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The CES‐D Scale: A self‐report depression scale for research in the general popula‐ tion
... The pernicious effects of poverty-related stress also extend to flourishing, a state of social-134 psychological prosperity marked by promoting and maintaining emotional vitality, social 135 connectivity, and general positive functioning (Diener et al., 2010). Pertinent theory asserts poverty-136 related stress places significant barriers in helping lower-income individuals obtain social capital 137 resources needed to find meaning, pursue goals, and achieve success in daily life (Conger & (Radloff, 1977). ...
... Total scores ranged from 20 to 80, with higher scores indicating 377 greater levels of depressive symptoms. The CES-D is a reliable assessment for depressive symptoms 378 across race, gender, and age categories (Radloff, 1977). The CES-D demonstrates high internal 379 consistency with Cronbach's alpha coefficients ranging from .85 to .90 (Radloff, 1977). ...
... The CES-D is a reliable assessment for depressive symptoms 378 across race, gender, and age categories (Radloff, 1977). The CES-D demonstrates high internal 379 consistency with Cronbach's alpha coefficients ranging from .85 to .90 (Radloff, 1977). The CES-D 380 also demonstrates adequate test-retest stability, excellent concurrent validity by clinical and self-381 report criteria, and excellent construct validity (Radloff, 1977). ...
Background: Poverty-related stress plays a pivotal role in mediating the impact of poverty on behavioral health outcomes. However, existing research on adult poverty-related stress suffers from limited scope and inadequate measurement approaches. To address these shortcomings, our study undertakes a comprehensive investigation to develop and validate a multidimensional Poverty-Related Stress Scale (PRSS).
Methods: A multi-study research design was employed to develop and validate the PRSS. Study 1 (N = 206) established a multidimensional framework for poverty-related stress by exploring the factor structure and internal consistency of our measure. Study 2 (N = 400) evaluated nuanced psychometric properties, including factorial validity, internal consistency, and temporal invariance, using confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) and modern exploratory structural equation models (ESEM). Lastly, Study 3 (N = 470/219) examined the criterion validity of our scale by investigating its concurrent and predictive relationships with depression, anxiety, and flourishing.
Results: The findings consistently supported a hierarchal ESEM model for overall poverty-related stress, reflecting the dynamic interaction among three stressors: noise disturbance, housing dysfunction, and financial distress. This model exhibited temporal invariance, with different studies reliably measuring distinct components of poverty-related stress. Concurrent validity was demonstrated by significant associations between overall poverty-related stress and theoretically relevant constructs, such as depression, anxiety, and flourishing, at different time points. Additionally, predictive validity was established, showing poverty-related stress measured at Time 1 accounted for variations in depression, anxiety, and flourishing at Time 2. The results provide robust evidence for the validity and reliability of the PRSS as a tool for measuring poverty-related stress and its underlying factors.
Conclusions: Our findings offer compelling preliminary support for the utility of our measure. Further research and potential clinical applications are discussed to deepen the understanding of poverty-related stress and its implications for behavioral health outcomes.
... More recently, Kenyon (1964) concluded (on the basis of similarities in age of onset, course of illness, gender breakdown, and somatic focus) that depression and hypochondriasis are the same disorder. However, because it is possible to identify hypochondriacal patients who are not depressed (e.g., Kellner, Simpson, & Winslow, 1972; and because the current nosological structure of the DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) also differentiates hypochondriasis from depression, we similarly attempted to isolate the distinguishing motivational features by assessing psychological distress with an index that minimizes the somatic component of this condition, the Center for Epidemiological Studies in Depression (CES-D) Scale (Radloff, 1977). ...
... Psychological distress was assessed with the CES-D, a 20-item measure of current depressive symptomatology that was constructed and validated for use in the general population (Radloff, 1977). Items represent the following major components of depression: depressed mood, feelings of guilt and worthlessness, feelings of helplessness and hopelessness, psychomotor retardation, loss of appetite, and sleep disturbance. ...
... Responses are based on a 4-point Likert scale (0 = rarely or none of the time and 3 = most, or all of the time). The scale was shown to be internally consistent, with coefficient alphas of .85 in the general population and .90 in a patient sample (Radloff, 1977). Test-retest reliabilities ranging from .51 to .67 were found with retest intervals of 2 to 8 weeks (Radloff, 1977). ...
A national sample of 60 male and 61 female adults completed a telephone interview that included measures of hypochondriacal tendencies, psychological distress, and symptom manifestation. They also provided cognitive evaluations for their most important health goal on scales measuring self-efficacy, value, planning, self-reward, self-criticism, self-monitoring, social comparison, and positive and negative goal-based arousal. Health goal cognition significantly predicted hypochondriacal tendencies measured 15 to 30 days after the goal assessment, even after controlling for chronic illness diagnosis. Correlations between goal cognition and hypochondriacal tendencies differed from those observed for psychological distress, and no significant correlations emerged with symptom manifestation. Results support a motivational account of hypochondriacal tendencies and extend previous goals research.
... All participants first completed the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff. 1977). The CES-D is a reliable (as = .84-.90) screening measure for mild depression (dysphoria) in the general population and discriminates between depressed and nondepressed samples (Radloff, 1977). In a sample of 174 college students (Pietromonaco, 1988), the CES-D correlated strongly (r = .73) with the short form of the Beck Depression Inv ...
... 1977). The CES-D is a reliable (as = .84-.90) screening measure for mild depression (dysphoria) in the general population and discriminates between depressed and nondepressed samples (Radloff, 1977). In a sample of 174 college students (Pietromonaco, 1988), the CES-D correlated strongly (r = .73) ...
... Steinmetz, Larson, & Franklin, 1981;Weissman & Klerman, 1977). Standard cutoff points have not been established; however, scores of 16 or greater are considered high (Radloff, 1977). We chose a moderately high cutoff point of 15; participants with scores of 15 or above were classified as dysphoric and those with scores of 12 or below as nondysphoric. ...
Conflicting views of depressives' interpersonal accuracy were addressed in an investigation of the accuracy of mild depressives (dysphorics) across differing social contexts. Women who were either friends or strangers and who were either similar or dissimilar in level of dysphoria conversed about 3 topics: a neutral topic, their own disclosure of a personal problem, and their partner's disclosure. Dysphorics were not more accurate in general than nondysphorics. After self-disclosure, all women more accurately detected sympathy from a similar stranger. After the partner's disclosure, women also better detected the mood of a similar partner. When interacting with nondysphoric strangers, however, dysphorics underestimated their partner's sympathy toward them. Implications for cognitive and interpersonal theories of depression and for depressives' relationships are discussed.
... For example, withdrawal from family and friends is listed as a symptom of a major depressive episode in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd edition, revised (DSM-III-R; American Psychiatric Association, 1987). Perhaps more important, the perceived deterioration of social relationships is so closely associated with depression that several depressive symptom scales, such as the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977), specifically include items that assess interpersonal difficulties. ...
... Depressive symptoms. Depressive symptoms were measured with the CES-D (Radloff, 1977). The complete CES-D Scale was administered at both the baseline and follow-up interviews. ...
... The complete CES-D Scale was administered at both the baseline and follow-up interviews. As research by Radloff (1977) and Radloff and Terri (in press) shows, it is appropriate to use the CES-D Scale with older adults. ...
The literature suggests that persons who are dissatisfied with the amount of social support that has been provided to them may subsequently suffer from psychological disorder. At the same time, there is evidence that individuals who initially suffer from emotional disorder may consequently be less satisfied with their social support systems than may persons who enjoy better mental health. The purpose of this study was to test these competing hypotheses with panel data from a community survey of older adults. The findings indicate that changes in satisfaction with support tend to precede changes in depressive symptoms. A number of issues in the analysis of longitudinal data are discussed.
... The number of depressive symptoms was assessed using the 20-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977). The CES-D is a widely used, self-report scale designed to measure depressive symptoms in the general population. ...
... Scores on the CES-D range from 0 to 60; a score of 16 or higher is typically used as a cutoff indicating risk for depression. Radloff (1977) reported an internal consistency reliability (Cronbach's alpha) of .90, high construct validity, concurrent validity, and test-retest reliability in a community sample. ...
This study investigated correlates of depressive symptoms among 56 (30 Black and 26 White) low-income, coresiding teenage mothers and their mothers (referred to as grandmothers). Racial differences in teenage mothers' and grandmothers' reports of decision making and depressive symptoms and in the association of decision making with depressive symptoms were explored. Racial differences in levels of depressive symptoms emerged for grandmothers but not for teens. There were no significant differences in levels of decision making; however, the relation of decision making to depressive symptoms differed by racial group. Among White families, greater teen participation in decision making was negatively associated with teenage mothers' depressive symptoms. Among Black families, the opposite was found. A similar pattern of effects was observed for grandmothers.
... Depression and anxiety. Depression was assessed with the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977) and anxiety was assessed with the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970). The CES-D is a 20-item self-report measure designed to measure symptoms of depression. ...
... Pre-and post-CABG scores for the CES-D and STAI are presented in Table 1. Using a cutoff score of 16 for the CES-D to define clinically significant depressive symptoms (Radloff, 1977), we classified fifty-one patients (30%) as having significant depression prior to surgery and forty-two patients (25%) as depressed following surgery. Twenty-five (49%) of the patients who had significant depressive symptoms prior to surgery still had scores greater than 16 on the CES-D following surgery. ...
This study examined the effects of coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) on objective and subjective measures of neurocognitive functioning. Participants were 170 older patients (127 men and 43 women; mean age = 61 years) undergoing CABG. Measures of neurocognitive function, depression, anxiety, and perceived cognitive abilities were administered immediately prior to and 6 weeks following surgery. Although objective measures of impaired cognitive performance following CABG were not related to perceived cognitive difficulties, the presence of anxiety and depression was related to the perception of cognitive functioning. Patients who reported high levels of anxiety and depression 6 weeks after surgery perceived themselves as having poorer cognitive function. Interventions designed to reduce emotional distress could improve patient's perceived cognitive abilities following CABG.
... Depression. The Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) (Radloff, 1977), which assesses depressive symptomatology, was used as one of the measures of affect to complement the more cognitive appraisals of life satisfaction. The 20 items ask respondents to consider and rate actions and feelings of the past week on a 4point scale. ...
... The 20 items ask respondents to consider and rate actions and feelings of the past week on a 4point scale. The CES-D has shown significant correlations with PPA dimensions (Little, 1989), and was designed not for clinical assessment but for investigating the relationships between depressive symptomatology and other variables across population subgroups (Radloff, 1977). ...
Personal Projects Analysis (B. R. Little, 1983) was adapted to examine relations between participants’ appraisals of their goal characteristics and orthogonal happiness and meaning factors that emerged from factor analyses of diverse well-being measures. In two studies with 146 and 179 university students, goal efficacy was associated with happiness and goal integrity was associated with meaning. A new technique for classifying participants according to emergent identity themes is introduced. In both studies, identity-compensatory predictors of happiness were apparent. Agentic participants were happiest if their goals were supported by others, communal participants were happiest if their goals were fun, and hedonistic participants were happiest if their goals were being accomplished. The distinction between happiness and meaning is emphasized, and the tension between efficacy and integrity is discussed. Developmental implications are discussed with reference to results from archival data from a sample of senior managers.
... Depressive symptoms. The dependent variable in this study, depressive symptomatology, is measured with six items that were taken from the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977). Previous work with these data suggest that it is best to create two separate subscales from these indicators that denote a depressed affect and somatic symptoms, respectively (Krause & Liang, 1993 ( 1977), Marsella (1987), and others indicate that Chinese people may be especially inclined to express symptoms of distress in somatic terms (but see , for a dissenting view). ...
... To begin with, as some investigators maintain, there may be little variation in the way that older adults in different cultural settings express distress (see Marsella, 1987, for a discussion of this issue). In addition, it is possible that the somatic symptom measure evaluated by the CES-D scale does not capture the precise ways in which distress is manifest in the PRC (Radloff, 1977). This means, for example, that our measure does not include indicators of back pain, problems with digestion, concerns about sexuality, and issues of energy that may be more likely to capture the way older adults in China express somatic symptoms of distress. ...
The purpose of this study is to examine the interface between financial strain, informal received economic support, informal anticipated financial support, and psychological distress in later life. Data provided by a large probability sample of older adults in the People’s Republic of China reveal that the relationship between financial difficulty and psychological distress is stronger for older adults who receive more economic assistance. However, the results involving anticipated support are in the opposite direction. More specifically, the association between financial problems and psychological distress is lower for older adults who believe that others stand ready to help in the future should the need arise. A detailed theoretical rationale is developed to explain these results.
... Symptoms of depression. Caregiver depressed affect was measured using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977), a 20-item self-report instrument designed for use in the general population. Each item was rated on a 4-point scale (0-3) describing frequency of occurrence during the previous week. ...
... Internal consistencies in several samples have been .85 or greater (e.g., Radloff, 1977). Cronbach's alpha in this study was .88. ...
In a sample of cancer patients (n = 75) and spousal caregivers (24 men and 51 women), restriction in caregiver routine activities mediated associations between caregiving stress (patient symptom severity) and caregiver depressed affect and resentment. Moreover, the antecedents and affective consequences of caregiver activity restriction were consistent with the theory of communal relationships (e.g., M. S. Clark & J. Mills, 1979, 1993). If a relationship had been communal in the past (i.e., characterized by mutual concern for and responsiveness to one another’s needs), activity restriction was predicted by intimacy and affectional loss (rather than by the severity of patient symptoms) and in turn predicted caregiver depressed affect. Among caregivers in less communal relationships, activity restriction was predicted by severity of patient symptoms (rather than by intimacy and affectional loss) and in turn predicted resentment of care recipients and the caregiving role.
... The 20-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977) was used to measure the overall level of depression experienced by each family member during the past week. Item responses ranging from rarely (0) to most of the time (3) were scored according to procedures described by Radloff (1977). ...
... The 20-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977) was used to measure the overall level of depression experienced by each family member during the past week. Item responses ranging from rarely (0) to most of the time (3) were scored according to procedures described by Radloff (1977). Scores ranged from 0 to 60, with higher scores indicating greater depression. ...
Analyses examined whether information about the coping strategies used by family members adds to an understanding about the psychological well-being of individuals. Data from 140 women and their husbands and children who were living in multigenerational households that included a disabled older relative indicated that for the women and children, the best predictors of depression, positive affect, and mastery were their own coping strategies; the coping strategies used by other family members did not add significantly to the predictive equation. For husbands, however, depression was predicted by both their own coping strategies and the coping strategies of their wives. Husbands’ positive affect was predicted only by the coping strategies of their wives and children, and their mastery was predicted by their own coping strategies and those of their wives and children.
... Adolescent internalized distress. Internalized distress in the present study was measured with a 13-item version of the Depression Scale of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies (CES-D; Radloff, 1977). The original, 20-item CES-D was validated in a two-community survey that included both general and clinical populations. ...
... It was found to have high internal consistency (r = .85 in the general population and r = .90 in the patient sample), adequate test-retest reliability (between .45 and .70), and high convergent validity with established self-report and clinical ratings of depression (Radloff, 1977). In addition, both the CES-D and a 20-1tem youth version (CES-DC; Weissman, Orvaschel, & Padian, 1980) have demonstrated good reliability and construct validity with child and adolescent populations (Doerfler, Felner, Rowlison, Raley, & Evans, 1988;Faulstich, Carey, Ruggiero, Enyart, & Gresham, 1986;Garrison, Jackson, Marstellar, McKeown, & Addy, 1990;Roberts, Andrews, Lewinsohn, & Hops, 1990). ...
This study examined various homophilic mechanisms by which adolescents affect, and are affected by, levels of internalized distress within their immediate peer groups. The sample included approximately 6,000 14- to 18-year-olds who were assessed twice over a 1-year period. Results showed that adolescents tend to associate with peers who report similar levels of internalized distress and that internalizers are no less successful than others at establishing friendships. Moreover, homophily of internalizing symptoms develops from 3 distinct sources: (a) Adolescents tend to choose friends who possess similar levels of internalized distress (selection effect); (b) in male, but not female, peer groups, individual distress levels grow increasingly similar to peer levels over time (socialization effect); and (c) peer group distress levels vary according to the distress of individual members (contagion effect).
... Depression. The Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CESD; Radloff, 1977) is a 20-item self-report questionnaire that was developed for use in studies examining the epidemiology of depression in the general population. Respondents are asked to indicate how often they experienced a variety of psychological symptoms during the previous week. ...
... A cutoff score of 16 or more, corresponding to the 80th percentile in large-scale community surveys, is generally used to designate probable cases of clinical depression. Previous investigations have shown the CESD to have high reliability and validity (Radloff, 1977). In the present study, Cronbach's alpha was .90. ...
This study examined the impact of social support and HIV-related conditions on depression among 508 gay men participating in the San Francisco Men's Health Study, a population-based prospective study of single men aged 25–54 years. The number of HIV-related symptoms experienced significantly predicted depression cross-sectionally and 1 year later. Satisfaction with each of three types of social support (emotional, practical, informational) was inversely correlated with depression. Men who were more satisfied with the social support they received were less likely to show increased depression 1 year later. Degree of satisfaction with informational support appeared especially critical in buffering the stress associated with experiencing HIV symptoms. These findings offer valuable insight in understanding the psychological needs of gay men confronting the AIDS crisis and have important practical implications for designing mental health services to meet those needs.
... A cut-off score of 21 or more was considered indicative of possible depression. Pre-(0.80) and post-flood (0.89) Depression symptoms and status (Radloff 1977) Generalised Anxiety Disorder 7 (GAD7) Seven items assessing symptoms of anxiety e.g. 'during the past two weeks, how often did you have trouble relaxing?'. ...
Floods are increasing in frequency and may increase the risk for experiencing emotional distress, anxiety, depression and PTSD. The aim of this study was to determine the extent of damage, loss, injury and death resulting from floods that occurred in and around the city of Durban, South Africa, in April 2022, and associated changes in mental health pre- to post-floods in a low-income setting. Seventy-three women between the ages of 18 and 45, residing in flood affected, low-income settings, were interviewed prior to the floods occurring. Mental health measures were repeated with 69 of the 73 women during the post-flood interview along with a questionnaire measuring flood-related exposures. Loss of infrastructure (lacked access to drinking water, electricity, fresh food, could not travel to work, had to stay in a shelter and could not get hold of friends or family) was a predictor of post-flood change in levels of emotional distress and anxiety. Higher levels of prior trauma exposure were associated with higher post-flood levels of emotional distress. Higher pre-flood food insecurity was also associated with higher post-flood anxiety. Women affected by poverty, food insecurity and a history of trauma are vulnerable to the additive adverse mental health effects of floods. Proactive approaches to diminishing the impact of floods on the livelihood of women is needed and post-flood relieve efforts may be more affective if they are enhanced by providing mental health support.
... The CESD-10 is a self-reported scale used to measure depressive symptoms, that has been validated in Chinese older adults [44,45]. It comprises 10 items, each of which is rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 = never to 3 = always [46]. ...
Background: The move away from investigating mental disorders as whole using sum scores to the analysis of symptom-level interactions using network analysis has provided new insights into comorbidity.The current study explored the dynamic interactions between depressive and anxiety symptoms in older Chinese adults with diabetes mellitus (DM) and identified central and bridge symptoms in the depression-anxiety network to provide targets for prevention and intervention into depression and anxiety.
Methods: This study used a cross-sectional design with data from the 2017–2018 wave of the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS). A regularized partial correlation network for depression and anxiety was estimated based on self-reported scales completed by 1685 older adults with DM aged 65 years or older. Expected influence (EI) and bridge expected influence(BEI) indices were calculated for each symptom.
Results: The prevalences of depression and anxiety in our sample were 52.9% and 12.8%, respectively. The comorbidity rate of depression and anxiety was 11.5%. The six edges with the strongest regularized partial correlations were between symptoms from the same disorder. “Feeling blue/depressed”, “Nervousness or anxiety”, “Uncontrollable worry”, “Trouble relaxing”, and “Worry too much” had the highest EI values. “Nervousness or anxiety” and “Everything was an effort” exhibited the highest BEI values.
Conclusion: Central and bridge symptoms were highlighted in this study. Targeting these symptoms may be effective in preventing the comorbidity of depressive and anxiety symptoms and facilitate interventions in older Chinese adults with DM who are at risk for or suffer from depressive and anxiety symptoms.
... Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; ␣ ϭ .78; Radloff, 1977). The CES-D is a 20-item scale, widely used in previous research with homeless and low-income individuals, that measures depressive symptoms over the past week. ...
Data from the Worcester Family Research Project were analyzed to determine whether social support processes are altered by poverty and whether kin and nonkin support are differentially related to mental health in low-income mothers. The authors found that conflict with family and friends predicted adverse mental health and more strongly predicted these outcomes than emotional and instrumental support. Moreover, sibling conflict was a stronger predictor of mental health than parent conflict. Finally, only instrumental support from professionals predicted mental health.
... for women. Its predictive validity in this sample was supported by its negative association with depression (as measured by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale; Radloff, 1977) and positive association with sense of control (r ϭ Ϫ.37, p Ͻ .001, and r ϭ .15, ...
Cross-cultural living represents a transition that entails significant psychological disequilibration, to which individuals may respond with assimilation (retention of existing schemas) or accommodation (creation of new schemas; J. Block, 1982). Using the 3 California Psychological Inventory vector scales, the author assessed the personality of 97 Taiwanese young adults studying in the United States prearrival and at 1 and 2 years postarrival. The study found support for both assimilation (stability) and accommodation (change) in personality secondary to cross-cultural living.
... Depression. Patient participants completed the Center for Epidemiclogical Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977), a measure of depressive symptoms with high internal consistency, adequate test-retest reliability, and validity. It has been shown to be a valid screening instrument for depression in patients with chronic pain (Turk & Okifuji, 1994). ...
To examine the associations between changes in cognitions and coping and multidisciplinary pain treatment outcomes, the authors had 141 patients with chronic pain complete measures of adjustment, beliefs, catastrophizing, and coping; in addition, their significant others rated patient physical functioning at pretreatment, posttreatment, and 6- and 12-month follow-ups. Decreases in guarding and resting and in the belief that pain signals damage were associated with decreases in patient disability. Increases in perceived control over pain and decreases in catastrophizing and in the belief that one is disabled were associated with decreases in self-reported patient disability, pain intensity, and depression. The results are consistent with the hypothesis, derived from cognitive−behavioral models of chronic pain, that the outcomes of multidisciplinary pain treatment are associated with changes in patient cognitions and coping responses.
... Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D). The CES-D (Radloff, 1977) is a 20-item measure of depressive symptoms. Symptoms are rated on a 4-point scale (0-3) representing intensity/frequency in the past week. ...
This cross-sectional study of 70 breast cancer survivors examined relationships among social constraints, behavioral and self-report indicators of cognitive processing, depression, and well-being. On the basis of a social–cognitive processing (SCP) model, it was predicted that social constraints would inhibit cognitive processing of the cancer experience, leading to poorer adjustment. Constraints were positively associated with intrusions, avoidance, and linguistic uncertainty in cancer narratives. Greater uncertainty, intrusions, and avoidance, as well as less talking about cancer were associated with greater depression and less well-being. Intrusions partially mediated the positive constraints–depression relationship. Talking about cancer partially mediated the inverse avoidance–well-being relationship. Findings support the SCP model and the importance of using behavioral indicators of cognitive processing to predict positive and negative psychosocial outcomes of cancer.
... On the basis of the results from Study 1 that showed control orientation to be related to negative affect in passed-deadline participants, we also assessed depressive symptoms by using the 20-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977). Participants were asked to indicate how often each statement (e.g., felt lonely, felt depressed, felt that everything was an effort) applied to them during the past weeks on a 4-point scale, ranging from 0 = rarely or none of the time to 3 = most or almost all of the time. ...
This quasi-experimental research investigates developmental regulation around a critical life-span transition, the “biological clock” for childbearing. The action-phase model of developmental regulation proposes contrasting control orientations in individuals approaching versus those having passed a developmental deadline. Individuals in an urgency phase close to the deadline should be invested in goal pursuit, whereas those who have passed the deadline without attaining the goal should focus on goal disengagement and self-protection. In 2 studies, women at different ages and with or without children were compared with regard to various indicators of primary and secondary control striving for goal attainment versus goal disengagement and self-protection. Findings support the action-phase model of developmental regulation. Patterns of control striving congruent with the participants' status as pre- versus postdeadline were associated with superior psychological well-being.
... Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D). The CES-D (Radloff, 1977) is a 20-item, well-validated depressive symptom measure. Respondents rate their experience of symptoms in the past week on a 4-point scale of intensity or frequency. ...
Cancer may be viewed as a psychosocial transition with the potential for positive and negative outcomes. This cross-sectional study (a) compared breast cancer (BC) survivors’ (n = 70) self-reports of depression, well-being, and posttraumatic growth with those of age- and education-matched healthy comparison women (n = 70) and (b) identified correlates of posttraumatic growth among BC survivors. Groups did not differ in depression or well-being, but the BC group showed a pattern of greater posttraumatic growth, particularly in relating to others, appreciation of life, and spiritual change. BC participants’ posttraumatic growth was unrelated to distress or well-being but was positively associated with perceived life-threat, prior talking about breast cancer, income, and time since diagnosis. Research that has focused solely on detection of distress and its correlates may paint an incomplete and potentially misleading picture of adjustment to cancer.
... For depression, the correlations ranged from .13 for the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, 1967) to .25 (M = .19) for the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (Radloff, 1977). The correlation for social anxiety (Fenigstein et al., 1975) was .31, ...
Development and validation of a measure of individual differences in social comparison orientation (the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure [INCOM]) are described. Assuming that the tendency toward social comparison is universal, the scale was constructed so as to be appropriate to and comparable in 2 cultures: American and Dutch. It was then administered to several thousand people in each country. Analyses of these data are presented indicating that the scale has good psychometric properties. In addition, a laboratory study and several field studies are described that demonstrated the INCOM’s ability to predict comparison behavior effectively. Possible uses of the scale in basic and applied settings are discussed.
... Five aspects of psychological well-being during the previous 30 days were measured. Depressive symptoms were assessed with the 20-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977;a = .91 in the present sample). Symptoms of crime-related traumatic stress were assessed with 20 items based on Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 1980) diagnostic criteria for posttraumatic stress (Kilpatrick et al., 1989), adapted for self-administration (a = .89). ...
Questionnaire data about criminal victimization experiences were collected from 2,259 Sacramento-area lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (N = 1,170 women, 1,089 men). Approximately 1/5 of the women and 1/4 of the men had experienced victimization because of their adult sexual orientation. Hate crimes were less likely than nonbias crimes to have been reported to police. Compared with other recent crime victims, lesbian and gay hate-crime survivors manifested significantly more symptoms of depression, anger, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress. They also displayed significantly more crime-related fears and beliefs, lower sense of mastery, and more attributions of their personal setbacks to sexual prejudice than did nonbias crime victims and nonvictims. Comparable differences were not observed among bisexuals. The findings highlight the importance of recognizing hate-crime survivors’ special needs in clinical settings and in public policy.
... We used the 20-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale to measure depression symptoms (Radloff, 1977). ...
The authors examined the efficacy of transdermal nicotine replacement for cessation in 410 adult nonsmoking chewing tobacco users. Participants were randomly assigned to 6 weeks of 15-mg nicotine patch plus behavioral treatment or placebo patch plus behavioral treatment. All participants received the same behavioral treatment of 2 pharmacy visits, 2 support calls, and self-help materials. At 6 months after treatment, biochemically confirmed point-prevalence rates (no chewing in the last 7 days) in the active (38%) and placebo (34%) groups were high and not significantly different. The difference in relapse (no chewing for 7 consecutive days) between the active patch group (33%) and placebo group (48%) was significant at 6 months (p = .003). Nicotine dependence and age predicted nonrelapse at 6 months. The results suggest that nicotine replacement may improve chewers' chances of abstinence.
... Current affect. Assessments of current affect were derived from subscales of the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression <CES-D; Radloff, 1977) inventory (for details concerning these subscales, see Gatz & Hurwicz, 1990). The Depressed Mood subscale consists of seven items that inquire about experiences of NA (e.g., sadness, fearfulness, the blues) during the previous week. ...
Because measures of personality and well-being share common affective underpinnings and items, previously reported links between these domains may be tautological. To explicate the connections between personality and well-being, 2 samples of midlife adults (N = 215 and N = 139) completed measures of personality (NEO Five-Factor Inventory; P. T. Costa & R. R. McCrae, 1992) and psychological well-being (C. D. Ryff's, 1989b, Psychological Well-Being [PWB] inventory) that were maximally distinct, both conceptually and methodologically. Analyses included additional controls for source overlap, common affective underpinnings, and shared item content. Distinctive personality correlates were observed for the 6 PWB outcomes: self-acceptance, environmental mastery, and purpose in life were linked with Neuroticism (N) Extraversion (E) and Conscientiousness (C); personal growth was linked with Openness to Experience (O) and E; positive relations with others was linked with Agreeableness (A) and E; autonomy was linked with N. Psychological wellness and its personality correlates may be more complex than prior studies suggest.
... The CES-D is a self-report measure of the frequency of occurrence during the past week of 20 depressive symptoms; it is designed specifically for use with general community samples. The CES-D has been shown to possess adequate psychometric properties and to differentiate adequately depressed from nondepressed groups (Husaini, Neff, Harrington, Hughes, & Stone, 1980;Radloff, 1977). Our analyses have shown the CES-D to have good psychometric properties in older samples (Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Roberts, 1996). ...
Physical disease is commonly considered a risk factor for depression among older adults. However, this pattern is not consistently supported, and a theoretical framework for understanding such a relationship has not been articulated. P. M. Lewinsohn, H. Hoberman, L. Teri, and M. Hautzinger's (1985) integrative model of depression predicts that disease will be a risk factor for depression only when disease results in functional impairment, and that impairment in the absence of disease is also a risk factor for depression. The authors tested these predictions in a community-based sample of older adults followed longitudinally and found that functional impairment was a significant risk factor for depression, regardless of disease status. Disease was not a significant predictor of major depression, nor did it interact with impairment to predict depression.
... Social support was assessed with a modified version of the Inventory of Socially Supportive Behaviors (ISSB; Barrera, Sandier, & Ramsay, 1981). Depressive symptomatology was assessed with the Center for Epidemiology Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977). Whereas no buffering effects occurred for the overall indicator of stressful life events, buffering was found for the numerically undefined subgroup of individuals who had been bereaved within the previous yean These buffering effects modified weak bereavement main effects. ...
A longitudinal study of a matched sample of 60 recently widowed and 60 married men and women tested predictions from stress and attachment theory regarding the role of social support in adjustment to bereavement. Stress theory predicts a buffering effect, attributing the impact of bereavement on well-being to stressful deficits caused by the loss and assuming that these deficits can be compensated through social support. In contrast,attachment theory denies that supportive friends can compensate the loss of anattachment figure and predicts main effects of marital status and social support. Attachment theory further suggests that marital status and social support influence well-being by different pathways, with the impact of marital status mediated by emotional loneliness and the impact of social support mediated by social loneliness. Results clearly supported attachment theory.
... Psychological distress. We used the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) Scale (Radloff, 1977) as a measure of generalised distress. The CES-D asks respondents to indicate on a 4-point scale from none of the lime (0) to most or all of the lime (3) how often they experienced 20 items in the past week. ...
The authors evaluated the impact of receiving social support on subsequent levels of perceived social support and psychological distress in 2 independent samples of victims of severe natural disasters: Hurricane Hugo (n = 498) and Hurricane Andrew (n = 404). A social support deterioration deterrence model was proposed that stipulated that postdisaster mobilization of received support counteracts the deterioration in expectations of support often experienced by victims of major life events. LISREL analyses of data collected 12 and 24 months after Hugo and 6 and 28 months after Andrew provided strong evidence for the hypothesized model: Perceived support mediated the long-term effects on distress of both scope of disaster exposure and postdisaster received support. Theoretical and application issues of social support are discussed.
... The dependent variable in this analysis is depressive symptoms, as measured by the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CES-D; Radloff, 1977). The CES-D has been used extensively in studies of older adults (Gatz & Hurwicz, 1990;Kessler, Foster, Webster, & House, 1992;Pruchno & Resch, 1989) and has been shown to be a reliable and valid measure of depressive symptomatology in community samples of older persons (Himmelfarb & Murrell, 1983). ...
Differences in coping by 105 aging mothers of adults with mental illness and 389 similar mothers of adults with mental retardation were investigated. Although no differences in problem-focused coping were found, mothers of adults with mental illness used more emotion-focused coping, which predicted greater maternal depression. For mothers of adults with retardation, depressive symptoms were a function of their child's behavior problems, although this source of stress was buffered by coping. For mothers of adults with mental illness, depression was a function of caregiving demands, but coping did not buffer the effects of stress. Explanations for findings include maternal perceptions of the context of care, of her control over the disability, and her caregiving efficacy.
... The BDI (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erbaugh, 1961), CES-D (Radloff, 1977), HSCL (Derogatis, Lipman, Rickels, Uhlenhuth, & Covi, 1974), STAI A-State (Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970), STAS (Spielberger, Jacobs, Russell, &Crane, 1983), and SCL-90 (Derogatis, 1977;Derogatis & Cleary, 1977) are widely used multiitem scales. In addition to their content domains, the scales differed with respect to the focal time frames to which subjects were asked to respond. ...
This research challenges the claim made by D. Watson and L. A. Clark (1991, 1992) that the negative affects—fear, sadness, hostility, and guilt—are organized in a hierarchical structure and at the same time achieve discriminant validity. These reanalyses of the data in Watson and Clark (1991, 1992) provide strong support for both the hierarchical representation of the negative affects under a single valence factor and covergent validity. However, although weak support exists for discriminant validity of self-report measures of the negative affects, discriminant validity is rejected when the negative affects are measured either with self- and peer reports or self-reports over time treated as 2 methods. Limitations of Watson and Clark's procedures are pointed out, and the advantages of new methods are described. A rationale is provided for the interaction of traits and methods, where support is found in 1 of 4 data sets investigated.
... Subjects completed the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977), a 20-item self-report instrument designed for use in the general population. The CES-D consists of items selected from previously validated scales (Beck Depression Inventory, Zung's Self-Rating Scale, and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory depression scale) specifically to avoid the problem characteristic of some measures-placing too much emphasis on somatic factors that frequently characterize nondepressed older or disabled persons. ...
Elderly outpatients were assessed to clarify relations between symptoms of depression and physical illness, disability, pain, and selected psychosocial variables. Three types of assessments were made: (a) medical evaluations by physicians, (b) self-reported symptoms of depression and physical health, and (c) demographic and psychosocial data relating to participants' life circumstances. Both objective (physician-rated illness symptoms) and subjective (self-reported health, activity restriction, and use of pain medications) indicators of health accounted for independent variance in symptoms of depression. After controlling for these factors, additional variance was explained by health-related concerns (e.g., health care expenses, service needs), social support, and “other worries” (e.g., feeling useless, becoming a burden to others).
... p < .05). At this time, participants also filled out the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977), a 20-item questionnaire that inquires about depressive symptoms during the past week (a = .90). Current depression was unrelated to current physical disability (r = .11) ...
Explored the distribution and temporal patterning of daily pain reported by 47 patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) for 75 consecutive days. Approximately half the pain series were significantly positively skewed, trended significantly across the recording period, or both. One fourth of the sample had relatively painful “outlier” days that clustered together. Most series displayed a significant autocorrelation in pain intensity across successive days even when the series were detrended. Patients with more active disease had pain that was more intense but more predictable from day to day and reported fewer painful outlying days and briefer episodes of atypically severe pain. Patients describing themselves as more depressed on the Center for Epidemiological Stress Depression Scale also reported more intense pain across the recording period, independent of their level of disease activity and disability. Implications for daily process studies of RA pain are discussed.
Key words: rheumatoid arthritis (RA), pain, depression
... The primary outcome measure was the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977). The CES-D is a This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
Results from a 2-year (4 waves) longitudinal study show strong evidence for patient decline and high levels of depressive symptomatology among caregivers. Female caregivers reported high, stable rates of depressive symptomatology throughout the study, whereas male caregivers exhibited significant increases in depression over time. Cross-sectional multivariate analyses revealed significant positive relationships between depression and number of patient problem behaviors, negative social support, and concern about financial resources; negative relationships were found between depression and social support, quality of prior relationship, and satisfaction with social contacts. Three significant independent predictors of change in depression were found: Lower depression scores at Time 1 were related to increases in depression over time; men were more likely than women to experience increases; and a decline in social support resulted in increased depression.
... Measures. Self-rated depression was measured using three widely used scales: the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erbaugh, 1961), the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977), and the Depression scale from the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL; Derogatis, Lipman, Rickels, Uhlenhuth, & Covi, 1974). The anxiety measures consisted of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory State Anxiety Scale (STAI A-State; Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970) and the HSCL Anxiety scale. ...
Watson and Tellegen (1985) proposed a hierarchical model of self-rated affect in which 2 broad, general dimensions—Negative Affect and Positive Affect—are each composed of several correlated yet ultimately distinguishable emotions. As a partial test of this model, we conducted 4 studies examining relations among measures of fear, sadness, hostility, and guilt through a series of multitrait–multimethod matrixes. Consistent with a hierarchical model, all 4 negative affects showed significant convergent validity and adequate discriminant validity, indicating that they represent meaningful and differentiable psychological constructs. However, the measures were also consistently and substantially interrelated, thereby demonstrating the existence of a strong higher order Negative Affect factor in self-report data. Results demonstrate the importance of assessing both levels of the hierarchical structure in studies of self-rated affect.
... The responses to each item were summed to comprise the physical status score of an individual. Mental health was assessed by the CES-D (Radloff, 1977), a 20-item scale of depressive symptomatology. For this study, the response format for the CES-D was modified from a yes-no format to a 4-point scale (I = never or less than 1 day, 4 = 5 to? ...
Data from 1,103 community-dwelling male participants (mean age = 71.7 years) in a 27-year cardiovascular disease follow-up were used to examine health and mental health sequelae in voluntarily and involuntarily retired Type A individuals. After controlling for age, education, and occupation, Type A subjects, determined both at intake (1960–1961) and at follow-up (1986–1987), reported significantly more frequently that retirement was involuntary. Regardless of Type A status, those reporting involuntary retirement also tended to have poorer adjustment to retirement, more illness, poorer physical status, and more depressive symptomatology. Minimal evidence was obtained on a broad array of indicators for psychological, physical, cognitive, and health status that Type As who retired involuntarily fared worse in retirement than those who retired voluntarily.
... Finally, subjects completed three self-report measures: the Short Inventory of Memory Experiences (SIME) frequency-of-everyday-forgetting questionnaire F-scale (Herrmann, 1979), 7-point Likert-type discomfort/annoyance ratings on each of eight items that corresponded to the SIME everyday memory factors (e.g., "People sometimes have trouble remembering lists of things to do or buy. If this were to happen to you, how annoyed or uncomfortable would you feel?"), and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) Scale (Radloff, 1977). Then they were given a 1-min study trial of a 16-item grocery list (2 items from each of eight categories-fruit, vegetables, beverages, etc.-presented in a random order), followed by a 3-min noninterfering filler task and then an untimed recall task. ...
Young adults (22 men and 24 women) and older adults (24 men and 24 women) rated 12 gender-neutral vignettes describing short-term, long-term, and very-long-term memory failures. Vignette target persons were young (21-32) or older (65-75) men or women. Subjects of both age and gender groups used a double standard: Failures of older targets of both genders were rated as signifying greater mental difficulty than failures of young targets; failures of young targets were attributed to lack of effort and attention. Young subjects judged very-long-term failures more harshly than did older subjects. Subjects' objective memory performance, self-rated memory failure frequency, memory failure discomfort, and depression made little difference in their target person ratings.
... To assess depression, a problem frequently associated with chronic pain (Romano & Turner, 1985), the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff', 1977) was used. The CES-D is a 20-item, self-report measure of depression severity that has been demonstrated to have good reliability and validity and has been widely used in community studies of depression. ...
The effects of outpatient group behavioral therapy including aerobic exercise (BE), behavioral therapy only (B), and aerobic exercise only (E) on pain and physical and psychosocial disability were evaluated and compared in a group of mildly disabled chronic low-back-pain patients. Ninety-six Ss were randomly assigned to the 3 treatments and a waiting-list control (WL) condition and assessed on a variety of patient self-report, spouse-rated, and direct observational measures at pretreatment, posttreatment, and 6- and 12-month follow-ups. Patients in the BE condition, but not the B or E conditions, improved significantly more pretreatment to posttreatment than did WL patients on the patient self-report and observer-rated measures. At both follow-ups, all 3 treatment groups remained significantly improved from pretreatment, with no significant differences among treatments.
... ty was measured by the trait half of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-T; Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970). This 20-item scale has a Cronbach's alpha of .87 and a 6-month test-retest correlation of .70 in the larger statewide project sample. Depression was measured by the 20item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff. 1977). The alpha coefficient was .89; the 6-month test-retest reliability was .64. Well-being was measured by the 18-item General WWlieing Scale (Ware, Johnson, Davies-Avery, & Brook, 1979). The alpha coefficient was .92, and the 6-month test-retest reliability was .72. General health was measured by a 20-item self-report scale revised from a ...
In a panel study, more than 200 older adults were interviewed before and after a severe flood in southeastern Kentucky in 1984. The issue in this study was whether older adult flood victims were differentially vulnerable to increases in psychological and physical symptoms on the basis of their age, sex, marital status, occupational status, education level, and preflood symptom levels. Flood exposure was related to increases in depressive, anxiety, and somatic symptoms at 18 months postflood. Within this older adult sample, men, those with lower occupational status, and persons aged 55–64 were at significantly greater risk for increases in psychological symptoms. Sociodemographic status did not moderate the impact of flood exposure on physical health. Implications for crisis-intervention services to older adult disaster victims are discussed.
... The parents' questionnaire battery also contained a psychological symptoms checklist adapated from the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (Radloff, 1977). This measure, developed for use with nonclinical samples, asks respondents to indicate the frequency, during the past year, of feelings of tension, depressed mood, and similar problems. ...
This study examined whether parents' reports of midlife identity concerns and psychological well-being are related to signs of their youngster's transition to adolescence, including pubertal status, involvement in mixed-sex social relations, and persuasive reasoning skills. The sample was composed of 129 families with a firstborn child between the ages of 10 and 15. Findings indicate only very modest direct relations between parental well-being and signs of adolescent development; instead, the relations are moderated by the strength of the parent's orientation toward his or her paid work role. Among parents with a weak orientation toward work, signs of adolescent development are negatively associated with well-being; among parents with a relatively strong orientation toward work, the associations are often positive.
... The first scale, which is composed of four observable indicators, assesses depressive symptoms. A careful examination of these items reveals that they appear to measure depressive cognitions and not the somatic component that is frequently found in depressive symptom scales (see Radloff, 1977, for a discussion of the symptom clusters that are usually found in depressive symptom indices). A high score on this brief composite reflects greater psychological distress. ...
Age differences were assessed in a conceptual model that seeks to explain how acculturation affects psychological well-being among Mexican Americans. The data were from a national probability sample of 859 persons of Mexican decent. It was hypothesized that low acculturation creates financial stress. Moreover, low acculturation and financial stress were in turn predicted to erode feelings of personal control and self-esteem. Finally, diminished feelings of control and low self-esteem were hypothesized to exert a negative impact on psychological well-being. When data from respondents of all ages was assessed, empirical support was found for all of the hypotheses except the linkage between acculturation and financial stress. However, few age differences emerged in the model. The authors conclude that older Mexican Americans may not be more vulnerable to the stressors associated with acculturation.
... Depressive symptoms. The dependent variable in this study was depressive symptoms, which was measured with the Center for Hpidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff. 1977). A maximum likelihood exploratory factor analysis of the CES-D scale items produced three theoretically meaningful factors that will be treated as separate outcome measures in the analyses presented. The first factor. Depressed Affect, is measured by six items that assess feelings of sadness, loneliness, and depression (Tl a. = .826). T ...
In this study, I examined whether locus of control beliefs buffer or mediate the impact of chronic financial strain on psychological well-being. Data are from a longitudinal survey of a random community sample of older adults. Findings suggest that elderly people with internal locus of control beliefs are less likely to suffer from the deleterious effects of chronic financial strain than are older adults with external locus of control orientations.
... A number of measures of psychopathology require respondents to focus their attention on a fixed time frame when they report the occurrence or severity of symptoms. For example, the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) asks how often certain symptoms have occurred within the past week (Radloff, 1977), the General Health Questionnaire (Goldberg, 1972) asks respondents to focus on the previous month, and the Psychiatric Epidemiology Research Interview (PERI; Dohrenwend, Shrout, Egri, & Mendelsohn, 1980) asks respondents to report symptoms that occurred during the previous year. ...
The effect of changing a time frame used in the Psychiatric Epidemiology Research Interview (PERI) from 1 year to 1 month was studied by randomly assigning year and month versions of the PERI to a sample of respondents from an urban community. Although the response format (never, almost never, sometimes, fairly often, very often) of PERI items requires an implicit averaging of symptom frequencies over time, we found that the mean values of the scale scores were consistently larger for the year time frame than they were for the month time frame for all 14 symptom scales. The variances of the scales in the year version were also larger than those in the month version, and the covariance pattern of the scales within the versions was different, although this latter difference seemed to result from differences on only 4 of the scales. The internal consistencies of the scales in both versions were good to very good. Neither version was consistently better in distinguishing persons with known psychopathology (sampled separately from psychiatric treatment facilities) from persons with no known psychopathology.
... Each symptom on the CES-D was rated on a 4-point scale indicating the degree of occurrence during the previous week. The scale ranged from rarely or none of the time to most all of the time (Radloff, 1977)." ...
This prospective study tested the self-complexity buffering hypothesis that greater self-complexity moderates the adverse impact of stress on depression and illness. This hypothesis follows from a model that assumes self-knowledge is represented in terms of multiple self-aspects. As defined in this model, greater self-complexity involves representing the self in terms of a greater number of cognitive self-aspects and maintaining greater distinctions among self-aspects. Subjects completed measures of stressful events, self-complexity, depression, and illness in two sessions separated by 2 weeks. A multiple regression analysis used depression and illness at Time 2 as outcomes, stressful life events and self-complexity at Time 1 as predictors, and depression and illness at Time 1 as control variables. The Stress × Self-Complexity interaction provided strong support for the buffering hypothesis. Subjects higher in self-complexity were less prone to depression, perceived stress, physical symptoms, and occurrence of the flu and other illnesses following high levels of stressful events. These results suggest that vulnerability to stress-related depression and illness is due, in part, to differences in cognitive representations of the self.
... Depressive symptoms. The dependent variable in this study-depressive symptoms-was measured with the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1975). Thoits (1983) noted in her extensive review of the literature that stress appears to exert its greatest impact on depressive symptoms and that less consistent results have been observed when researchers have used other measures of emotional disorder. ...
The purpose of this study is twofold: one, to determine whether chronic financial strain is related to depressive symptoms among a random community sample of older adults, and two, to assess whether social support counterbalances or buffers the deleterious effects of financial strain. The findings suggest that elderly people suffering from financial strain are more likely to be depressed than are older adults with fewer financial problems. In addition, the data support the stress-buffering hypothesis, that is, that older people who have more informational support and who provide support to others, more often report fewer symptoms of depression as a result of financial strain than do elderly respondents who have less informational support and who do not provide support to others. Tangible and emotional support are found to be less effective coping resources when financial strain is present.
Family caregivers often play a critical role in supporting their relative(s) with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) across the lifespan. This can lead to great burdens on family caregivers themselves. However, to date, the potential burden on family caregivers has not been in the focus of research, particularly, with respect to caregiver burden as relatives with ASD advance to adulthood. Thus, this scoping review aimed to (a) systematically map research regarding multiple dimensions of caregiver burden on family caregivers of adults with ASD (i.e., time dependence, developmental, physical, social, emotional, and financial burden) and (b) identify interventions designed to reduce such burden. A total of N = 33 eligible studies highlighted the impact of caregiving demands for adults with ASD, mainly focusing on emotional burden of caregiving (n = 27), reporting decreased mental quality of life and mental health. Findings gave indications on all other dimensions of caregiver burden, but evidence is lacking. No study was identified that provided evidence for specific interventions to reduce or to prevent caregiver burden. Findings highlighted the urgent need for more research on this topic and the development of strategies to support family caregivers of adults with ASD.
Negative marital relationships are associated, concurrently, with less warm parenting (i.e., spillover) and this may be exacerbated for mothers with postpartum depression, who typically experience more marital conflict than other mothers. When examining time-lagged effects, however, previous work has found that mothers may compensate following negative marital interactions by investing more positively in parenting. Based on an emotion regulation perspective that emphasizes the temporal nature of affective experiences and the concept of positive emotions “undoing” the effect of negative emotions, we hypothesized that mothers with higher levels of depression may show greater increases in positive affect with their children in an effort to regulate negative affect elicited by marital conflict. To examine this temporal process, we coded mothers’ (N = 46) positive and negative affect during marital conflict discussions and subsequent play interactions with their seven-month-old infants and examined sequential change in affect between the interactions. Mothers’ self-reported depressive symptoms (BDI-II scores) were examined in relation to sequential change. Although all mothers were more positive with infants than with partners, higher levels of depressive symptoms were related to greater increases in positive affect with infants following more negative interactions with partners. Findings suggest mothers with depression may try to regulate negative affect elicited within marital relationships by engaging in positive interactions with their infants. Maternal depression may contribute to greater investment in parent-child relationships relative to marital relationships.
The primacy of primary control over secondary control and ethnic differences in control processes were tested in HIV-positive male state prison inmates. They rated their perceptions of control and psychological distress at an initial interview (N = 95) and 3 months later (N = 78). Regression analyses revealed that primary control had primacy as it had greater adaptive value. However, secondary control did not function as a backup to primary control, and temporal differences in control were not found. No mean differences due to ethnicity (African American vs. White) were found, but there was a strong ethnic difference in the effects of primary control. White participants showed the expected negative relationship between distress and primary control, but African American participants did not. The idea that the benefits of primary control would be the same across various subcultures was not supported.
The role of the self in adjustment to cancer has been noted but is not well understood. Research and theory on the self suggest that discrepancies between actual and ideal self-conceptions influence adjustment and mediate the effects of disease-related health problems on psychological well-being. This relationship was investigated in a cross-sectional study of 108 persons with cancer. Cancer patients who had more symptoms and worse functional health and perceived their cancer as a chronic rather than an acute disease had higher levels of self-discrepancies and poorer adjustment. Self-discrepancy was a significant mediator of the effects of perceived health status on purpose in life, positive relations with others, and depression.
Interpersonal relationships present difficulties for dysphoric individuals, but the specific contexts in which these difficulties arise remain poorly understood. The authors examined several factors hypothesized to affect how dysphoric and nondysphoric individuals react to each other. Female college students interacted with either a friend or stranger who had a similar or dissimilar dysphoria status in three tasks: a casual conversation, disclosure of a personal problem to the partner, and response to the partner's disclosure of a personal problem. Ss' moods, evaluations of their partners, and verbal behaviors were assessed. Dysphroric Ss exhibited characteristic negative mood and verbal content but did not elicit negative reactions from their partners. Negative reactions were most evident in dysphoric Ss' responses to dissimilar (nondysphoric) strangers, underscoring the need for greater attention to dysphoric individuals' perspective on their social interactions.
This study examined factors hypothesized to influence adaptation to chronic pain in 118 patients who were interviewed to gauge adjustment (psychological functioning, medical services utilization, and activity level) and several widely discussed predictors of adjustment. Control appraisals and the practice of ignoring pain, using coping self-statements, and increasing activities were positively related to psychological functioning. Control appraisals and the practice of diverting attention, ignoring pain, and using coping self-statements also yielded a positive relation to activity level, but only for those patients reporting relatively low levels of pain severity. None of the predictors were related to medical services utilization. Future research is needed to replicate these findings and help clarify when appraisals and coping strategies are most productive among patients with chronic pain.
As part of a larger panel study, interviews were obtained from 3 samples of older adults: 45 persons who had recently lost a spouse, 40 who had lost a parent or child, and 45 who were not bereaved. Assessments were conducted before and after the deaths. In the widowed sample, health remained quite stable, but depression increased sharply, then remained elevated. Changes were minimal in the sample who had lost a parent or child and in the nonbereaved sample. Multiple regression procedures were used to identify factors that contribute to depression and health 9 months after the spouse's death. Postbereavement depression was associated with higher prebereavement depression, higher financial pressures, higher global stress, fewer new interests, and lower social support. Health was a function of prebereavement health, new interests, financial pressures, and global stress. In general, life events and resources had stronger effects in the widowed sample than in the comparison samples.
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