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... There has been substantial research in the domain of second language acquisition emphasizing negotiation of meaning through empirical studies (Gass & Varonis, 1994;Long, 1985;Mackey, 1999;Pica et al., 1987). Pica (1994) described negotiation as the modification and restructuring of interaction that occurs when learners and their interlocutors predict, notice, or face difficulties in message comprehension. ...
... Long's Interaction Hypothesis, introduced in 1996, suggests that language acquisition is enhanced by comprehensible input or feedback during interactions. According to a study conducted by Long (1985), both native speakers (NS) and non-native speakers (NNS) adjust their interaction when comprehension issues arise in their conversation. This adjustment in language use provides comprehensible input, which aids in maintaining the interaction. ...
... According to Long (1981), more negotiation of meaning was necessary to overcome communication difficulties when breakdowns occurred. Long (1985) defines a task as an activity performed either for oneself or for others, which can be done voluntarily or for some form of compensation. This definition encompasses a wide range of activities, such as borrowing a book from the library, completing a form, typing a letter, assisting someone to cross the road, and so on. ...
In situations where Korean university students have insufficient opportunities to communicate in English on a daily basis, using a mobile instant messaging (MIM) application for English interactions can provide them with more chances to practice the target language and negotiate meaning. This study aimed to explore Korean university students’ negotiation of meaning through different tasks using an MIM application and how these tasks influence their meaning negotiation during communicative activities on the platform. This study adopted a mixed-method approach, combining surveys and message observations to collect data. The findings showed that students perceived negotiating meaning through the MIM platform as both interesting and useful for their English learning. They valued the opportunity to communicate and negotiate meaning in English at any time and from anywhere, based on tasks. However, some challenges related to these communicative experiences were also reported. The findings indicated that some English translation applications were utilized during task-based communicative activities. Overall, the study found that students enjoyed discussing specific topics while completing various types of tasks and they experienced several benefits during their English interactions with peers on the MIM platform. The impact of different task types on meaning negotiation was also discussed.
... At the elementary stage (A1-A2), clarity in instructions and examples are crucial for learners who are still developing their grasp of grammar rules (Ellis, 2003). Additionally, simplicity in grammar structures is advocated, ensuring appropriateness for the learners' proficiency level, such as avoiding complex tenses or modal verbs at the A1 level (Long, 1985). Emphasis on both form and meaning is essential, fostering an awareness of grammatical structures through tasks that require identification and practical application in writing and speaking (Swain, 1995). ...
... Moving to the intermediate level (B1-B2), CRTs evolve to introduce more intricate grammar structures reflective of learners' growing proficiency (Ellis, 2003). Learners are encouraged to discern patterns in the usage of grammatical structures, comparing and contrasting examples to deepen their understanding (Long, 1985). The focus shifts towards integrating grammar into context-relevant writing and speaking tasks, aligning with the learners' lives and experiences (Swain, 1995). ...
... At the advanced level (C1-C2), CR tasks demand a heightened level of grammatical analysis, requiring learners to identify, explain rules, and proficiently use structures across diverse contexts (Ellis, 2003). Advanced learners are urged to compare and contrast different grammatical systems, analyzing texts in various languages or engaging in writing and speaking tasks across multiple registers (Long, 1985). Furthermore, the emphasis on using grammar for specific purposes is paramount at this level, prompting learners to tailor their writing and speaking for different audiences and varied communicative objectives (Swain, 1995). ...
When studying grammar, students must not only focus on its structure but also on its form. Form-focused activities are integral to this process, requiring students to identify and manipulate language forms. A well-established technique for facilitating language acquisition is the consciousness-raising task (CR), which aims to heighten learners' awareness of language form. By prioritizing the language input, students can cultivate a more precise comprehension of grammar structures, thereby enhancing their own language proficiency. This approach entails various strategies, such as inferring grammatical rules from examples, comparing different forms of expression, and examining differences between a learner's usage of a grammar item and that of native speakers. However, designing effective CR tasks is cognitively demanding, time-intensive, and laborious for teachers, as it entails accommodating numerous requirements, including the definition of clear objectives, task relevance, and task engagement. To address these challenges, it is worth utilizing ChatGPT which is an advanced conversational AI system with the capability to process and generate various modalities of language. It has access to extensive databases and can produce written content that is frequently indistinguishable from human-written text. Accordingly, ChatGPT can be utilized to generate CR tasks or materials that may be applied in class. The present study endeavors to offer a range of CR tasks for grammar teaching that have been generated by ChatGPT. The tasks include identification tasks, text correction tasks, word choice tasks, and others.
... Swain (1985Swain ( , 2005 attempted to counter Krashen with her Output Hypothesis which claims that output production leads to acquisition through promoting noticing (Schmidt, 1990) and conscious learning of language items and rules. The Interaction Hypothesis (Long 1985(Long , 1996 further elaborated on this argument by identifying specific interactive behaviors, particularly the negotiation of (or for) meaning (NoM) that should not only elicit more comprehensible input, but also lead to noticing and consciousness raising with regard to linguistic items and forms, thereby increasing their potential to be acquired. While these hypotheses sound reasonable, finding direct empirical support for them has been difficult, due in part to the fact that communication necessarily involves both input and output (which becomes new input for the interlocutor). ...
... Admittedly, it is difficult to think of a suitable comparison task that would be identical to the communicative task in aim as well as the type and amount of output elicited yet not involve communication. This is perhaps why, despite the widespread citing of Swain (1985Swain ( , 2005 and Long (1985Long ( , 1996 in the literature for example, only one study so far has attempted to discern the benefits of interaction through comparing communicative tasks to noncommunicative tasks that require a similar amount and type of output production while controlling for input. Here 'non-communicative' refers to tasks during which no interlocutor is present to immediately attend and respond to the output produced during the task. ...
... Hypothesis (Swain, 1995(Swain, , 2005 and Interaction Hypothesis (Long, 1985(Long, ,1996 which have all served to inform studies in ISLA. Figure 1 displays the relationships between these hypotheses and corresponding features of interaction. ...
Text-based synchronous computer-mediated communication (TSCMC) or text chat has become a common modality for communication in daily life, and numerous studies in second language acquisition (SLA) have emerged investigating various applications and effects of TSCMC. While results appear to support the efficacy of the modality for language learning, there is still surprisingly little direct evidence for an effect of TSCMC that is distinguishable from non-communicative computer-mediated learning. This gap in the literature extends even to conventional communicative versus non-communicative tasks. The present research therefore set out to investigate from a cognitive-psycholinguistic perspective whether TSCMC has a positive effect on language acquisition that is distinct from that of non-communicative computer-mediated learning and what features of interaction might be associated with such an effect if it were observed. To this end, three studies were conducted (Hughes, 2022, 2023a, 2023b).
Study 1 (Hughes, 2022) is a narrative review of 39 peer-reviewed studies in SLA involving TSCMC from over the past decade. The review sought to identify any positive or negative effects that language learning via TSCMC may have and the implications of those findings for SLA theory and practice. Analysis indicated that, while a significant positive effect for TSCMC on SLA has been found, features of interaction that have been hypothesized to promote language acquisition such as the negotiation of (or for) meaning (NoM) and corrective feedback (CF) were found to be lacking in learner-learner dialogues. Even so, significant language development was observed, leaving open the question of what aspect of TSCMC was responsible for the gains. Furthermore, the dearth of studies comparing TSCMC to non-communicative language learning, made it difficult to discern whether the observed effects were due to interaction rather than, for example, the comprehension of input or the production of output.
To investigate whether an advantage exists that is intrinsic to TSCMC, Study 2 (Hughes, 2023a) set out to experimentally compare text-based learning through a TSCMC task versus a non-communicative task involving the same input and requiring a similar quantity of output production. Study 2 also hypothesized that communicative tasks generally induce a greater sense of need to engage the target language (TL) than conventional non-communicative tasks. Based on the Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH), this greater sense of need alone could be expected to increase learning despite not being a factor that was intrinsic to the communicative process. To compensate for this hypothesized need imbalance, a computer application was developed to administer a special type of non-communicative task which attempted to increase learners’ sense of communicative accountability by requiring them to produce output paraphrasing the target input in the form of notes that they would later have to comprehend and reconnect with that input. This ‘pseudo-communicative’ task was compared to a genuinely communicative task carried out via TSCMC. Pre-, post-, and delayed post-test results showed that both those who engaged in TSCMC and those who completed the non-communicative task experienced significant language development both in knowledge of lexical form and meaning. In addition, a significant rank correlation emerged for both groups between gains in knowledge of lexical meaning and output as measured by words produced, suggesting that output production had contributed to those gains. Although there was no significant difference in absolute gains between the groups, there was a significant difference in output, with learners who completed the non-communicative task having produced more output than those who carried out the TSCMC task. Thus, while both groups achieved statistically equivalent gains, the TSCMC group achieved those gains with significantly less output, suggesting an advantage in learning efficiency in favor of TSCMC.
Study 3 (Hughes, 2023b) set out to investigate features of interaction (‘interaction moves’) observed in the chat logs from Study 2 that might have led to the advantage in learning efficiency found in favor of the communicative task. A comparison of interaction moves engaged in by more and less efficient learners who had produced a similar amount of output revealed that efficient learners had engaged in (context-)elaborative question formulation (EQF) whereas the other learners had not. Further analysis revealed a moderate significant rank correlation between engaging in EQF and learning efficiency and gains with regard to knowledge of lexical meaning. Meanwhile, correlation analyses revealed no significant relationship between initiating or responding to NoM and gains or learning efficiency, and CF was found not to have occurred at all. Furthermore, there was no significant correlation between responding to EQF and gains or efficiency. Study 3 concludes that context-elaborative output production during TSCMC was most likely to have led to the gains experienced by the TSCMC group. However, since the comparison group also engaged in context-elaborative output production, the question of what led to the advantage for TSCMC in learning efficiency still remained. The study concludes by speculating based on the ILH that the advantage was due to a tension between known and unknown factors inherent in the communicative process inducing a greater amount of evaluation during output production via TSCMC compared to the non-communicative task.
Further analysis of the results of the three studies conducted in this thesis suggest that TSCMC has a hitherto unexamined positive effect on SLA that is distinct from non-communicative computer-mediated learning involving output production. Specifically, it appears that TSCMC may provide an advantage in learning efficiency with regard to knowledge of lexical meaning and that this advantage stems, not from the exchange of linguistic information with the interlocutor during communication as previous studies have hypothesized, but rather from a greater amount of evaluation of the TL during output production compared to non-communicative tasks. This research proposes the Anticipatory Processing Hypothesis (APH) to explain the factors behind this apparent increase in evaluation during communicative output production.
... Dès lors, interagir à l'oral en L2 avec ses pairs est considéré comme un vecteur d'apprentissage à prioriser, du fait notamment des ajustements conversationnels générés au sein d'interactions authentiques, comme des négociations de sens, un aspect qui contribue au développement des connaissances en L2 (Long, 1981(Long, , 1983a(Long, , 1983b. Plus concrètement, au travers de tâches communicatives comme des jeux de rôles impromptus, cesdits ajustements conversationnels générés au sein même de l'interaction rendent la production orale en L2 plus compréhensible et soutiennent avec plus d'efficacité le développement de la L2 (Long, 1985). Aussi, dans une perspective socioconstructiviste, interagir à l'oral en L2 permet d'engager des processus de négociation entre personnes locutrices, comme les mises en mots (languaging, Swain, 2006Swain, , 2010. ...
... De ce fait, interagir à l'oral en L2 constitue un but, mais aussi un moyen pour développer des habiletés langagières et sociales en L2, à condition notamment que la création d'interactions authentiques en L2 entre pairs s'établisse dans cet espace sécuritaire d'essais et erreurs permettant d'obtenir un intrant à un niveau adéquat pour les personnes apprenantes (Long, 1996). Cet aspect prône la co-construction du sens en L2 et, ainsi, un renforcement des compétences communicatives en L2 via des tâches communicatives collaboratives (Long, 1981(Long, , 1985Swain, 1985Swain, , 1995. Néanmoins, même si les tâches collaboratives à l'oral sont essentielles pour le développement des compétences en L2, notons que certains enjeux liés à cette compétence peuvent interagir avec le développement des apprentissages -c'est-à-dire le stimuler ou le freiner -, comme c'est le cas avec l'expérience subjective des personnes apprenantes, dont les émotions vécues en contexte d'apprentissage font partie et peuvent jouer un rôle particulièrement important. ...
Notre étude vise à documenter l’implémentation d’ateliers de marionnettes dans des classes d’accueil au primaire au Québec et d’en décrire les retombées sur le développement des habiletés langagières des élèves allophones. Pour ce faire, nous avons mis en place une recherche-action de type qualitative. Celle-ci s’est échelonnée sur deux mois, à raison d’un atelier d’une heure pendant huit semaines pour trois classes d’accueil au primaire. Après avoir effectué cette intervention, les élèves ont été interrogés sous la forme de groupes de discussion focalisée (n=3) pour récolter leurs impressions sur la pertinence du dispositif pour le développement de leurs habiletés langagières. Ensuite, les personnes enseignantes de chaque groupe (n=3) ont été soumises à une entrevue semi-dirigée pour dégager leur appréciation relative à la pertinence et à l’efficience du dispositif didactique médiatisé mis en œuvre sur le développement des habiletés langagières de leurs élèves. L’analyse qualitative des données met en lumière le récit des différents acteurs, actrices du projet et documente les retombées du dispositif médiatique multimodal implémenté.
... As shown in Table 2, the data analysis revealed that various methods of participation played a key role in each of the co-writing tasks. We chose these methods as they were commonly cited methods of interaction in collaborative writing research largely based on interactional hypotheses (Long 1983(Long , 1985 and input and output hypothesis related to cognitive theories of second language acquisition (SLA) (Swain 1985(Swain , 1995. More specifically, these hypotheses helped researchers better understand the interactive methods used to acquire language, namely through input, negotiation, and scaffolding (Storch, 2013). ...
... They also informed notions of collaborative dialogue in language learning settings (Storch, 2013;Swain, 2010). It has also been acknowledged that interactional modifications should be made to deepen our understanding of verbal communication in collaborative settings (Long, 1985). Aside from 'Written communication in chat' and 'Using L1', which were derived from our intuition and observations, such interactional modifications formed the interaction methods used in Table 2. ...
The last few years have amplified the use of digital technology in the second language (L2) classroom due to the emergence of COVID-19.Students were forced to study online, and, as a result, changing the interaction among students became crucial. While most English Language Intensive Courses for Overseas Students (ELICOS) classrooms have since returned to face-to-face delivery, many providers are now considering the potential benefits of online learning and the strategies that make the platform and classroom interaction effective. One method of facilitating online interaction is collaborative writing (i.e.co-writing). Co-writing refers to two or more individuals producing work and contributing to a task together. While not a new phenomenon in face-to-face settings, this research project closely investigates the methods that students use to interact while completing co-writing tasks in an online environment and the impact these may have on L2 learning.The data, taken over five weeks, was collected from 15 adult English for Academic Purposes students in an online ELICOS classroom. Results showed areas of improvement in co-writing and a perception among students that co-writing was helpful. The paper aims to contribute to greater understanding and improved co-writing delivery and practice for ESL students and practitioners.
... Estas tareas están diseñadas para que los estudiantes utilicen la lengua de manera práctica y se involucren activamente en la resolución de problemas y la consecución de objetivos comunicativos (Ellis, 2003;2005;. A través de las tareas, los estudiantes tienen la oportunidad de practicar y desarrollar sus habilidades lingüísticas en un contexto auténtico y motivador (Skehan, 1998;Long, 1985;. ...
Este artículo presenta un modelo integral y progresivo de desarrollo lingüístico, concebido para facilitar el aprendizaje efectivo de una segunda lengua o lengua extranjera (L2). Este modelo se basa en teorías educativas como el enfoque por tareas, la teoría de la metacognición y la lingüística cognitiva, y tiene como propósito fomentar la participación, la reflexión metacognitiva, la utilización de diversas estrategias de aprendizaje y la aplicación práctica de habilidades lingüísticas en situaciones reales. Estructurado en cinco etapas: Percepción, Focalización, Internalización, Aplicación y Producción (PFIAP), cada una complementada con actividades sugeridas, ofrece una visión concreta de su aplicación. Para demostrar su efectividad, se presentan los resultados de una prueba piloto realizada en un colegio secundario privado en Mar del Plata, donde tres docentes participaron en un grupo focal para evaluar la efectividad del modelo. Los comentarios obtenidos reflejaron tanto los beneficios como los desafíos de su implementación. A partir de estos datos, se destacan algunas implicaciones pedagógicas que subrayan la importancia de adoptar enfoques didácticos dinámicos y centrados en los estudiantes para mejorar el aprendizaje en el aula. Además, se identifican algunas limitaciones y desafíos potenciales en su aplicación. Se sugiere que, con adaptación y revisión continua, este enfoque podría convertirse en una valiosa herramienta pedagógica para la enseñanza de lenguas segundas o extranjeras.
... Almost every teacher and theoretician would agree that input plays an important role in language acquisition, though the extent and nature of input's role may vary. It has been postulated to act as the primary source for acquiring a mental representation of the language (VanPatten & Williams, 2007) and is the cornerstone of several influential theories on how language is acquired, that is, the input hypothesis (Krashen, 1985), the input-interaction-output hypothesis (Gass, 1997), the input and interaction hypothesis (Long, 1985), and the autonomous induction theory (Carroll, 2007). ...
While there is debate regarding their effectiveness, limitations, and downsides, textbooks and other educational materials play an important role in a large number of language classrooms. This is why textbook evaluation is crucial, as it serves to not only aid in the selection of course materials but also in the development of such materials. While a number of frameworks and checklists for materials evaluation have been published, the majority of these utilize criteria that fail to meet proposed standards for evaluation criteria, leaving teachers and other stakeholders inadequately prepared to perform rigorous textbook evaluation. While no generic evaluation can be created that would be perfectly appropriate for all possible contexts, it is possible to establish several generic criteria that are firmly based on our current understanding of language acquisition. This would allow stakeholders to incorporate, adapt, and expand on these criteria when forming context-appropriate evaluations. This paper sets forth such criteria, alongside expounding on the importance of the principles they were drawn from.
... We agree with the core tenets of cognitive and sociocognitive approaches to SLA. From the cognitive perspective, learners engage in L2 interaction, negotiate meaning and form, and utilize their cognitive and linguistic resources to attend to, process, become aware of, and integrate new input into their existing mental representations or automatize their knowledge through practice (e.g., DeKeyser, 2007;Gass, 2018;Long, 1985). Similarly, we align with the sociocognitive perspective that these cognitive and interactional processes occur through cooperative social action within an ecosocial environment (Atkinson, 2002). ...
We thank Dwight Atkinson for his thought-provoking commentary, which invites us into dialogue and provides an important opportunity to clarify points regarding the assumptions underlying proactive language learning theory (PLLT). Insightful discourse and scholarly exchange of ideas undoubtedly benefit the field and help us approach a much-needed basic consensus in second language acquisition (SLA) theory, which we believe PLLT helps to provide. Below, we discuss Atkinson's observations and offer clarification about the foundational principles of PLLT.
... In addition, PLT is supported by two well-known theories in the study of second language acquisition (SLA): The Interaction Hypothesis (Long 1985a(Long , 1985b(Long , 1996 and the Socio-Cultural Theory (SCT) of Vygotsky (1930). According to Long's theory, interaction between language learners fosters language growth. ...
Chengyu are essential to Chinese language and culture. They condense ancient Chinese wisdom in a story of four characters and are usually challenging for international students. In this research, a mixed method employing quantitative and qualitative techniques is adopted to investigate how using drama to perform the stories associated with the Chengyu might boost students’ understanding of them. The research was conducted at the language school in La Coruña, Spain, with 20 students aged 14-60, thirteen females and seven males of A1/HSK1 Chinese language level. The control and experimental groups comprised ten students who had to learn the same five Chengyu. One week after they learned the Chengyu, both groups took the same test to evaluate the degree of understanding of the five Chengyu. Statistical results show that students in the experimental group outperformed the ones in the control group. Therefore, we may argue that drama significantly helped students understand Chengyu.
... Willis emphasizes the role of tasks in promoting creative thinking, problem-solving, and effective communication, freeing language from simple sentence and vocabulary learning. Long (1985) focuses on the relationship between language input hypothesis and Task-Based Learning. He suggests that in Task-Based Learning, students use language to solve problems, thereby gaining appropriate input that facilitates language acquisition. ...
Background and aim: The changing times and technological advancements have led to a gradual shift in educational paradigms from traditional classroom teaching to adapting to the rapidly evolving electronic and information-based environment. The emergence of new guidelines for higher education underscores the need for a transformation in foreign language education, transitioning from mere mastery of language skills to the cultivation of comprehensive language abilities. To meet the demands of the new society, universities must improve and reform their overall curriculum. The objective of this study is to explore how task-based learning combined with a blended learning approach in the Basic English Reading and Writing course can improve basic English reading and writing skills and stimulate students learning enthusiasm, who are from first-year English major students at Xi’an International Studies University: This paper aims to (1) study the background information focusing on course components and existing problems of Basic English Reading and Writing course. (2) Develop a basic English Reading and Writing course to improve students’ reading and writing skills. And (3) determine the effectiveness of implementing the Basic English Reading and Writing course which can show analysis in-depth on the effectiveness for the sake of further research. Materials and methods: In this experimental study, the sample was 25 first-year students (one class) derived by random sampling. This study used pre-test and post-test design. Data were collected and analyzed by means, standard deviation, and t-test for dependent samples. Results: (1) Background information and problems of the course: There are 6 curriculum components: principle, objectives, contents, teaching strategies, media and resources, and evaluation. Problems in the aspects from 6 curriculum components: unsuitable principle for the requirement of the developed society, unpractical objective, out-of-date and unpractical contents, outdated--teacher-centered lecture and inflexible teaching strategy, lack of good media and resources, evaluation without covering the diverse percentage from cognitive, effective, and psychomotor domains. (2) Development of the course: The Basic English Reading and Writing course was developed based on the curriculum development process and learning theory. The result of development was the improved 6-course Task-based learning and blended learning from 6 curriculum components: principle based on new policies of Chinese Ministry of Education; new objective covering cognitive, effective, and psycho-motor domains; new contents modernized with requirements of society; teaching strategies combined with task-based learning and blended learning which consist of 3 stages: pre-class, in-class, and after-class and 6 steps of teaching included in the 3 stages, application of media and resources like Superstar Platform; new evaluation designed with a diverse percentage from cognitive, effective, and psychomotor domains. (3) Implementation of the course: After implementing the developed Basic English Reading and Writing Course Based on Task-based Learning Combined with Blended learning in the Classroom, the research results were as follows: (1). the students’ overall learning achievement was higher than before from the pre-test (M=55.04, SD=10.98) to the post-test (M=70.92, SD=10.21) with a statistical significance of .05 level. The students’ reading achievement was higher than before from the pre-test (M=36.52, SD=7.39) to the post-test (M=44.88, SD=9.23) with a statistical significance of .05 level. The students’ writing achievements were higher than before from the pre-test (M=17.08, SD=6.1) to the post-test (M=24.44, SD=4.89) with a statistical significance of .05 level. (2). The students’ satisfaction (M=3.89, SD=0.75) with the Basic English Reading and Writing Course Based on Task-based Learning Combined with Blended Learning was at a high level. Conclusion: The Basic English Reading and Writing Course Based on Task-based Learning Combined with Blended Learning has a significant effect on enhancing the English writing ability of non-English major students at Xi’an University. This is because the researcher used the latest principles, identified objectives, improved contents, online media and resources, and improved evaluation methods, especially teaching strategies combining task-based learning and blended learning. The clear tasks guide students to learn effectively with determined objectives and visualized achievements on their in-class tasks and off-class tasks which are accompanied by blended learning. Students are satisfied with the developed College English Course based on task-based learning combined with blended learning
... The fourth principle emphasizes ongoing assessment and adaptability. Adjusting teaching methods based on immediate student responses, such as accepting feedback via discussion forums during class intervals on the online platforms and regular online questionnaires (Long, 1985;Cazden, 1988). ...
A blended approach to learning is crucial for future English-Speaking courses. This study explores the application of TESOL six principles in English language instruction for blended learning. The recommendations include online questionnaires, conducive learning en-vironments, quality lessons, student progress monitoring, and fostering collaboration. Implementing these principles can effectively support student speaking course in higher education. Further research is needed to explore their implementation in different contexts and address chal-lenges in English language education.
... Krashenove myšlienky rozvinuli zástancovia interakcionizmu (napríklad Long, 1985), ktorí tvrdia, že vývin reči výrazne ovplyvňuje jazykové prostredie. To vplýva na všetky vrodené schopnosti dieťaťa. ...
Book about teaching foreign languages at primary education level - playfully, meaningfully, based on scientific research. /Kniha o vyučovaní cudzích jazykov na primárnom stupni - učiť hravo, zmysluplne, podložene na vedeckých výskumoch
... Estas tareas están diseñadas para que los estudiantes utilicen la lengua de manera práctica y se involucren activamente en la resolución de problemas y la consecución de objetivos comunicativos (Ellis, 2003;2005;. A través de las tareas, los estudiantes tienen la oportunidad de practicar y desarrollar sus habilidades lingüísticas en un contexto auténtico y motivador (Skehan, 1998;Long, 1985;. ...
RESUMEN Este artículo presenta un modelo integral y progresivo de desarrollo lingüístico, concebido para facilitar el aprendizaje efectivo de una segunda lengua o lengua extranjera (L2). Este modelo se basa en teorías educativas como el enfoque por tareas, la teoría de la metacognición y la lingüística cognitiva, y tiene como propósito fomentar la participación, la reflexión metacognitiva, la utilización de diversas estrategias de aprendizaje y la aplicación práctica de habilidades lingüísticas en situaciones reales. Estructurado en cinco etapas: Percepción, Focalización, Internalización, Aplicación y Producción (PFIAP), cada una complementada con actividades sugeridas, ofrece una visión concreta de su aplicación. Para demostrar su efectividad, se presentan los resultados de una prueba piloto realizada en un colegio secundario privado en Mar del Plata, donde tres docentes participaron en un grupo focal para evaluar la efectividad del modelo. Los comentarios obtenidos reflejaron tanto los beneficios como los desafíos de su implementación. A partir de estos datos, se destacan algunas implicaciones pedagógicas que subrayan la importancia de adoptar enfoques didácticos dinámicos y centrados en los estudiantes para mejorar el aprendizaje en el aula. Además, se identifican algunas limitaciones y desafíos potenciales en su aplicación. Se sugiere que, con adaptación y revisión continua, este enfoque podría convertirse en una valiosa herramienta pedagógica para la enseñanza de lenguas segundas o extranjeras. Palabras clave: desarrollo lingüístico; enseñanza de L2; enfoque integral; teorías cognitivas y metacognitivas; pedagogía. ABSTRACT This article presents a comprehensive and progressive model of linguistic development, conceived to facilitate the effective learning of a second or foreign language (L2). This model is based on educational theories such as task-based learning, metacognition theory, and cognitive linguistics, aiming to promote active participation, metacognitive reflection, the use of diverse learning strategies, and the practical application of language skills in real-life situations. Structured into five litstages: Perception, Focus, Internalization, Application, and Production (PFIAP), each complemented with suggested activities, it offers a concrete view of its application. To demonstrate its 1 Posdoctorado en Lingüística y doctor en Letras. Profesor Titular Exclusivo. Director grupo investigación Cuestiones del lenguaje. luchinipedroluis@gmail.com ARTÍCULO Para citaciones: Luchini, P. (2024). Modelo de desarrollo lingüístico secuencial en L2 (PFIAP): potenciando el aprendizaje efectivo de una L2. Visitas al Patio, 18(2), 242-256. https://doi. P. Este es un artículo de acceso abierto, distribuido bajo los términos de la licencia https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ la cual permite el uso sin restricciones, distribución y reproducción en cualquier medio, siempre y cuando el original, el autor y la fuente sean acreditados.
... Research has found that Facebook, a widely used sns, has potential to foster language learners' sociopragmatic awareness (Blattner & Fiori, 2011) and has been viewed as a facilitative platform for language learning (Kabilan, Ahmad, & Abidin, 2010). Learners can undertake more collaborative language-learning activities on Facebook (Lantz-Andersson, Vigmo, & Bowen, 2013), which increase their opportunities to practice using target language and to support their language development through interaction (Long, 1985). Integrating Facebook into language learning settings, especially in the efl context, makes it possible for learners to increase their amount of language production even outside of the language classroom. ...
The purpose of this study was to address a writing teacher’s perspective about integrating Facebook, a social networking site, into a university-level English writing course in Taiwan. Data, including interviews with the teacher and class postings on Facebook, were analyzed inductively, qualitatively, and interpretively, resulting in three emerging themes about the Facebook usage: students’ participation, the connection between class and Facebook discussion, and the affordance of Facebook. Each theme’s underlying properties were identified. This study provides language instructors with insights into the adoption of Facebook in an EFL context and supports them to better design tasks on Facebook.
... Task-Based Learning (TBL) emerged as a prominent pedagogical approach in language education, emphasizing the use of tasks as the primary unit of instruction (Willis & Willis, 2007). Rooted in the principle that language learning was most effective when learners were actively engaged in meaningful tasks, TBL replicated real-world activities and challenges (Long, 1985). This approach underscored the importance of authenticity, ensuring that tasks mirrored real-life situations, thereby enhancing the relevance and practicality of language learning (Ellis, 2003). ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has precipitated profound changes in global education, prompting rapid adaptation and innovation to sustain learning continuity. In Thailand, vocational education, emphasizing practical skills and language proficiency, faced pivotal adjustments. This study explores the efficacy of Task-Based Learning (TBL) in enhancing English communication skills, specifically vocabulary acquisition, within the Dramatic Arts program at Kalasin College of Dramatic Arts. Vocabulary acquisition is pivotal for effective communication and academic success, essential for students poised to represent Thai arts and culture internationally. Through integrating TBL, which engages students in real-world tasks, this research demonstrates significant improvements in vocabulary acquisition, overall language proficiency, and communication skills among vocational students. The findings underscore TBL's transformative impact on traditional teaching paradigms, empowering students for global professional environments. This study advocates for ongoing refinement of TBL methodologies, supported by continuous educator professional development and technological integration for effective remote and hybrid learning models. By equipping students with robust communication skills, educators play a crucial role in preparing them for successful global careers while promoting Thai cultural heritage on the international stage.
... In sum, the metaverse can provide the authenticity and relevance needed for social and cognitive language learning experiences , especially aligning with the principles of interactionist theories of second language acquisition (SLA), which argue that effective language learning relies on two-way communication and mutual interaction in authentic contexts (Long, 1985;Pica, 1996). In this light, the metaverse encourages increased interaction between teachers, learners, and content, thereby supporting communication, functional language use, task-based activities, collaborative learning, and student-centered active learning, all of which are key aspects of CLT (Hwang, 2023;Hwang et al., 2023b). ...
Alongside technological advances, the educational potential of artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots and the metaverse has generated significant interest in the field of computer-assisted language learning (CALL). However, despite this heightened interest, there have been no studies that have delved into the effective integration of these two technologies into educational contexts. In response to this concern, this research examined a teacher training course where pre-service teachers designed and used their customized chatbots within the context of the metaverse space. Fifty-five pre-service English teachers were assigned to the chatbot-only group (COG) (n = 31) and the chatbot-metaverse group (CMG) (n = 24). We first explored the CMG’s chatbot design works and teaching demonstrations in metaverse spaces and compared them to those of the COG, who developed and utilized chatbots in a physical classroom setting. We further compared their perceptions related to experiences with chatbot-based lesson designing and teaching demonstrations, using a survey and reflection papers. The comparison of design works and teaching demonstrations revealed that while both groups recognized the value and effectiveness of AI chatbots in the language classroom, the participants in the CMG tended to develop more authentic, immersive, and interactive learning tasks, with the metaverse space playing a crucial role as a context. Analysis of a survey and reflection papers indicated that the CMG reported more positive perceptions than the COG. We discussed how the metaverse space might have influenced the way teachers developed and integrated chatbots into their educational contexts. Pedagogical and theoretical implications regarding the combined use of AI chatbot and metaverse technologies were also provided.
... Willingness to communicate (WTC), or a person's voluntary decision to either engage in verbal communication or to stay silent when given the opportunity (MacIntyre, 2007(MacIntyre, , 2020, is one of the most central notions in the field of foreign and second language learning and teaching (Kang, 2005;Yashima et al., 2004), as learners who exhibit a high WTC tendency are more likely to succeed in language learning (MacIntyre, Baker et al., 2003;Yashima et al., 2004;Zhou et al., 2023). The importance of WTC lies in the pivotal role played by interaction in language development, as proposed by various perspectives, such as linguistics (Long, 1985;Swain, 1985Swain, , 1995 or sociocultural (e.g., Lantolf & Thorne, 2006). MacIntyre et al.'s (1998) seminal pyramid model of linguistic, communicative and socio-psychological variables that influence WTC led to a proliferation of research seeking to elucidate how a variety of factors impinge upon and interact with WTC that remains quite active in the present day. ...
The objectives of this study were to analyze the classroom Willingness to Communicate (WTC) of EFL learners in secondary schools in Poland and Spain, and to identify the factors that predict this type of WTC in both settings. The study found limited practical significance in the differences between the two groups’ WTC, with more similarities than differences emerging in the circumstances that encouraged or inhibited communication. The study examined several potential predictors of WTC, including gender, age, socioeconomic status (SES), relative standing among peers in oral production and interaction, Foreign Language Enjoyment (FLE), Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety (FLCA), and intercultural sensitivity. Of these factors, five (relative standing among peers in oral production and interaction, FLE, FLCA, extroversion and intercultural sensitivity) were found to predict classroom WTC in both settings. The study concludes by discussing some practical implications of these findings for EFL teaching at the secondary level.
... Cf., tra i tanti, Long 1985;Prabhu 1987;Candlin 1987;Willis 1996;Ellis 2003;Nunan 2004;Willis, Willis 2007;Bygate, Samuda 2008;Long 2015. ...
The aim of this article is to present the task as a strategic tool to manage multi-level and multi-cultural classes (CAD), in which recognising the differences (i.e. cognitive styles, multiple intelligences, personalities etc.) among students is the point of departure to devise a didactic plan. After an overview of what CAD and Task-Based Language Teaching are, we will try to adapt few strategies used in the CAD to the different task phases. In particular, we will look at ways to grade the input, what variables to take into consideration to grade the task and what types of tasks have been proposed, through the years, as useful in terms of differentiation. Finally, we will explore what grading the focus on form means.
... Post-discussion correction and extension by the teacher also draws attention to salient language features. This focused and regularly repeated learner-led interaction and teacher input, as Long (1985) hypothesizes, allows these interactional adjustments to improve comprehension, which may then more easily allow acquisition to take place (Spada and Lightbown, 2010). ...
This paper offers an overview of a structured approach to classroom student-led discussions, including the rationale, processes and procedures. Specifically, we briefly review the origins and development of discussion circles (sometimes referred to as literature circles) and detail how this powerful approach is being implemented in a content and language integrated learning (CLIL) program for non-English majors learning the language at a private university in western Japan. Additionally, it is argued that a similar approach might also boost learner engagement and better ensure deeper levels of learning in a range of university courses, including but not limited to language courses. It is hoped that this snapshot inspires readers to experiment with discussion circles and other active learning approaches.
... Since the inception of the field of SLA, input has been a mainstay of theorizing and empirical research (e.g., Gass, 2018;Krashen, 1985;Long, 1985;N. Ellis, 2019). ...
Second language acquisition theory has traditionally focused on the cognitive and psycholinguistic processes involved in additional language (L2) learning. In addition, research on learner psychology has primarily centered on learners’ cognitive abilities (e.g., aptitude and working memory) and internal traits or states (e.g., dispositions, motivations, and affect). Language learning behavior, however, has remained largely neglected and under‐theorized. To address this gap, this paper proposes the proactive language learning theory, which delineates the agentic and strategic behaviors that learners employ to learn an additional language. These behaviors include input‐seeking behavior, interaction‐seeking behavior, information‐seeking behavior, and feedback‐seeking behavior. This paper presents theoretical arguments supporting the proposal, describes the four behavioral dimensions of the theory, and outlines general hypotheses concerning the contextual and learner‐related antecedents of these behaviors and their effects on L2 outcomes. Finally, the potential implications of this theory for advancing our understanding of L2 learning and instruction are discussed.
... Listening is the most widely used of the four traditional language skills (Feyton, 1991). And it has been found to play a critical role in second language (L2) learning (Long, 1985). ...
... Desde la perspectiva que presentamos en este capítulo, el feedback interactivo es una práctica que forma parte del proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje y contribuye al desarrollo comunicativo de los aprendientes de español LE/L2. En el ámbito de la ASL, la investigación sobre el feedback se ha desarrollado desde la perspectiva de la Hipótesis de la Interacción (HI) (Long 1981(Long , 1985(Long , 1991, captación del input (Noticing Hypothesis) (Schmidt 1990(Schmidt , 1994, concienciación lingüística (Language Awareness) (Borg 1994) y también desde la TSC (Aljaafreh y Lantolf 1994;Swain 2000;Swain y Watanabe 2013). Desde la ASL se ha explorado qué modalidades (oral, escrita, automatizada) y técnicas (explícitas o implícitas) de feedback resultan más efectivas en relación con su eficacia y la cantidad de errores (focused vs. unfocused feedback), el tipo de tarea y la percepción de docentes y aprendientes sobre su utilidad (ver el apartado 2). ...
En este capítulo se analiza el feedback como un proceso interaccional que promueve la regulación personal, se presenta una metodología para la práctica del feedback gradual en las tutorías entre docente y aprendiente y se sugieren pautas para promover la autorregulación durante la revisión de textos escritos y orales. El feedback interactivo estimula en el aprendiente la coconstrucción de significados a través de reflexiones guiadas sobre su actuación en la LE/L2. Esta actividad se realiza a través de un tipo de mediación que se configura como una actividad colaborativa en que se manifiesta la autonomía del aprendiente con respecto a su producción en la lengua meta. El feedback interactivo representa, por lo tanto, una actividad formativa que promueve el paso de la heterorregulación (other-regulation) a la autorregulación (self-regulation) en el aprendizaje de una LE/L2. / This chapter analyzes feedback as an interactional process that promotes personal regulation. It presents a methodology for the practice of gradual feedback in teacher-learner interactions, and guidelines to foster self-regulation during the revision of written and oral texts. Interactive feedback prompts co-construction of knowledge through learners’ guided reflections on their L2 performance. These tasks are carried out through teacher-learner collaborative activity aimed at promoting learner’s autonomy with respect to their target language production. Interactive feedback, therefore, represents a formative activity that promotes the transition from other-regulation to self-regulation in the learning of a foreign/second language.
... In 1978, Naiman, Fröhlich, Stern, and Todesco conducted a study entitled 'The Good Language Learner'. Following this research, further studies were undertaken by many scholars in the 1980s namely: Long (1985), Ellis (1986), Johnson and Newport (1989), and Oxford (1989). Naiman et al. (1978) aimed to identify distinguishing traits and strategies of successful language learners. ...
The article presents the findings of a case study that examines the learning strategies and characteristics of successful language learners among EFL graduate students. The study investigates the language learning approaches employed by these students and explores the extent to which they possess the traits that define effective language learners. The research involved a sample (N=118) of graduate students from the Master’s and Doctorate programs in Morocco. The data were collected using a questionnaire that was adapted from the original version developed by Oxford (1990) that focused on different types of learning strategies. The results reveal high levels of engagement in memory, metacognitive, cognitive, compensatory, and affective strategies, indicating the proficiency and commitment of the participants as language learners. While the use of social strategies received a moderate rating, the study underscores the importance of individual learning and personal strategies for these students. The findings support the notion that graduate students possess the characteristics of good language learners, including self-motivation, positive attitudes, metacognitive awareness, and resourcefulness. The implications of these findings suggest the integration of diverse learning strategies into language teaching, learner training programs, and further exploration of social strategies. The study contributes to our understanding of successful language learning among graduate students and provides insights into the effective strategies and traits that contribute to their learning process.
... Language input, defined as the language data learners are exposed to (Long, 1985), represents one main pre-requisite for language learning to occur. In foreign language contexts in general and in Tunisia in particular teachers represent the primary source of input for language learners. ...
In this report, I analyze a set of rhetorical features of EFL students’ writing productions submitted as part of their English language class assessment. Participants are pre-service teachers in their second year of an undergraduate program in Education and teaching at the Université de Gabès Institut Supérieur des Arts et Métiers, Tataouine (ISAMT). Upon graduation, they are expected to be recruited as primary school teachers in Tunisia. Five argumentative paragraphs were selected to be analyzed and rated in terms of four rubrics: Discourse, Topical control, Language, and Mechanics with a focus on the first two rubrics. These paragraphs have been written after instruction on argumentative paragraph writing was delivered. Quantitative analysis included the calculation of merit and value scores and qualitative analysis focused on specific issues related to their argumentation strategies. Findings reveal that while students still experience some rhetorical issues in developing argumentative paragraphs, explicit instruction of rhetorical features seem to have improved their argumentation skills. Issues relating to micro language elements such as vocabulary and grammar persist even though students had English language instruction for nine years at school. Pedagogical implications include the need to address the rhetorical features identified in the qualitative analysis during English language training at university and reconsider existing approaches to the teaching of English as a foreign language in Tunisia.
... According to Long (1985), interaction and input are important elements in the language acquisition procedure. He claims that interaction and conversation are the foundation for the progress of language rules by leaving behind the old approach which is based on drilling grammatical structures. ...
Contributing to language teaching by using computers is an area that has been
developing since the 1960s. Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) research,
which started with mainframe computers, continues with computers with superior
features currently. These enhancements have not only been limited to hardware but have also made significant progress in terms of software. Today, interactive studies are conducted in many areas with the assistance of interactive technology. Some of these studies are related to simulation games. This study aimed to measure the effects of computer multimedia life simulation games on English vocabulary learning and to reveal the positive and negative effects of using simulation games in a classroom environment. Eighteen participants from the prep classes of Mustafa Kemal University participated in the study and two groups were formed as experiment and control group.
This experimental study was carried out in a computer laboratory for four weeks and in the light of the data obtained from the pretests and posttests, it was observed that computer multimedia life simulation games had a significant effect on learning English vocabulary. In addition, journal entries and findings from an Implementation Evaluation Questionnaire have revealed some positive and negative consequences of using simulation games in classroom settings.
... Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistic approaches to language achievement aim at the significance of social contacts and detaining. A collection of recent surveys Long (1985Long ( , 1996 have pointed to that Interaction Hypothesis in language development as realized by person-to-person communication and the linguistic communications that occur. ...
... He goes further to believe that it is futile to look for one best method. Accordingly, in the pursuit of the research, the researcher is determined to keep as far away from the old established and prescribed methodologies as he resorts to more interactionist theories such as the one conducted by Long (1985). ...
The present study was an attempt to investigate the impact of using ENGAGE model on the speaking components of Iranian EFL learners. A thorough review of the related literature revealed poor record of practical work in the domain of ELT concerning the effect of using ENGAGE model in speaking skill of L2 learners. A quasi-experimental study was designed and 100 Iranian female EFL learners with the age range of 18 to 25 in Mofid language institute in Damghan were selected out of 150 intermediate students according to their performance in a standard Oxford Quick Placement Test (QPT). The selected participants were randomly divided into three groups, receiving instructions based on the principles of ALM (n=32), TBLT (n=33), and ENGAGE model (n=35). The study participants went through the process of pretesting, intervention, and post-testing. Then, the data collected were analyzed via SPSS software version 25 and a measure of multivariate ANOVA (MANOVA) was run to probe the null-hypotheses. The outcome of the posttest data analysis clarified that compared to TBLT and ALM; the ENGAGE model had a more significant effect on the speaking sub-skills of the participants such as fluency and coherence, lexical resource, grammatical range and accuracy, and pronunciation of Iranian EFL learners in speaking. Findings of the present study could be used by ELT practitioners, program developers, and teachers of English in both EFL and ESL contexts. ALM ENGAGE Model Iranian EFL Learners Speaking Components TBLT
... Furthermore, PLT is supported by two well-known theories in the field of second language acquisition (SLA): The Interaction Hypothesis (Long 1985a(Long , 1985b(Long , 1996 and the Socio-Cultural Theory (SCT) (Vygotsky [1930(Vygotsky [ ] 1978. According to Long's hypothesis, interaction between language learners promotes language development. ...
The author reports about a concrete example of embodied performative practice in the language classroom that can be adapted to different language levels. This workshop allows students to become pilgrims on Spain's El Camino (The Way) de Santiago de Compostela, a pilgrimage route with a long history that ends in the medieval city of Santiago de Compostela, located on the Northwest region of Galicia in Spain. While participating in the workshop Performing El Camino (The Way) of Santiago de Compostela, students must collaborate and complete several tasks while using the target language in a context similar to the real world. It is hoped that this proposal is helpful for language teachers and learners in the quest for fresh approaches to using embodied performative teaching in the classroom.
... Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229-9327 89 significance of interaction in the learning process is supported by evidence from three SLA hypotheses: Krashen's (1982) input hypothesis, Long's (1983Long's ( , 1985Long's ( , 1990Long's ( , 1996interactional hypothesis, and Swain's (1985Swain's ( , 1995Swain's ( , 2005output hypothesis. Ignoring the link between interaction and classroom discourse is becoming extremely difficult because everything in a classroom is mediated through interaction, including learning (Richards & Rodgers, 2001;Zuengler& Mori, 2002). ...
... Arab World English Journal www.awej.org ISSN: 2229-9327 89 significance of interaction in the learning process is supported by evidence from three SLA hypotheses: Krashen's (1982) input hypothesis, Long's (1983Long's ( , 1985Long's ( , 1990Long's ( , 1996interactional hypothesis, and Swain's (1985Swain's ( , 1995Swain's ( , 2005output hypothesis. Ignoring the link between interaction and classroom discourse is becoming extremely difficult because everything in a classroom is mediated through interaction, including learning (Richards & Rodgers, 2001;Zuengler& Mori, 2002). ...
In March 2020, the Saudi government announced that school and university courses were to be held online to control the COVID-19 outbreak. A sudden yet smooth movement occurred from traditional face-to-face classrooms to online courses. This shift influenced the nature of classes, the nature of the interaction, and the participants’ roles. Interaction in online classes is viewed as a form of computer-mediated communication. This paper explores the nature of computer-mediated communication in online courses at one of the major research universities in Riyadh during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using an in-depth qualitative analysis of Walsh’s (2006) framework of Self-Evaluation of Teacher talk, this study examines the nature of classroom discourse and interactions among level six students who took a content course in English and lectures were transcribed for this study. Results answer questions regarding the common interaction modes and features and how efficient they are to encourage participation during Computerized Mediated Communication. Analysis reveals that using traditional interactional features is not suitable in virtual classes.Teacher dominated classes with excessive IRFs patterns do not cultivate interaction in Computerized Mediated Communication. New modes of communication and discursive features using more interactive tools and engaging features such as referential questions promote interaction. Results provide an insight into the nature of interaction in online university classrooms. It also adds to the current literature on Computerized Mediated Communication interaction to enhance the existing practices done in classrooms.
... Il TIOS -Teacher Input Observation Scheme (Kersten et al., 2018) -, una scheda di osservazione sulla qualità dell'input linguistico fornito dagli insegnanti, è stato elaborato e scientificamente convalidato in diversi anni di studi pilota dalla Prof. Kristin Kersten dell'Università di Hildesheim come strumento per aiutare gli insegnanti che operano in Germania in contesti scolastici bilingui a identificare le caratteristiche di un input linguistico e delle strategie di interazione efficaci con gruppi eterogenei. Il TIOS rende operative le tecniche di insegnamento della L2 in un quadro teorico cognitivo-interattivista, «Interaction Hypothesis» (Long, 1981;2017), basato sulla comprensione dei principi e delle procedure di acquisizione della seconda lingua, compreso il ruolo dell'esposizione iniziale alla L2, l'interazione tra input e output, e la variazione individuale nel controllo produttivo della L2 degli studenti. ...
L’osservazione in classe e l’analisi dei dati di recenti ricerche mostrano che i docenti non madrelingua (non-native speaker teachers: NNSTs) che insegnano in seconda lingua o in lingua straniera nelle università italiane spesso non dispongono delle competenze linguistiche necessarie per utilizzare fluentemente ed efficacemente alcune strutture linguistiche che appartengono alle pratiche discorsive di un’altra comunità linguistica. Imparare a identificare queste strutture e a padroneggiarle è la chiave per una comunicazione scientifica di successo e per la trasmissione di conoscenze disciplinari. Il presente contributo prende in esame una ricerca su piccola scala condotta (e ancora in corso) presso la Libera Università di Bolzano volta a favorire nei docenti di discipline non-linguistiche la competenza e consapevolezza linguistica e la capacità di interazione in classe. Si è deciso di utilizzare il microteaching come strumento performativo e osservativo per lo sviluppo delle competenze multilinguistiche. Da un punto di vista pedagogico, la dimensione del feedback del microteaching è centrale: il microteaching, infatti, può promuovere la riflessività dei docenti e un insegnamento e un apprendimento visibili. Attingendo a precedenti ricerche sull’analisi delle interazioni in classe, lo studio esamina come l’uso di uno strumento di osservazione dell’input linguistico (Teacher Input Observation Scheme: TIOS) possa guidare i docenti a una native-like selection and fluency in contesti didattici basati sul contenuto, aiutandoli a rilevare i pattern di input linguistico e a identificare le opportunità per massimizzare l’apprendimento integrato di contenuto e lingua.
Parole chiave:
Università multilingue; Microteaching; ICLHE (Integrating Content and Language in Higher Education); Input linguistico; Formazione docenti
This chapter discusses how to select and modify reading materials to promote the development of second language (L2) learners’ reading comprehension and L2 proficiency.
The quality and volume of research and publication in ELT display exponential growth due to the ways in which teachers and stakeholders have started to view the ELT classroom. This increase in interest can also be the result of the dilution of interdisciplinary borders. The acceptance and incorporation of the use of technology is no longer a burning question—during these years the focus is on the ways in which these can be harnessed for maximum impact and efficacy. The struggle with the perception of English as an alien tongue now stands suspended in the immersive and global vat of World Englishes. The impact of multiple influences from diverse fields brings about a shift towards examining and understanding the micro facets of the ELT panorama.
[名桜大学総合研究] University Research Institute Bulletin
It was expected that using online learning was effective and would easily spread in Japanese context where opportunities of speaking in English are extremely limited. This study aims to examine not only effects and challenges as well as motivation for communication, but also conducted activities by using Skype Online English Conversation for individual learning outside the classroom. The 50 intermediate-level participants taking an M University English major class used Online English Conversation eight times, 25 minutes each for one month. The data collected from the semi-structured questionnaire and logbook were analyzed. The results show the followings. First, a majority of responses acknowledged positive effects （rate of 70 ％ to 90 ％ positive responses in 15 items out of 24 items）. All the responses under 70 ％ of positive responses were about their own abilities, therefore there were no negative responses. Second, the most effective aspect （with more than 90 ％ of positive responses） was Online Conversation teachers’ scaffolding for the students. It is suggested that the teachers assisted the students sympathetically, and understanding of conversation was reached through collaboration between teacher and student. Third, it is inconclusive that motivation for confidence in communication was gained. Lastly, there was no student who voluntarily used Online English Conversation after the project. The challenges shown by the results are potential burden of service fees, difficulty using the program at home, also control of activities and necessary adjustments for individual users.
Integration of computers into Foreign Language (fl) learning has become the allbut-inevitable direction for the future, given the (a) considerable benefits this affords for students of English as a Foreign Language (efl), (b) characteristics of today’s learners as Generation Z (González-Lloret & Ortega, 2014), and (c) widespread use of the internet in the twenty-first century. This situation has spurred a transformation of ComputerAssisted Language Learning (call) into Web-Facilitated Language Learning (wfll) as an alternative paradigm for efl teachers and learners. Furthermore, Task-Based Language Teaching (tblt) is likely to serve as a pedagogical framework in designing the web for the purpose of fl learning. The primary objectives of the present study were therefore to (a) develop a teacher-designed learning website, namely I Love Indonesia, and (b) gather information from high school learners of English in Indonesia with different attitudes towards call (positive/moderate/negative) in correlation with how they perceive wfll (agree/disagree) and perform web-based activities. Descriptive Statistics, if Function in Excel, Correlation Analysis, and Independent-samples T-test were employed in the study. Finally, the study findings demonstrate that (a) the majority of learners participating in the study have positive attitudes towards call, (b) all focused participants have positive perceptions of wfll and (c) learners with positive attitudes are likely to have more positive perceptions (to agree) than moderate and negative attitude learners (ones who disagree) on the use of the website for language learning. In addition, the website seems to benefit efl learners in some specific areas. Consideration should be given to working with 158 The jalt call Journal 2018: Regular Papers a greater number of learners over a longer period of time when conducting further studies on the effectiveness of the website for efl learners in order to be able to shed some light on the development of their language skills.
The justification for incorporating Stanislavski’s System and the associated research becomes evident when considering its effectiveness in enhancing writing skills for Chinese as Second Language students (CSL). Hence, as demonstrated in this chapter, the case study presented herein possesses a wider value for the field of CSL research, extending beyond its specific context. In the context of Hong Kong, the presence of a rising population of ethnic minority students has led to an increased need for acquiring Chinese as a second language after the language policy change in 1997. This chapter centres around a case study that examines the application of Stanislavski’s System in addressing challenges encountered in Chinese narrative writing among students learning Chinese as a Second Language in a local secondary school in Hong Kong. The study’s theoretical framework consists of three main pillars: (1) the second language acquisition theories, specifically the Input Hypothesis Model proposed by Krashen (The input hypothesis: issues and implications. Longman, 1985), and the Interactive Hypothesis put forth by Long (Long MH. Input and second language acquisition theory. In: Gass SM, Madden CG (eds) Input in second language acquisition. Newbury House, pp 377–393, 1985, The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In Ritchie WC, Bhatia TK (eds) Handbook of second language acquisition. Academic, pp 413-468, 1996); (2) Stanislavski’s System (Creative work with actors: a discussion on directing. In: Cole T, Chinoy H (eds) (1976). Directors on directing. Macmillan, 1936, An actor’s work. Routledge, 2008); and (3) the genre theories regarding narrative writing, which are based on Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar (Introduction to functional grammar, 1st edn. Arnold, 1985). The research participants in this study consisted of a Chinese language teacher and her class of Form 2 ethnic minority students (N = 9). The collaboration between the practitioner-as-researcher and the schoolteacher involved the application of Stanislavski’s System (Stanislavski K. Creative work with actors: a discussion on directing. In: Cole T, Chinoy H (eds) (1976). Directors on directing. Macmillan, 1936, Stanislavski K. An actor’s work. Routledge, 2008) within the context of a Chinese narrative writing class over a period of one year. The analysis of students’ writings was conducted employing Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar (Halliday MAK, Matthiessen CMIM. An introduction to functional grammar, 3rd edn. Routledge, 2004, Halliday MAK, Matthiessen CMIM. Halliday’s introduction to functional grammar, 4th edn. Routledge, 2013). The study hired a pre-experimental research design to assess the efficacy of Stanislavski’s System in improving the Chinese narrative writing skills of non-native Chinese speaking (NCS) students. The findings indicated enhancements in the overall writing performance. As a result of the discovery of more emotive lexicons, the students’ capacity to convey their emotions through the written form of Chinese improved as well.
Emphasizing the necessity for theory-driven language acquisition research, the studies in this collection aim to formalize the kinds of information available to first and second language learners, as well as to shed light on how that information is used to solve a variety of learning problems. The volume pays homage to the scholarly contributions of Susanne E. Carroll, delving into the impact she has had on the field of language acquisition. The central themes of input, evidence, and exposure – found throughout Carroll’s work – are explored in this volume. The contributions cover a range of topics such as the emergence of linguistic theorizing in language acquisition research, the acquisition of grammatical gender, classroom language learning, learning on first exposure, asymmetries between developmental trajectories in first and second language acquisition, and the effects of grammatical complexity on language development.
Kim, Jie Young. (2007). Factors influencing the English classes using a web-based bulletin board system. English Language & Literature Teaching, 13(3), 227-251. The development and use of computer mediated communications (CMC) as a tool for teaching and learning English has grown considerably in recent years. The purpose of this study is to investigate factors related to learners' participation, achievement, and satisfaction in EFL classes using web-based bulletin boards. The total number of 77 university students participated in this study. Three domains and eight independent variables investigated in this study were a learner-related domain (attitudes toward CMC, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, attitudes toward writing), an interaction-related domain (student-student interaction, teacher-student interaction), and an environmental domain (physical support and design of the web site). In order to determine interrelation of variables correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis were used. The results of this study showed that the factors predicting a learner's participation were instrumental motivation, attitudes toward writing, and teacher-student interaction. The factors explaining a learner's achievement were learner's participation and attitudes toward writing, and the factors predicting a learner's satisfaction were integrative motivation, student-student interaction, teacher-student interaction, physical support and learner's participation. [CMC/factor analysis/blended learning, 컴퓨터 매개 커뮤니케이션/요인분석/복 합학습환경] I. 서론 제2언어를 어떻게 습득하는가에 대한 여러 이론들 중에 Long(1985, 1996) 의 상호작용이론은 학습자들이 상호작용을 통하여 이해 가능한 입력을 극대화 시키고 그에 따라 습득이 이루어진다고 설명하고 있다. 이 이론에 따르면 상호
When identifying learning styles, attitudes, and self-awareness/perceptions for future directions in mastering English language skills, it is important to take into account psychological and sociolinguistic elements as well as other external factors that can impact students’ abilities and understanding. This study employed a Likert-based survey approach to examine significant challenges encountered by students, and the quantitative and qualitative findings were analyzed and interpreted by the professors. The researchers were able to observe that visual aids, class participation, positive attitudes in academic activities, positive attitudes towards other students' contributions and non-verbal reactions, and being team players are important factors in achieving success in the classroom. It was evident that students showed moderate performance in these areas. However, the researchers, who are an English language educator and a psychologist, still view the students' individual and group evaluation feedback as a way to create support methods for boosting student engagement and personal development, ultimately leading to higher ratings, and for encouraging reflective practice among professors.
Este estudo descreveu e interpretou as crenças do professor de inglês sobre o ensino e a aprendizagem da língua estrangeira, particularmente, sobre o ensino da gramática. Buscou conhecer a origem das crenças e os fatores de formação, as influências na prática do professor, a organização em sistemas individuais de crenças e a cultura de ensino. Participaram desta investigação dez professores de inglês de escolas particulares de línguas do sul do Brasil. A pesquisa utilizada foi de natureza etnográfica, e as técnicas de coleta de dados foram as entrevistas e as observações de aula. Concluiu-se que as crenças são originadas a partir de experiências significativas vividas pelos professores, principalmente como alunos de LE e como professores em sala de aula, e que eles, compartilhando ou não estas crenças, pertencem a uma cultura de ensino comum, a cultura de ensino da língua inglesa.
Interaction is an essential requirement in language courses. However, high class population, classroom noise, and fear of public speaking among learners are just a few of the obstacles that instructors and students may face while communicating with each other. Therefore, distant and web-based education platforms can facilitate dialogues between students and instructors beyond the confines of the classroom. The study aims to determine the extent of Learning Management System (LMS) interactions between English as a foreign language (EFL) instructors and their students. In this descriptive study, 246 English instructors employed in preparatory schools across a range of state and private universities in Türkiye participated. A demographics questionnaire and a survey with 24 items were given to the participants for data collection. The findings indicated that there were three levels of interaction between EFL instructors and their students while using LMSs: high, moderate, and low.
В статье исследуется специфика объясняющей стратегии преподавателя языка профессии в вузе на примере преподавания английского языка для профессиональных целей будущим экономистам-международникам в МГИМО МИД России. Анализируются практические аспекты данной стратегии как комплекса педагогических действий по передаче знаний, направленных на сближение учебного профессионального иноязычного дискурса с реальной профессиональной коммуникацией на иностранном языке. На основе педагогического наблюдения делается вывод о том, что объясняющая стратегия преподавателя языка специальности носит междисциплинарный характер и включает в себя элементы других педагогических стратегий. При этом преподаватель отчасти делегирует свою объясняющую функцию самим студентам как носителям экономических знаний. Заключается, что трансформация объясняющей стратегии преподавателя языка профессии снижает статусность учебного дискурса, ориентирует его на интересы и потребности студентов, создавая таким образом благоприятные условия для формирования и совершенствования профессионально релевантных языковых и предметных компетенций будущих экономистов-международников. Предлагается адаптировать сделанные выводы к преподаванию иностранного языка специальности в вузе по другим направлениям подготовки.
The article explores the specifics of the explanatory function of the teacher of a foreign language for specific purposes focusing on teaching English to MGIMO students majoring in International Economic Relations. From a practical perspective such strategy is defined as a complex of the teacher’s communicative acts of delivering knowledge aimed at bridging the gap between the foreign language professionally oriented classroom discourse and a real life professional interaction in a foreign language. It is derived from pedagogical monitoring that the strategy in question is of a multidisciplinary nature and embraces the elements of other pedagogical strategies, with the teacher delegating part of their explanatory function to students who posses knowledge in Economics. The conclusion is drawn that a transformed explanatory strategy of the teacher of a foreign language for professional purposes makes the classroom discourse less status-oriented and more student-centered, which sets up a favorable learning environment enabling to form and improve professionally relevant language and content competences of would-be economists. It is recommended to apply the above conclusions to the theory and practice of teaching a foreign language for specific purposes to students majoring in other disciplines.
This study investigated incidental focus on form by comparing the relative effects of two types of focus on form, namely reactive vs. student-initiated preemptive focus on form on learners' uptake in Iranian EFL context. To obtain the required data, twenty hours of naturally occurring meaning focused L2 lessons were observed in two classes of female adults. A total of 371 focus on form episodes (FFEs) were identified and transcribed. These FFEs were then categorized in terms of student-initiated and reactive episodes. Categories of uptake and successful uptake following these FFEs were also identified and transcribed. The chi-square analysis was used to investigate the relationship between two types of FFE (i.e. reactive vs. student-initiated FFE) and uptake. Logistic regression analysis was also used to predict which Types of FFE may affect the production of uptake and its successfulness. The results indicated that learner uptake was generally high and successful. The amount of uptake was high in student-initiated FFEs. There was a higher frequency of successful uptake following reactive FFEs. Finally, the implications of such variation for both research and teaching were discussed. KEYWORDS: FFE; Incidental focus on form; Preemptive focus on form; Reactive focus on form; Student-initiated focus on for; Uptake [ Downloaded from mjltm.org on 2024-05-13 ]
This quasi-experimental study was an attempt to examine the effects of two types of corrective
feedback, namely recast and metalinguistic feedback on the acquisition of English regular past tense-
ed by Iranian EFL learners. To this end, 45 female learners of English at a low intermediate level
were randomly selected as the participants of this study and were assigned into two experimental
groups and one control group. The experimental groups received recast and metalinguistic for-
focused feedback on the target form following picture description tasks while the learners in the
control group received no feedback. The acquisition of regular past tense-ed was measured by means
of metalinguistic knowledge and oral imitation tests. The results of the one-way ANOVA showed
that the experimental groups who received corrective feedback outperformed the control group who
did not receive any feedback. The findings of the study also indicated that there were no significance
differences between the two types of corrective feedback in terms of learners’ performance in an EFL
context. The results of this study are considered to be useful in error correction techniques, syllabus
and task designers especially in EFL contexts.
This chapter presents an overview of automated writing evaluation tools that can be used by L2 learners to help them improve their English writing skills. It discusses how these tools were used to improve the writing of students who are preparing to become teachers. The chapter shows how automated writing evaluation (AWE) and digital writing assistant (DWA) tools can give students immediate feedback on their writing, both of which address their specific needs and help them to continue to develop as L2 users. These tools can be used to help students identify and correct grammar and vocabulary choice errors in their writing, allowing them to improve their language skills and communicate more effectively.
The relative weighting of f0 and vowel reduction in English spoken word recognition at the sentence level were investigated in one two-alternative forced-choice word identification experiment. In the experiment, an H* pitch-accented or a deaccented word fragment (e.g., AR- in the word archive) was presented at the end of a carrier sentence for identification. The results of the experiment revealed differences in the cue weighting of English lexical stress perception between native and non-native listeners. For native English listeners, vowel quality was a more prominent cue than f0, while native Mandarin Chinese listeners employed both vowel quality and f0 in a comparable fashion. These results suggested that (a) vowel reduction is superior to f0 in signaling initial stress in the words and (b) f0 facilitates the recognition of word initial stress, which is modulated by first language.
En situation d'apprentissage des langues secondes, le numérique permet-il une centration ou entraine-t-il, au contraire, une division de l'attention portée au matériel langagier ? Favorise-t-il son traitement, dans quelles conditions, pour quels apprenants ? La psychologie cognitive décrit différentes dimensions de l'attention : la sélection d'informations, le traitement et la manipulation de ces informations en mémoire, ou encore la prise de conscience et le contrôle de son action. Dans ce texte, ces différentes facettes de l'attention permettent d'examiner, résultats d'expérimentations à l'appui, ce que le numérique modifie du point de vue de la répartition des ressources attentionnelles, quand il s'agit d'apprendre une langue seconde.
As educational institutions increasingly rely on technology to reach learners, there is a need to interrogate the inclusiveness, equity, or bias inherent in these tools. This scoping review of literature evaluated research studies to assess the presence or lack of inclusive learning design in educational technologies targeting English Language Learners in K-12 schools in the United States. Through this study, we note although creators of educational technology are striving to incorporate UDL guidelines in K12 learning technologies, much remains unaddressed to realize these goals.
Keywords: Inclusion, English language learners, equity, Universal Design for Learning, social justice.
The chapter introduces the last indicator of the model: Teacher and Learner Language Use. It explains why it is important for teachers to adjust teacher talk for the proficiency levels of the learners, provide clear explanations of classroom activities, model multilingual language practices (e.g., translanguaging), and employ a variety of techniques to explain new concepts. It also justifies the importance of engaging learners’ full linguistic repertoires in oral and written communication and of giving learners opportunities to clarify concepts in their home languages or other languages they know.KeywordsComprehensible inputComprehensible outputHome language(s)Linguistic repertoireMulticompetencePedagogical translanguaging
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