
Table 1. Comparative results for the cultural dimensions
Romania,
Greece,
Bulgaria, Serbia
France, Spain,
Italy
Germany
Holland,
Denmark,
Sweden
Great Britain, United States
of America, Canada,
Australia
Collectivism
Individualism
Individualism
Individualism
Individualism
High Power
Distance
High Power
Distance
Low Power
Distance
Low Power
Distance
Low Power Distance
Femininity
Femininity
Masculinity
Femininity
Masculinity
High
Uncertainty
Avoidance
Index
High Uncertainty
Avoidance Index
High Uncertainty
Avoidance Index
Low Uncertainty
Avoidance Index
Low Uncertainty
Avoidance Index
Short-Term
Orientation
Short-Term
Orientation
Short-Term
Orientation
Short-Term
Orientation
Short-Term Orientation
Source: Interact and Gallup Romania
6
Geert Hofstede, Cultural Dimensions, available online at http://www.geert-hofstede.com/
The relative position of one country may predict main values and social norms regarding family, education,
behavior at workplace, political ideas, etc. We are interested especially in masculinity values in order to see
if male values that predominate in organizational cultures in occident are to be found at society level. As
we may see in Tab. 1, Romania is a country dominated by femininity (as cultural dimension), its value for
masculinity being quite low (Tab. 2). Masculinity (MAS) versus its opposite, femininity refers to the
distribution of roles between the genders, to the importance of being female or male; it shows the peoples
choices between competition and promotion or cooperation and harmony.
According to a study realized by Financial Times, the number of women in leading positions is continual
increasing. Norway has the higher number of women manager in Europe while Spain, Belgium and Italy
occupy the lower positions in this classification. In Geert Hofstede’s estimations, Norway has the value for
masculinity 8, the lowest value from the countries studied (with the exception of Sweden 5). Romania,
with Latvia and Slovenia, are on the top in this part of Europe. In the last year, female managers occupied
almost 30% of the top management positions. Still, even there is a significant increase in the number of
woman in top management in private sector they continue to be underrepresented in public organizations.
Table 2. Indexes’ values for Romania
IDV
MAS
UAI
LTO
Romania first survey
49
39
61
42
Romania second survey
49
39
61
42
Romania Geert Hofstede estimations
30
42
90
-
Source: Interact and Gallup Romania
The studies of Hofstede
7
revealed that women's values differ less among societies than men's values.
Hofstede considers that the values of the whole world will be feminine because the jobs practiced
traditionally by men became automate and the jobs remained are predominantly in services were the main
factors and values are humanity and cooperation.
In Romania people are less competitive (they are not looking always for promotions and personal gains)
and they accept the need to support all the members of the society. The roles of the genders are not
predetermined; in this case, men may easily fit for domestic responsibilities or women in top management
positions. Following the low values for masculinity, Romanian women do not need special policies for
representation and their promotion in top management positions.
The problem for women in management represents their own values a low level of competition,
cooperation instead of performance, and a more attention paid to family and their personal life.
Interact and Gallup Romania explain the predominance of feminine values in Romanian society using
religious values, orthodox values that accept complementary roles of men and women, more like a
partnership than a subordination relationship. We consider that communist values that have been enforced
in Romanian society for more that four decades represent a proper explication for the balance between the
roles of women and men.
The researches made lately in Romania show a situation close to the western one regarding the statute of
woman in society and therefore at its leadership. A public opinion survey
8
, from November 2005, showed
that “some of the traditional prejudices regarding women and men still exist in Romania.” Half of the
Romanians that were questioned still believe that men are better political leaders than women are and 43%
consider that men run businesses better than women do. From those questioned 31% consider that a wife
that does not work is like one that has a paid job. Only 17% believe that university studies are more
important for a boy than for a girl. It is interesting that these prejudices are found not only at men. 40% of
the questioned women claim that men are better political leaders and 38% agree that men run businesses
better than women do.
Another survey
9
made by the Centre of Urban and Regional Sociology (CURS) for the National Council
Against Discrimination in December 2005, and aiming to evaluate men’s and women’s situation in
7
While women’s values are quite similar men's values are different from country to country varying from
very assertive and competitive modest and caring. The assertive pole has been called “masculine” and the
modest, caring pole “feminine”.
8
The Gallup Organization Romania Public Opinion Survey
9
CURS Perceptions and attitudes to discrimination phenomenon
Romania, shows that 48% of the questioned people consider the men’s situation as being better than that of
women and 40% claim that men and women are equal in Romania. The younger population (52%) views
the perception of a better situation for men than that of women’s, those with university studies (63%), those
from the cities (55%) and those unmarried (51%). The elder population (45%) sustains the equality
between women and men, those that graduated maximum 8 years of school (45%), those married (43%),
and those from the villages (46%).
Almost half (48%) of those questioned recognize that nowadays in Romania there is not real equality
between men and women. The main reason of the discrimination of women on the Romanian work market
is that: “women work more at home” – an opinion expressed by almost half of those questioned.
There were identified also traditional attitudes expressed as prejudices: “women cannot practice some
professions” (40%); “there are biological differences between men and women” (35%); “the Christian
moral makes the difference between men and women” (24%).
The role of men and women in the couple are viewed in a traditional and stereotype way by the majority of
people: 76% consider that “the man is the head of the family”, 67% believe that “it is more men’s duty to
bring money at home” and 64% believe that “it is more women’s duty to do the housework”.
Contrasting the socio-demographic categories analyzed, traditional attitudes are present with higher values
than the average in Oltenia and Crişana-Maramureş, in the rural areas mainly, at the persons with a low
level of school training, at the elders and among men. The persons characterized by modernity are resident
in Transylvania and Banat, they live in cities and they have university studies.
Methodology and findings
Studying the feminine presence in top management of public organizations we have based our research on
a survey realized in 12 public organizations from Bistriţa-Năsăud County, on women that held top
management positions in these organizations. We included in our survey executive directors, deputy
directors, vice-presidents and chief departments; because of the small number of women in top
management, we interviewed women from middle management too.
The 12 institutions sum 1598 employees, 1029 are women and the rest, 569 are men (six public
organizations have male senior managers). The choice for these institutions was motivated by fact that we
may find women in their top management, our attention being paid to their problems and difficulties faces
in their career. We used a questionnaire, structured in 16 questions, seven being open questions.
Most of our respondents are married (83.3%), and they have postgraduate diplomas. The average seniority
in leading positions is 9.6 years, while the mean age is in category 50 60 years (50% from the
respondents, 41.6% are in category 40 50 years and only 8.4% in category 30 40 years).
Most of the respondents consider that only sometimes there are real equal opportunities between man and
women when they are to be appointed in top management positions (Fig. 1).
Considering the problems faced by female managers in their top management activity, the answers were
quite diverse, varying from problems regarding the implementation of modern management’s principles
into organization (33% mentioned the resistance to change of the personnel), obsolete mentality, inertia,
communication problems, a lack of an effective decision power (that belong to politicians) to a lack of trust
from superiors or subordinates (41.6%). If they were male managers, 42 % of the respondents consider that
they would face some other problems in their activity (Fig. 2).
Figure 1. Figure 2.
Do you think that women and men have
equal opportunities when applying for a top
management position?
25%
59%
8%
8%
Rarely
Sometimes
Often
Always
Do you think that if you were man you would
face the same problems?
42%
33%
8%
17%
In a small extend
In the same extend
In a great extend
N.R.
We mention that the respondents that have considered factors regarding actual management activity are the
respondents who think they would face the same difficulties as male managers (33%). The respondents that
mention a lack of trust from their superiors or their subordinates and suggest that the problems and
difficulties faced in their activity are results of their female status, consider that they would face the same
problems in a smaller extend (42%).
Figure 3.
In your activity you were supported by? (multiple
choices)
83,30%
41,60%
16,60%
8,30%
25%
0
0
0,00% 20,00% 40,00% 60,00% 80,00% 100,00%
Family
Friends
Women managers
Former colleagues
Partners
Nobody
Somebody else
It is interesting the fact that most of our respondents rely in their activity on family (83.3%) or friends
(41.6), preferring informal relations instead of formal relations needed by management activity. These
numbers underline the idea of women’s values predomination in Romanian society, and in the public
organizations included in our research.
Asked to enumerate the strengths and weaknesses of women and men managers we may observe that some
abilities considered to be strengths are also considered to be weaknesses of women managers (especially
those considered to be particularities of women managers and help them more in managerial activity). In
addition, we may see the differences between some abilities of women and men regarding their managerial
style (participative versus authoritarian, team building versus autonomy and delegating). Asked, indirectly,
about men managers weaknesses, the respondents mentioned some aspects with respect to men’ s attitude -
prejudice, hostility and suspicion about women’s managerial abilities and no actual weak factors of men
managers in their managerial activity.
Table 3. Strengths and weaknesses of female and male managers.
Women
Men
Strengths
Weaknesses
Strengths
Weaknesses
Organizing, communicating,
flexibility in decision-making
process, participative
decision-making, team
building, efficiency
Do not delegate,
flexibility, avoiding
conflicts
Authoritarian,
organizing, delegate
Superficial in
controlling
Analytical thinking, strategic
thinking, objective, practical,
open-minded, observation
spirit, observe details
Physical fragility, do not
resist to stress,
preoccupied by details,
vulnerable
Resistance to stress,
assume high risks,
pragmatic
Equilibrium, perseverance,
correctness, serious, prompt
Lack of firmness, easy to
be influence
Firmness, tenacity,
equilibrium,
concision
Implication, solidarity,
patience, empathy, human,
creating harmony, social
altruism
Sensibility, tolerance,
human, implication,
emotive
Ambition, autonomy
Prejudices, hostility,
suspicious about
women’s managerial
abilities
Have to make sacrifices
for career, family
obligations
Less family
obligations
The respondents were asked to mention the prejudices that have influenced mostly their activity and the
most have referred to moral and religious values regarding the status of women in society as mother and
wife comparing with men; these have also families but are more autonomous, have more freedom and their
families support them more. In addition, they have mentioned the prejudices regarding the men’s roles as
leaders (they are “the head”), and women’s obligation to follow them and to be subordinated. Some
respondents feel some reticence from their male colleagues that think that women’s roles in management
are rather decorative. The female managers consider that women will involve more in public organizations’
management if there would be a more active movement for women’s emancipation in Romania (in practice,
not only at normative level, Fig. 5).
From the respondents, 33% declare that the low number of women in top management is caused by a lack
of their promotion by the decisional factors (mostly men), while most of our respondents (the rest, 67%),
consider that it is an effect of the women’s preference not to involve in top management (no matter of their
personal reasons family obligations and responsibilities, a need of intimacy and defense of their personal
life or a wish to not be exposed they or their families). This situation may be found also at the level of the
entire Romanian society. Capital magazine published the “Top 2006-100 success women” where the
coordinative editor Adriana Halpert [18] said once: “Why are not women attracted by politics? […] The
majority of the questioned women claim that politics is an area of controversies, fights, chase in which the
woman can find quite hard the necessary weapons for survival or politics is dirty, a marsh where they have
no place.”
The low number of women in top management can be explained also by the appointments on political
criteria and the conditioning of their selection by the affiliation to a political party. The modest presence of
women in politics reflects also in their low promotion at the leadership positions of the public institutions.
Figure 4. Figure 5.
Do you think that in Romania there are
prejudices about women managers?
8%
17%
67%
8%
In small extend
In some extend
In greater extend
N.R.
Do you think that women w ould involve more
in managing public organizations if it would
be a more active Romanian movement for
women's emancipation?
66%
17%
17%
Yes
No
N.R.
Conclusions
Romania has registered in the last years a significant increase in the number of women who have top
management positions in the private sector (only in 2007, women managers occupied 30% of the top
management positions); women continue to be underrepresented in public organizations. There are several
causes why women are so poorly represented in the managerial positions and more exactly in the top
management: society’s beliefs related to the woman’s and man’s role; marriage and children; a lack of
facilities (kindergarten) for working women; men’s prejudices; the omnipresence of men’s values in
organizational cultures.
There are many questions regarding the men’s acceptance of women’s values in their managerial activities.
In Hofstede opinion the values of the whole world will be feminine because the jobs practiced traditionally
by men became automate and the jobs remained are predominantly in services were the main factors and
values are humanity and cooperation. Romania is a feminine country (according to Hofstede’s cultural
dimensions) and people are less competitive (they are not looking always for promotions and personal
gains) and they accept the need to support all the members of the society. The roles of the genders are not
predetermined; in this case, male may easily fit for domestic responsibilities or women in top management
positions. Following the low values for masculinity, Romanian women do not need special policies for
representation and their promotion in top management positions. The problem for women in management
represents their own values a low level of competition, cooperation instead of performance, and a more
attention paid to family and their personal life. Still, according to national surveys, half of the Romanians
that were questioned believe that men are better political leaders than women are and 43% consider that
men run businesses better than women do. Almost half (48%) of those questioned recognize that nowadays
in Romania there is not real equality between men and women.
There is conformity of our findings with the aspects mentioned above. Our respondents rely in their activity
on family or friends, preferring informal relations instead of formal relations needed by management
activity, being underlined the idea of women’s values predomination. There are some strengths enumerated
by top managers, strengths considered particularities of women managers that help them in their managerial
activity). In addition, we may see the differences between some abilities of women and men regarding their
managerial style (participative versus authoritarian, team building versus autonomy and delegating). There
are maintained some prejudices regarding the role of women, based on moral and religious values with
respect to the status of women in society as mother and wife comparing with men; there are also some
prejudices regarding the men’s roles as leaders (they are “the head”), and women’s obligation to follow
them and to be subordinated.
We may observe a lack of confidence of women managers in their abilities as the strengths recognized are
considered in the same time as weaknesses; the female features that are supposed to be their aces in
managerial activities are seen as weaknesses comparative with their male colleagues’ abilities. Even there
are some difficulties faced by women managers in their promotion (caused by men’s suspicions regarding
women’s managerial abilities), the main problem remain the women’s preference not to involve in top
management (no matter of their personal reasons family obligations and responsibilities, a need of
intimacy and defense of their personal life or a wish to not be exposed they or their families). In addition,
many appointments in top management of public organizations are made on political criteria and women
think that politics is an arena where they feel that do not belong.
References
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2. Baldrige, Letitia. 1985. Codul manierelor în afaceri. Bucharest: Editura Stiinta & Tehnica
3. Cole, Gerald. 2004. Management. Teorie şi practică. Bucharest: Ed. Stiinta
4. Flanders, Margaret. 1994. Breakthrough The Career Woman’s Guide to Shattering the Glass
Ceiling, London: Paul Chapman Publishing
5. Halpert, Adina. 2006. De ce fug femeile de politică? Top 2006 – 100 femei de succes, Capital,
March, Ed. Ringier
6. Handy, Charles. 1994. The Empty Raincoat. London: Hutchinson.
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9. CURS SA Perceptii si atitudini fată de fenomenul de discriminare, available online at
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10. The Gallup Organization Romania Barometrul de opinie publică, available online at
www.osf.ro/bop/2005/Noiembrie/05_familie_copii_valori_de_gen.pdf
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
Codul manierelor în afaceri
  • Letitia Baldrige
Baldrige, Letitia. 1985. Codul manierelor în afaceri. Bucharest: Editura Stiinta & Tehnica
Breakthrough -The Career Woman's Guide to Shattering the Glass Ceiling
  • Margaret Flanders
Flanders, Margaret. 1994. Breakthrough -The Career Woman's Guide to Shattering the Glass Ceiling, London: Paul Chapman Publishing
De ce fug femeile de politică?
  • Adina Halpert
Halpert, Adina. 2006. De ce fug femeile de politică? Top 2006 -100 femei de succes, Capital, March, Ed. Ringier
The Career Development of British Managers. London: British Institute of Management Foundation
  • B Alban -Metcalfe
  • N Nicholson
Alban -Metcalfe, B. and Nicholson, N. 1984. The Career Development of British Managers. London: British Institute of Management Foundation
Femeile în management
  • Susan Vinnicombe
  • Nina Colwill
Vinnicombe, Susan. and Nina Colwill. 1998. Femeile în management. Bucharest: Editura Teora
  • Gerald Cole
Cole, Gerald. 2004. Management. Teorie şi practică. Bucharest: Ed. Stiinta