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Biogeography and evolution in neo- and paleotropical Rhipsalinae
... The genus is native to tropical America and it is distributed from northern Argentina and Uruguay to southern Mexico, southern Florida in the U.S., and the Caribbean Islands (Anderson 2001). It has a putative evolutionary center in southeastern Brazil (Barthlott 1983). The genus is characteristic of the epiphytic fl ora of the Neotropics, but R. baccifera (J.S. Muell.) ...
... This species is, indeed, the only cactus exhibiting trans-Atlantic range disjunction, and according to Thorne (1973), it forms part of the 111 plant species that are mostly restricted to tropical South America and Africa, including Madagascar. It has been proposed that this species reached the Old World due to long-distance dispersal events (Barthlott 1983). However, Buxbaum (1980) suggests that humans traveling in ships from the East India Route as early as the 16th century (sailing fi rst to Brazil before continuing their trip to the African west coast, around the Cape of Good Hope and on to India) may have taken R. baccifera with them. ...
... obs.). Occasionally, this taxon grows on rocks as a lithophyte (Anthony 1949; Barthlott and Taylor 1995;Anderson 2001), and secondarily adapted terrestrial forms originating from epiphytic ancestors have been reported in Africa (Guillaumet 1972;Barthlott 1983). The stems are cylindric, terete and fi nely divided. ...
A SEM survey of seed, stem, stomata, and fruit characters was conducted to investigate patterns of infraspecific variability in Rhipsalis baccifera. New and Old World seeds were analyzed to assess the taxonomic value of their morphological features and the presence of gigas characters in polyploid versus diploid subspecies. The seeds are mussel-shaped and correspond to the Rhipsalis-type. Old World representatives have primarily oval seeds, whereas narrowly oval to oval seeds are more common in New World accessions. The seed coat is glossy, smooth, and without secondary sculpturing. The cell outline is slightly irregular with an overall elongate to rectangular shape. Cell size increases from the hilum-micropylar region to the apical portion of the seed. Seed and cell size increase with increasing level of polyploidization, its maximum expression occurring in polyploid African populations. It is likely that increase in seed size in the Old World is correlated with polyploid cytotypes. An increase in stomatal cell size is not evident with an increase in chromosome number, though stem and fruit size and the number of stomata are higher in the Old World polyploid subsp. horrida. The existence of smaller seeds in Paraguay and northern Argentina suggests that this South American region is the center of origin of R. baccifera, from where it radiated to North America and the Old World via eastern Brazil. We hypothesize that the extensive geographic distribution of R. baccifera in the New and Old Worlds has been possible due to reproductive strategies, progressive and recurrent cycles of polyploidy and dispersal events by migratory birds.
... A família Cactaceae é predominantemente neotropical e encontrada principalmente em ambientes áridos e semi-áridos, porém cerca de 220 espécies estão adaptadas à vida epifítica em florestas tropicais e subtropicais úmidas. As cactáceas epifíticas pertencem principalmente à subfamília Cactoideae, às tribos Hylocereeae e Rhipsalideae (Barthlott 1983). Epifitismo acidental pode ser encontrado em outras subfamílias e tribos, como em Opuntioideae e Cereeae (Waechter 1998;Gonçalves & Waechter 2003). ...
... Sementes circulares, 4-5 mm larg., branco-amareladas. O gênero, segundo a circunscrição de Barthlott (1983;1987), apresenta atualmente cinco subgêneros e 33 espécies (Barthlott & Taylor 1995) (Barthlott 1983). Muitas espécies deste gênero, além de epifíticas, são freqüentemente rupícolas (Fernandes & Baptista 1988;Barthlott & Hunt 1993;Bauer & Larocca 2003). ...
... Sementes circulares, 4-5 mm larg., branco-amareladas. O gênero, segundo a circunscrição de Barthlott (1983;1987), apresenta atualmente cinco subgêneros e 33 espécies (Barthlott & Taylor 1995) (Barthlott 1983). Muitas espécies deste gênero, além de epifíticas, são freqüentemente rupícolas (Fernandes & Baptista 1988;Barthlott & Hunt 1993;Bauer & Larocca 2003). ...
A taxonomic study of epiphytic Cactaceae in Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil, was carried out. The survey presents identification keys, illustrations, ecological and taxonomical observations, geographic distribution, and flowering and fruiting periods of the species. A total of six genera and 13 species were found, two being common accidental epiphytes, Cereus alacriportanus Pfeiff. and Opuntia monacantha Haw., and 11 true or selective epiphytes, Epiphyllum phyllanthus (L.) Haw., Hatiora rosea (Lagerh.) Barthlott, Lepismium cruciforme (Vell.) Miq., L. houlletianum (Lem.) Barthlott, L. lumbricoides (Lem.) Barthlott, L. warmingianum (K. Schum.) Barthlott, Rhipsalis campos-portoana Loefgr., R.cereuscula Haw., R. floccosa Salm-Dyck ex Pfeiff., R. paradoxa (Salm-Dyck ex Pfeiff.) Salm-Dyck and R.teres (Vell.) Steud. One species, R. campos-portoana, is referred for the first time for Rio Grande do Sul State.
... The genus is native to tropical America and it is distributed from northern Argentina and Uruguay to southern Mexico, southern Florida in the U.S., and the Caribbean Islands (Anderson 2001). It has a putative evolutionary center in southeastern Brazil (Barthlott 1983). The genus is characteristic of the epiphytic fl ora of the Neotropics, but R. baccifera (J.S. Muell.) ...
... This species is, indeed, the only cactus exhibiting trans-Atlantic range disjunction, and according to Thorne (1973), it forms part of the 111 plant species that are mostly restricted to tropical South America and Africa, including Madagascar. It has been proposed that this species reached the Old World due to long-distance dispersal events (Barthlott 1983). However, Buxbaum (1980) suggests that humans traveling in ships from the East India Route as early as the 16th century (sailing fi rst to Brazil before continuing their trip to the African west coast, around the Cape of Good Hope and on to India) may have taken R. baccifera with them. ...
... obs.). Occasionally, this taxon grows on rocks as a lithophyte (Anthony 1949;Barthlott and Taylor 1995;Anderson 2001), and secondarily adapted terrestrial forms originating from epiphytic ancestors have been reported in Africa (Guillaumet 1972;Barthlott 1983). The stems are cylindric, terete and fi nely divided. ...
A SEM survey of seed, stem, stomata, and fruit characters was conducted to investigate patterns of infraspecifi c variability in Rhipsalis baccifera. New and Old World seeds were analyzed to assess the taxonomic value of their morphological features and the presence of gigas characters in polyploid versus diploid subspecies. The seeds are mussel-shaped and correspond to the Rhipsalis- type. Old World representatives have primarily oval seeds, whereas narrowly oval to oval seeds are more common in New World accessions. The seed coat is glossy, smooth, and without secondary sculpturing. The cell outline is slightly irregular with an overall elongate to rectangular shape. Cell size increases from the hilum-micropylar region to the apical portion of the seed. Seed and cell size increase with increasing level of polyploidization, its maximum expression occurring in polyploid African populations. It is likely that increase in seed size in the Old World is correlated with polyploid cytotypes. An increase in stomatal cell size is not evident with an increase in chromosome number, though stem and fruit size and the number of stomata are higher in the Old World polyploid subsp. horrida. The existence of smaller seeds in Paraguay and northern Argentina suggests that this South American region is the center of origin of R. baccifera, from where it radiated to North America and the Old World via eastern Brazil. We hypothesize that the extensive geographic distribution of R. baccifera in the New and Old Worlds has been possible due to reproductive strategies, progressive and recurrent cycles of polyploidy and dispersal events by migratory birds.
... The Cactaceae clade (Caryophyllales, Portulacineae) is an endemic New World group of mostly stem succulents that occur in arid and semi-arid, or at least edaphically arid, areas throughout the Americas [1][2][3] (although see Rhipsalis baccifera (Sol.) Stearn [4][5][6][7][8][9][10]). Most recent phylogenetic studies show Cactaceae to be most closely related to Portulacaceae s.s., i.e., Portulaca L. [11][12][13][14][15][16] or Anacampserotaceae [17], or as sister to a Portulacaceae + Anacampserotaceae clade [18][19][20][21]. ...
... Based on these results, the habitat with higher speciation corresponded to deserts (106 events), followed by the tropical dry forest/SDTF (33). Most dispersal events happened from the desert to SDTF (10) and from the desert to temperate/subtropical forest (6). Overall, the desert habitat was the highest source of dispersal events (19), and the SDTF habitat was the main recipient of those dispersal events (13). ...
Opuntioideae, composed of roughly 370 species, occur in almost every biome in the Americas, from seasonally dry tropical forests (SDTF) to high-elevation Andean grasslands, American deserts and temperate zones. The interrelationships among the three major clades of Opuntioideae (Cylindropuntieae, Opuntieae and Tephrocacteae) are not well resolved, and thus, the ancestral habitat, biogeographic history and evolution of morphological characters, such as large photosynthetic leaves and flattened stems, are poorly understood. To test their geographic origin and evolution of key morphological characters, we built the largest phylogenomic dataset for Cactaceae to date using 103 plastid genes of 107 taxa of Opuntioideae. The subfamily Opuntioideae likely evolved in South America in a combination of seasonally dry tropical forest (SDTF)/desert habitats. Opuntieae most likely evolved in South America in SDTF and, from there, moved into desert regions, Chaco and temperate/subtropical zones, while Tephrocacteae and Cylindropuntieae evolved in South America in desert regions and moved into SDTF, Chaco and temperate/subtropical zones. Analyses of morphological evolution suggest that, although large leaves are plesiomorphic in Opuntioideae, long-lived, photosynthetically active leaves in Cylindropuntieae and Tephrocacteae are homoplasious and do not represent retained plesiomorphy, as is often assumed. Flattened stems are synapomorphic for Opuntieae, possibly representing adaptation to competition for light resources in SDTF, their most likely ancestral area.
... Africa, Madagascar, Sri Lanka,India). In opossition to this, exist some important botanist such as Barthlott (1983Barthlott ( ,1995, who insist in the active dispersal in modern times of this genera, trought the different continents. ...
... (Hueck 1961Hueck & Seibert 1972. Einige Jahre später folgte dieser Auffassung zuerst Aziz Ab'Sáber (1977, 2003 Barthlott (1983Barthlott ( , 1995, die auf die aktive Ausbreitung in der modernen Zeit dieser Gattungen bestehen, die verschiedenen Comentinenten in die Hand nehmen. Wenn wir nach Südamerika zurückkehren, wenn wir die synchrone Entwicklung und die disjunkte Verteilung einer anderen gleichzeitigen Gruppe akzeptieren, wie die Araukarienwälder (vgl (Ochsenius 1977(Ochsenius , 1998 O Ochsenius,C. ...
Geobiologische Relikt Status der Kakteen Flora von Cabo Frio, Rio de Janeiro, Brasilien.
Zusammenfassung.
Für eine lange Zeit, wurde entlang des Kontinentalrand für die xerophitich Vegetation Enklaven entlang der brasilianischen Küste -such als Strom von Falkland -unter dem Wendekreis des Steinbocks, als Hauptmittel über die entscheidende Rolle ausgeübt durch kalte Meeresströmungen unterstützt, verantwortlich, insbesondere in der Region Cabo Frío (23º.00'S 41º00'E), Armação dos Buzius und Guanabara Bay.
Diese Tatsache wurde zuerst von zwei deutschen Wissenschaftlern anerkannt, die hervorragende Botaniker Ernst Ule (1901) und der phytogeographer Kurt Hueck (1972) der es in seiner berühmten Karte von Südamerika später katalogisiert, als azonal Flora (Hueck 1961 Hueck & Seibert 1972).
Einige Jahre später folgte dieser Auffassung zuerst Aziz Ab'Sáber (1977, 2003) in seiner allgemeinen kartographischen Skizze über die Geographie der Wisconsin trockenen Klima von Südamerika. Darauf folgte eine thematische Karte, die vom Autor in Deutschland veröffentlicht wurde (siehe Ochsenius 1979, 1986a) in Bezug auf die Krise der südamerikanischen Megafauna, und deren korrelative Landschaften während des letzten Gletschermaximums als Synthese ihrer 1982 vorgestellten Habilitationsschrift Universität des Saarlandes.
Doch weitere Studien führen mich dazu, diese vorhergehende Aussage zu ändern, als ich 40 Jahre nach meiner ersten Reise (Ochsenius 1970 gegen 2012), eine neue Umfrage über die caatinga des Nordostbrasiliens realisierte. Diese Gelegenheit, um die Chapada da Diamantina und die sertões der Umgebung, in der interland von Bahía, die später mit einem Besuch im südlichen von Paraná und Guanabara Bay ergänzt wurde.
Diese Aufklärung, darunter insbesondere das Motto des Problems. Daraus ergibt sich nun eine neue Interpretation über ihre geographische Herkunft und ihr geologisches Alter. Wie wir sehen werden, diesmal ganz anders, um heute durch eine reiche und vielfältige Literatur, Gegenstand einer anderen Studie derzeit in Vorbereitung (Ochsenius 2016) zu erhalten.
Ein geologisches Alter und Alter des biologischen Auftauchens für diese Flora. Einschließlich ihrer paläobiogeographischen Bedeutung, um so ihre gegenwärtige Lage zu erklären, deren Ursprünge bis jetzt noch auf die Permo-Trias, aber ganz besonders auf die Kreide zurückzuführen sind.
All das erklärt Ab'Sáber (1977), und alle nachfolgende Literatur (Coe et al, 2013), als Produkt eine aktive Wanderung vom N zum S und SE von solchen xerophytischen Elementen durch Caatingas-Steppen und Cerrados-Savannen. All das wäre das Ergebnis der Expansion, die durch die Wisconsin-ariden Klimate, um das atlantische Vorland und seine östliche Grenze, die heute durch den Atlantischen Wald besetzt wurde, erreicht worden wäre. Mit anderen Worten, dass Cabo Frío Cactaceae Flora nach diesen Autoren, entspricht einem Zufluchtsort hinterlassen, während der Wisconsin, und nach der überragenden bemerkenswerte südlichen Ausbau der nordöstlichen Caatinga.
Meiner Meinung nach, wären sie jedoch das Ergebnis eines eigenständigen natürlichen Prozesses. Als Überreste einer verallgemeinerten vorbestehenden Vegetation innerhalb der atlantischen Fassade in ganz Südamerika. Während seiner geologischen Alter, würde sehr älter sein, penecontemporäre Gondwana, und vor allem mit dem langsamen, aber allmählichen Rückzug von Südamerika von der Küste von Afrika, die schließlich zu einer parallelen Entwicklung von Cactaceae und Euphorbiaceae aber gar nicht. Damit Trockenheit durch Auftrieb kalten antarktischen Strom erzeugt, wahrscheinlich aus dem späten Miozän, neigt dazu, zu erklären, dass nur seine Ausdauer und das Überleben im Biotop der Region von Cabo Frio, -aber nicht Erklär- ihrer geographischen Herkunft und ältere geologische Alter.
Dieselbe Erklärung gilt auch für einige Gebiete des Gebietes der Guanabara-Bucht, wo wir uns auf die fotografischen Beweise beziehen müssen, die mehr als ein Jahrhundert von Marc Ferrez (2005) gemacht wurden.
So und in einem globalen Rahmen, das riesige Areal, das heute viele Gemeinden von Kakteen in Südamerika, von der Atlantikküste bis zum Pazifik vorne und aus dem Nordosten Patagonien bis zum letzten festes Land der Peri-Caribbean Trockengürtel decken, (Ochsenius 1999) lässt im Fall von Cabo Frio, für eine monotypische reichlich Verteilung eines einheimischen Kakteen (Pilosocereus ulei), unter anderem im Zusammenhang mit einem typischen Cactaceae des nordöstlichen Caatinga, wie Cereus fernanbucensis, Pilosocereus arrabidae, Austrocephalocereus fluminensis (ibidem Coleocephalocereus fluminensis), Brasilopuntia Brasiliensis, Epiphyllum phyllanthus, Hylocereus setaceus, Lepismium cruciforme Melocactus violaceus, Opuntia monocantha, Pereskia aculeata, Rhipsalis crispata, Rhipsalis oblonga, Rhipsalis pachyptera sowie die echte Verbindung mit einer reichen Vielfalt von Bromeliaceen (zB Tillandsia). Im allgemeinen werden die gegenwärtigen Belege für solche geobiologische Relikte (im Sinne von Ochsenius 1995 siehe unten) unabhängig von ihrem gegenwärtigen Klima, aber immer mit dem parasinchromatischen geologischen Zusammenhang verknüpft, kontinuierlich von mindestens Chapada da Diamantina (NW Bahia), und weiter nördlich (Pesqueira), und das Becken des Rio São Francisco, nach 700 km vor der Küste von Bahia (Puerto Seguro) umfassen, wie in Cabo Frío, und in Paraná, für den Raum Tausende von Kilometern. Diese Flora sind in den meisten Fällen eingebettet oder durch eine subhumiden Küstenwald Vegetation versteckt und Schwierigkeiten fortgesetzt werden muss, um die Verteilung von Cacti und Euphorbiaceae (z.B. Agave) camuflaged durch die aktuellen zonale und feuchten vegetation.This enge Beziehung zwischen Pflanzen und direkten alt Gondwanischen Geologie, -im Fall von Cabo Frio nach Präkambrium crystalline Sockel von granitischen Gneis entsprechen, mit den lokalen alkalischen Intrusion (Unidade Região dos Lagos, RadamBrasil 1983) -sind nicht ausschließlich aus Brasilien, sondern auch durch Wüste und xeromorphic Floren aus Afrika beschuldigt Nach Indien, in dem die sauren kristallinen Gesteine auch mit dem gondwananischen penekontemporalen Kontinent verbunden sind. Das Leitmotiv dieser neuen Interpretation, wird nicht nur von diesen Vorläufern unterstützt, aber für meine lange Forschung, über die geologische Entwicklung von Neotropische Aridität (Ochsenius 1970-2016), und durch meine allmähliche und progressive Vision, die Phänomene der Quartär Trockenheit zu berücksichtigen, Nicht als einzigartiger und am wenigsten dominierender Faktor. Ein Element, dass, leider immer noch in den vielen Autoren wie Ab'Sáber Weltanschauung gehalten, die nach ihrer Synthese Studien über die Geologie und Geomorphologie von der Trias bis der Kreide, ihr Professor Custer in der USP-follows teilweise, und Ende, das sieht die allmähliche Befeuchtung des atlantischen Vorlandes, entscheidet sich Ab'Sáber in umgekehrter Richtung, um den geologischen Hintergrund dieses floristischen Peuplementes und seine tiefe Beziehung zu den xeromorphen Floren von ganz Südamerika zu trennen. Diese Form, ihre Entstehung um die Permo-Trias, oder viel früher, wie die geologischen Untersuchungen eines der ältesten sedimentären und vulkanischen Pila und Wüstenrekord in der Welt: Die Chapada Diamantina im Hinterland von Bahia (1.8 Milliarden Jahre BP!) und somit zu verlassen zugunsten von Schwankungen in ariden Klima von Wisconsin, die in anderen Sinn waren sehr wichtig, für die Korrelativen Megafauna, aber nicht für Flora Evolution (Ochsenius 1999). Entsprechen ohnehin einem isolierten Beweis, vielmehr dem Überleben großer Kaktusgemeinschaften, die als allgemeine Rolle betrachtet werden. Daher sind eine weitere Beispiele von mir, in Chile, bewohnt im Grunde die Küstenmassiven suchten, gebaut, um die Kosten des Mesozoikum-Paläozoikum batholith von Graniten (z Regionen von Aconcagua, Coquimbo, Atacama, Taltal und Umgebung). Wo auf einer klar-zu-eins-Vereinigung mit Graniten, erlaubt von früheren Zeiten, die Etablierung und das Überleben dieser und anderer Lebensformen. Die gleichen wie, wie in Brasilien, haben die Kosten (Küstennebel), wie dort, in einem anderen Strom überlebt Von kaltem Aufwärmen, der Humboldt-Strömung, die beide mit einem homonymen Ursprung - in der Drift, die den antarktischen Kontinent umgab und deren Einfluss aus einem tiefen pleistozäischen Klimawandel im ganzen Südamerika entstand. Die Abkühlung und die anschließende Evolution der Antarktis-Islandeis beginnt Nach Mercer (1983) aus dem Miozän und dessen Strahlung nach Südamerika mit den Wisconsin-Anden-Gletschern in einer relativ neuen geologischen Zeit, die gegen Ende des Pleistozäns ist, ihren Höhepunkt erreicht. So ist der Begriff der felsigen Trockenheit, der als Auslöser betrachtet wird, die Affinität dieser Floras, außer in der allgemeinsten Bedeutung, in der engen evolutionären Beziehung zwischen diesen Pflanzen und Felsen, die im Raum ausgedehnt und mehr als das Symbiotische interpretiert werden sollte Allianz zwischen geologischen und biologischen Faktoren. Als das Zeitalter der Entstehung der kratonischen Massen, und fast sofortige Siedlung für diese Pflanzen. Damit das Alter der Kakteen, deren Alter bis dato nicht von der Botanik bestimmt werden kann, zweifellos zurückgehen muss, um die von mesozoischen und halbtrockenen Umgebungen auferlegten klimatischen Verhältnisse zu beseitigen, die einheitlicher und daher weniger diversifiziert waren . Sie waren es, die den Atlantik mit dem pazifischen Rand des südamerikanischen Gondwana-Kontinents kontaktierten (Ochsenius 1995a). Dasselbe gilt auch für die pazifische Seite, wo meine Studien im Elqui-Tal (Coquimbo, Chile), die es erlauben, ihren Fortschritt von der Küste bis zu den Anden zu bestimmen, begrenzt und beschränkt sind Paläozoik-Mesozoikum und Kreide, die heute die Küstenregion bilden. Ich muss hier unterscheiden, daß die Erleichterung moderner sein kann, weil wir das geologische Alter nicht mit dem jeweiligen geomorphologischen Alter oder dem Hebungsalter (Hebung) verwechseln dürfen. Das gleiche geschieht weiter südlich, im Bereich des Cº La Campana und CºEl Roble (Aconcagua), nördlich von Santiago. Alle diese Dokumente (hier nur als Beispiele zitiert) sollen mit den fortgeschrittensten Hypothesen über Rhipsalis (siehe Maxwell 1999), wie vielleicht die primitivste Form, und stellvertretende Kakteen in allen südlichen Kontinenten, die auch Gondwanean (Afrika, Madagaskar, Sri Lanka, Indien). Dafür gibt es einen bedeutenden Botaniker wie Barthlott (1983, 1995), die auf die aktive Ausbreitung in der modernen Zeit dieser Gattungen bestehen, die verschiedenen Kontinenten in die Hand nehmen. Wenn wir nach Südamerika zurückkehren, wenn wir die synchrone Entwicklung und die disjunkte Verteilung einer anderen gleichzeitigen Gruppe akzeptieren, wie die Araukarienwälder (vgl (Ochsenius 1977, 1998), die große Gebiete der heutigen Atacama-Wüste (z. B. zwischen El Toco, Antofagasta und La Ternera in der Nähe von Copiapó) behandeln, sollten daher auf denselben paläozoisch-mesozoischen Granitoiden in semiariden Umgebungen von Perm in den Bergen von Atacama vorhanden sein Darwinischen allmählichen Evolution (Mayr 1977), für diese großen Gruppen von Pflanzen, die scheinen, stricto sensum irgendeine Evolution erlebt haben, oder zumindest seine Entwicklung war so langsam, dass in einigen Fällen dies schien nicht zu existieren, oder haben größere Bedeutung. Dies ist, dass die Passage von Zehn Millionen und sogar Hunderte von Millionen von Jahren, aus der Permo-Triassic.Sie haben derzeit als geobiologische Relikt in einigen Fällen expansive (hier eine zusätzliche Kritik an Mayr und Simpson Konzepte und Ideen) , Wie es in den Staaten von Paraná und São Paulo im Zentral- und Süd-Brasilien aufgetreten ist. Dies führt mich auch zur Neuformulierung der Refugientheorie (oder Hypothese), zumindest in diesem Fall unanendbar, bestätigt unsere Vorstellungen über geobiologische Reliktia, Nicht nur als Überleben durch mehrere geologische Perioden, sondern auch wegen der konservativen Natur der Formen und ihrer unabhängigen Physiologie zum Klima (Ochsenius 1998). Sie entsprechen nicht einheitlichen Organismen, sondern biologischen Systemen (nicht kasuistisch), die heute in Form von Spuren bis heute unverändert geblieben sind. Es wird daran erinnert, dass die ursprüngliche Lebensraum des Klimas Araucariaceae sich als semi-ariden und heißen Klimazonen, vor allem während der Jura und seine reiche Fauna der Dinosaurier. Dass wie Kakteen und Bromelien seine klare Affinität zu seiner synchronen Heimat, den kristallinen Felsen (siehe Photo S.38) zeigen, zeigen jedoch, wo heute feuchtes gemäßigtes Klima herrscht, wie im südlichen Brasilien und im südlichen Chile (zB Cordillera de Nahuelbuta und Serra da Mantiqueira Bereiche).
... hohenauensis). Polyploidy has been suggested as an important mechanism in the evolution of Cactaceae (Ross, 1981;Pinkava, 2002;Arakaki, Soltis & Speranza, 2007), but polyploids are rare in Rhipsalideae, except for seven tetraploid or octoploid populations of R. baccifera from Costa Rica, Mexico, Africa and Sri Lanka (Barthlott, 1983). For this species, we found six diploid Argentinean populations. ...
... For this species, we found six diploid Argentinean populations. Barthlott (1983) also found diploid populations from Brazil and Paraguay. ...
Changes in chromosome structure and number play an important role in plant evolution. This was investigated in the Neotropical epiphytic cacti: all Lepismium spp. and some related Rhipsalis spp. Both genera have species with disjunct distributions between the paranas of south-eastern Brazil and north-eastern Argentina and the yungas forests of the eastern Andes. Karyotypes, fluorescent banding and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) studies using rDNA probes were performed. A time-calibrated phylogenetic tree was generated to place the karyological information and biogeographical history in an explicit evolutionary context. All species were 2n=22 and showed symmetrical karyotypes comprising only metacentric chromosomes of similar sizes. The heterochromatin bands were always associated with chromosome satellites coinciding with the location and number of the 18S-5.8S-26S rDNA loci. The 5S rDNA loci had more heterogeneous profiles with one or two loci per haploid genome. Phylogenetic analysis suggested an ancient duplication event of the 5S rDNA loci and more recent post-speciation translocation and deletion events. These genome restructurings are estimated to have occurred approximately 13.98Mya in the middle Miocene, after Lepismium and Rhipsalis diverged. The ancestor of Lepismium may have had a similar karyotype to L.lumbricoides and the Rhipsalis spp. (i.e. one 5S locus on chromosome 2). Both genera hypothetically originated in the yungas (north-eastern Argentina and southern Bolivia), but diversification of the Lepismium crown group probably originated from populations with duplicated 5S loci in the parana forests of south-eastern Brazil (8.70Mya in the late Miocene). Two migration events between the yungas and parana forests were suggested to explain the extant distribution of Lepismium spp. These results make Lepismium a model system for the study of the complex chromosomal evolution in plants.
... Dentre os principais autores que trataram do gênero deve-se citar Schumann (1890) que considerou 36 espécies válidas para o Brasil, Lõfgren (1915, 1918 que reconheceu 50 espécies de Rhipsalis no Brasil, Britton & Rose (1923) que relacionaram 43 espécies brasileiras, e Backeberg & Knuth (1935) que transferiram para o gêneroLepismium todas as espécies de Rhipsalis que possuemopericarpelo afundado em um alvéolo no ramo e reconheceram 38 espécies de Rhipsalis e mais 16 de Lepismium. Backeberg (1959) citou 60 espécies de Rhipsalis e 17 espécies de Lepismium, destas últimas, 16 voltaram a ser consideradas como pertencentes ao gênero Rhipsalis (Scheinvar, 1985;Barthlott, 1983Barthlott, , 1987. Para o Estado de São Paulo não existem citações específicas de quais espécies ocorrem, no entanto as referências acima relacionam cerca de 30 espécies que ocorreriam no Estado. ...
... Talvez essa espécie devesse ser considerada uma subespécie de R. baccifera. Esta é a espécie do gênero que possui a mais ampla distribuição geográfica, e também uma grande variação fenotípica e cariotípica, como demonstrado por Barthlott (1983). Estas variações se mantêm constantes em certo grau quando os exemplares coletados em diferentes regiões são mantidos em cultivo sob as mesmas condições, em casas de vegetação, como observado com exemplares coletados em Atibaia e outros procedentes do Rio de Janeiro e de Belém, os quais se alteraram devido às condições de cultivo, mas que não chegaram a atingir uma forma comum nos ramos, flores e frutos. ...
Rhipsalis Gärtner é um gênero de Cactaceae de hábito epífita ou rupícola, de ampla distribuição nas Américas do Sul e Central, atingindo inclusive a África tropical e ilhas do Oceano Índico. Este trabalho procurou caracterizar morfologicamente as espécies do gênero Rhipsalis que ocorrem no Estado de São Paulo, possibilitando deste modo o reconhecimento das espécies. Entre as espécies do gênero que possuem artículos cilíndricos e subcilíndricos foram reconhecidas 16 espécies ocorrentes no Estado de São Paulo, incluindo uma espécie nova, R. spinescens Lombardi, além de uma espécie de determinação incerta.Rhipsalis Gärtner is a genus of epiphytic or rupicolous Cactaceae, with a wide distribution in South and Central America. It also occurs in tropical Africa and the islands of the Indie Ocean. This study describes the morphology of the species ocurring in São Paulo state (Brazil). A total of 16 species with cylindrical and subcylindrical joints were recognized for São Paulo state, including an new species R. spinescens Lombardi, and another of uncertain affinity.
... This epiphytic plant is found in Madagascar, where tetra-and octaploid populations have been reported (Barthlott 1983). It bears more robust stems than its American relative R. baccifera subsp. ...
... baccifera. In addition, the production of more and larger fruits (Fig. 11) has been associated with polyploidy (Barthlott 1983). The fruits are fleshy and have a thick white ovary wall with seedlings inside (Fig. 12), which are by far the smallest (Fig. 13) observed among the viviparous examples discussed here. ...
Vivipary, a rare reproductive strategy in flowering plants, has been previously reported in only four species of the Cactaceae. In this paper, eight additional examples (Cleistocactus smaragdiflorus, Disocactus martianus, the hybrid Epiphyllum X Fern la Borde, Harrisia martinii, Lepismium ianthothele, L. monacanthum, Rhipsalis micrantha forma micrantha, and R. baccifera subsp. horrida) of vivipary in cultivated cacti from tribes Hylocereeae, Rhipsalideae, and Trichocereeae are documented. The plants had fully-developed and mature fruits containing seeds at different stages of germination, including tiny embryos emerging from the seed coat to young, healthy seedlings with well-developed organs, such as cotyledons and radicles. Several features, though not unique, distinguish cactus fruits with viviparous seedlings. Foremost, the fruits are fleshy with abundant mucilage and a relatively thick, often transparent pericarp. The seeds are generally numerous and embedded in a transparent, white or red pulp. The occurrence of vivipary in taxa from four phylogenetically distinct tribes of the subfamily Cactoideae suggests an independent origin and indicates that this reproductive strategy may be more widespread in the family than originally thought. Vivipary in the Cactaceae is regarded as a form of cryptovivipary, a condition in which the zygote develops inside the fruit without penetrating the ovary wall for dispersal purposes, which in turn is considered a subcategory of true vivipary. Further, vivipary is interpreted as an adaptive reproductive strategy that enables seedlings to establish more rapidly.
... Approximately 10% of all cacti are epiphytes that inhabit humid regions (Barthlott 1983). All obligate epiphytic cacti belong to the subfamily Cactoideae and are mainly assigned to two distinct tribes, Hylocereeae and Rhipsalideae (Nyffeler 2002; Hunt et al. 2006 ). ...
... Rhipsalideae contains four genera, mainly of holoepiphytes: Hatiora Britton & Rose, Rhipsalis Gaertn., Lepismium Pfeiff., and Schlumbergera Lem. (Barthlott 1983). A recent phylogenetic analysis of Rhipsalideae based on plastid DNA regions (psbA-trnH, trnQ-rps16, rpl32-trnL) and nuclear internal transcribed spacers (ITSs) supported the monophyly of Rhipsalideae and the major lineages within the tribe (Calvente 2010; Calvente et al. 2011). ...
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. Epiphytes represent an important element of the tropical flora and are widely distributed across vascular plants. Despite this diversity, however, little is yet known of the evolutionary history, habitat preference, morphological diversity, and biogeographical patterns of epiphytes as a whole. Approximately 10% of cacti are epiphytes inhabiting humid regions, and Rhipsalis represents the largest genus of these. Here we reconstruct relationships among species of the genus Rhipsalis on the basis of plastid and nuclear DNA markers (trnQ-rps16, rpl32-trnL, psbA-trnH, internal transcribed spacers, and malate synthase) and use them as a basis to study the evolution of habit, key morphological features, and the biogeographical history of the genus. Rhipsalis is highly supported as monophyletic, presenting three main lineages. Two lineages are marked by unique floral morphologies and one presents an exclusive stem-shape morphology. In spite of this, neither of these features seems to have been associated with small-scale habit transitions or large-scale transitions through different biogeographical regions. Several lineages of the genus seem to have originated in coastal Brazil and subsequently occupied other tropical forests in South America, North America, Africa, and Asia. These events occurred in relatively recent times, with most of them taking place on terminal branches, thus suggesting recent associations between South American epiphytic flora.
... Since Rhipsalis is the only genus of epiphytic cacti native to regions (Madagascar, tropical Africa, across Sri Lanka, and Southern India) other than the New World it stands out among cacti species. However, rather than emerging independently of existing cacti, dispersion to these locations was probably caused by frugivorous birds (Barthlott, 1993). Since cacti are now available worldwide, they are being used for human use as well. ...
Cacti are one of the most diverse and widespread plants globally. They are useful in numerous ways, including food, medicine, and ornamental plants. This review aimed to synthesise current and potential uses of cacti, methods of propagation, threats by invasive cacti, control and management of invasiveness, and socio-economic synthesis of the cacti industry. Because of the attractive unique morphology of the plant, it’s used as an ornamental plant globally. For commercial scale cacti production, both molecular and classical breeding methods are employed. Advantages of micropropagation of cacti for mass-scale production, compared to sexual propagation were identified. The potential for the application of molecular techniques in the cacti industry is high. Regardless of slow growth, cacti trade is a highly profitable market. However, due to slow growth, the cost of cultivation and maintenance should be considered. Sometimes, wild cacti are used for commercialisation in the international and illegal market. The species selection for commercialisation is vital for farmers. However, the introduction of high quantities of ornamental cacti to other countries increases the risk of cacti being invasive in the future. In this review, while managing invasive cacti, the international trade in rare expensive cacti is addressed.
... Since Rhipsalis is the only genus of epiphytic cacti native to regions (Madagascar, tropical Africa, across Sri Lanka, and Southern India) other than the New World it stands out among cacti species. However, rather than emerging independently of existing cacti, dispersion to these locations was probably caused by frugivorous birds (Barthlott, 1993). Since cacti are now available worldwide, they are being used for human use as well. ...
Cacti are one of the most diverse and widespread plants globally. They are useful in numerous ways, including food, medicine, and ornamental plants. This review aimed to synthesise current and potential uses of cacti, methods of propagation, threats by invasive cacti, control andnmanagement of invasiveness, and socio-economic synthesis of the cacti industry. Because ofbthe attractive unique morphology of the plant, it’s used as ornamental plant globally. Forbcommercial scale cacti production, both molecular and classical breeding methods are employed. Advantages of micropropagation of cacti for mass-scale production, compared to sexual propagation were identified. The potential for the application of molecular techniques in the cacti industry is high. Regardless of slow growth, cacti trade is a highly profitable market. However, due to slow growth, the cost of cultivation and maintenance should be considered. Sometimes, wild cacti are used for commercialisation in the international and illegal market. The species selection for commercialisation is vital for farmers. However, introduction of high quantities of ornamental cacti to other countries increases the risk of cacti being invasive in the
future. In this review, while managing invasive cacti, the international trade in rare expensive cacti is addressed.
... In the suborder Caryophyllineae, which is considered monophyletic based on morphological and molecular studies (Judd et al. 2009), Cactaceae and Portulacaceae are phylogenetically related by sharing loss of internal phloem and CAM photosynthetic metabolism (Judd et al. 2009;Ocampo & Columbs 2010;Hernández-Hernández et al. 2011). Cactaceae, one of the most representative and iconic families of the order, has approximately 1,400 species and 100 genera distributed exclusively in the American continent, with Mexico, USA, and Northeastern and Southeastern Brazil bearing its main centers of diversity (Barthlott 1983;Valiente-Banuet et al. 1996;Dávila-Aranda et al. 2002;Casas et al. 2014). ...
The present work, which is part of a series of taxonomic monographs, aims to provide useful taxonomic features for distinguishing species of Cactaceae from Itaúnas State Park-Brazil. After performing field expeditions and observations, and analysis of herbaria vouchers, a total of five species of Cactaceae is herein recorded: Brasiliopuntia brasiliensis (Least Concern), Cereus fernambucensis subsp. fernambucensis (Least Concern), Melocactus violaceus subsp. violaceus (Vulnerable), Pereskia aculeata (Least Concern), and Pilosocereus arrabidae (Near Threatened). Leaf (when present) and cladodes morphology, and presence or absence of cephalium are the most useful characters to specific delimitation. Key identification, descriptions, photographs, taxonomic comments, geographic distribution and habitat data are herein provided.
... The plan for this publication emerged in the early 1990's. First modern maps of phytodiversity had already been published by BARTHLOTT (1983) for the Cactaceae-Rhipsalideae. As a well-known and extensively studied group, compared to other large families, the Cactaceae will act as a role-model for the analysis of biodiversity and biogeography of a larger angiosperm group. ...
... La carencia de cactáceas en el Viejo Mundo [con la excepción de Rhipsalis baccifera (J. S. Muell.) Stern, cuya dispersión se considera un evento a larga distancia (Barthlott, 1983)], sugiere que el origen de las cactáceas ocurrió después del Paleógeno (Mauseth, 1990). Sin embargo, la falta de evidencia fósil dificulta la calibración del reloj molecular para determinar los tiempos de divergencia en la familia. ...
La familia Cactaceae es característica del Nuevo Mundo. La diversidad taxonómica y carácter monofilético hace a este grupo de plantas un modelo interesante para estudiar aspectos biológicos, evolutivos y filogenéticos. Entre estos, destaca la viviparidad, un raro evento en angiospermas. Viviparismo es un proceso reproductivo genético y metabólicamente costoso porque incluye complicados procesos eco-fisiológicos con la concomitante producción de diferentes niveles hormonales. Este riesgoso evento implica la combinación de factores de defensa y protección, en el cuál la planta madre invierte mucha energía metabólica para producir progenie viable, capaz de sobrevivir en condiciones adversas. Viviparidad existe en aproximadamente 32 especies de cactáceas, en la subfamilia Cactoideae (tribus Cacteae, Hylocereeae, Pachycereeae, Rhipsalideae, Trichocereeae). Se discuten cuatro especies vivíparas [Ferocactus herrerae (tribu Cacteae) y Stenocereus alamosensis, S. thurberi y Pachycereus schottii (tribu Pachycereeae)] en la costa del Noroeste de Sinaloa. La reproducción vivípara en la familia se interpreta como un mecanismo que favorece la germinación y proporciona nuevas oportunidades para el establecimiento, mantenimiento y dispersión de la población a cortas distancias en ambientes halófilos. Ferocactus, el tercer género en número de especies de la tribu Cacteae, tiene una taxonomía e historia filogenética y evolutiva muy compleja. Ferocactus es un grupo en el cuál el aislamiento geográfico y reproductivo han sido importantes en su diversificación y evolución. Doce especies (40%) se distribuyen en el noroeste de México, incluyendo la península de Baja California e islas adyacentes. Se discute el origen, patrones de radiación y migración, y la evolución de Ferocactus a partir de dos supuestas especies basales (F. robustus y F. flavovirens) en centro de México. Las islas del Golfo de California han sido importantes en la radiación y especiación de Ferocactus debido a la existencia de condiciones ecológicas y hábitats adecuados para el establecimiento de nuevos organismos, así como a la presencia de especies muy semejantes en las áreas continentales de México, en la península y sus islas. Estudios recientes rechazan la posición basal de F. robustus y F. flavovirens, e indican que Ferocatus forma un grupo parafilético o polifilético.
... However, epiphytic cacti are a prominent component in the physiognomy of certain humid forests in the Neotropics. Epiphytism occurrs in ca. 10 % of the species of Cactaceae and has a strong phylogenetic signal, as it is restricted to Hylocereeae and Rhipsalideae (Barthlott 1983). Knowledge of the pollination biology of epiphytic cacti is sparse, being restricted to anecdotal reports (e.g. ...
Plant-pollinator interactions range from obligatory specialists to facultative generalists, and floral morphology and pollination system may not match completely. The floral biology, reproductive system and floral visitors of a species of the tribe Rhipsalideae were investigated with a focus on the consistency between the pollination system and the floral phenotype. Rhipsalis neves-armondii is an obligate xenogamous species, due to self-sterility. Its flowers are white, small and diurnal, and radially symmetrical. These features, along with their small amount of nectar, characterize the flowers as phenotypic generalists. The most frequent pollinators were a solitary oligolectic species of Andrenidae (Rhophitulus solani), two species of Meliponinae (Trigona spinipes and T. braueri) and Apis mellifera. Despite the generalist floral phenotype, the pollination system is functionally specialized, since only small bees performed effective visits. Flowers of R. neves-armondii may represent a case of cryptic floral specialization in which attributes other than morphology act as filters, restricting them to a single functional group of pollinators. Moreover, the four most frequent species of pollinators cover a spectrum ranging from solitary oligolectic to social polylectic bees, including an exotic species. These results illustrate the distinct dimensions of specialization-generalization that may occur in the pollination process of a single species.
... No Brasil, são descritas cerca de 220 espécies da família com hábito epífi to, as quais são principalmente adaptadas nas fl orestas tropicais e subtropicais úmidas. A maioria pertence à subfamília Cactoideae e às tribos Hylocereeae e Rhipsalideae (Barthlott 1983). ...
... (Barthlott, 1983). Entretanto, Zappi et al. (2011) acrescentam um terceiro centro de dispersão localizado no Sudeste e Nordeste do Brasil. ...
_________________________________________________________________________________________________ RESUMO – A família Cactaceae possui relevância cultural e econômica para os agricultores do semiárido do Brasil. Várias espécies são utilizadas para diversos fins, principalmente o uso como forragem em períodos de estiagem. O presente estudo objetivou registrar o conhecimento que agricultores de uma comunidade rural no semiárido da Paraíba possuem sobre o uso de cactáceas. Entrevistas semiestruturadas foram realizadas com 99 informantes. Os cactos citados foram organizados em categorias de uso. Registraram-se onze espécies, com total de 1.122 citações, distribuídas em 11 categorias de uso. A espécie mais citada foi Cereus jamacaru DC. subsp. jamacaru e a categoria de uso foi a forragem. Este trabalho evidenciou o valor cultural das espécies de cactáceas para os agricultores. No entanto, espécies importantes como C. jamacaru subsp. jamacaru não estão sendo utilizadas de forma sustentável, o que pode provocar sua extinção local. Algumas recomendações são discutidas para sua proteção. _________________________________________________________________________________________________ TRADITIONAL BOTANICAL KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE CACTUS IN THE SEMIARID OF BRAZIL ABSTRACT – The Cactaceae family has high cultural and economic importance for farmers of the semiarid region of Brazil. Several species are used for a broad spectrum of purposes, but these plants are mainly used as fodder during drought periods. This study aimed to register the knowledge and cultural value that farmers of a rural community in the semi-arid Paraiba have about using cacti. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 99 informants. Cacti cited were organized into use categories. Eleven species were recorded, with a total of 1,122 use quotes, distributed in eleven use categories. The most cited species was Cereus jamacaru DC. subsp. jamacaru and the use category mostly mentioned was fodder. This work showed the cultural value of the cacti species for farmers, although some species, such as C. jamacaru subsp. jamacaru are not being used sustainably, which may cause their local extinction. Some recommendations for their conservation are discussed. _________________________________________________________________________________________________ CONOCIMIENTO BOTÁNICO TRADICIONAL ACERCA DE LOS CACTUS EN EL SEMIÁRIDO DE BRASIL RESUMEN – La familia Cactaceae tiene alta importancia cultural y económica para los agricultores de la región semiárida de Brasil. Distintas especies son utilizadas para diversos fines, principalmente como forraje durante los períodos de sequía. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo registrar el conocimiento que los agricultores de una comunidad rural en la región semiárida de Paraíba tienen sobre el uso de las cactáceas. Se llevaron a cabo entrevistas semi-estructuradas con 99 informantes. Los cactus citados fueron organizados en categorías de uso. Se registraron once especies, con un total de 1.122 citas de uso, distribuidas en once categorías. La especie más citada fue Cereus jamacaru DC. subsp. jamacaru y la categoría de uso mayormente referida fue forraje. Este trabajo mostró el valor cultural de las especies de cactus para los agricultores. Sin embargo, especies importantes como C. jamacaru subsp. jamacaru, no se están utilizando de manera sostenible, lo que puede causar su extinción local. Se discuten algunas recomendaciones para su protección.
... Epiphytic cacti are most diverse in tropical forest areas of Central and northern South America. Only one species, Rhipsalis baccifera, naturally occurs outside of North and South America in parts of tropical Africa, Madagascar, and some islands in the Indian Ocean (BARTHLOTT 1983). Cacti are easily recognized based on the presence of distinct spine clusters (i.e. ...
... , but proposed by Barthlott (1987) as Hatiora roses (Lagerheim) Barthlott], is a saxicolous or epiphytic shrub native to the south Brazilian state of Paraná (Barthlott, 1979(Barthlott, , 1983Graf, 1974). Plants are compact, extensively branched, and have angular or flattened phylloclades 1.5 to 2 cm in length (Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium, 1976). ...
Dwarf Easter cactus [Rhipsalidopsis rosea (Lagerheim) Britton and Rose] plants were subjected to temperature and photoperiod treatments to determine their influence on flowering. All plants exposed to 10C at night (NT) and natural daylengths (ND) during winter and spring for 4 or more weeks flowered, whereas some plants grown continuously under 18C NT and either long days [(LD) provided by incandescent irradiation] or ND failed to flower. Days to flowering and number of flower buds per plant increased linearly as the duration of exposure to 10C NT and ND increased from 4 to 16 weeks. The number of flower buds were greatest on plants receiving either continuous 10C NT or 12 to 16 weeks 10C NT, then 18C NT until flowering. Plants receiving 18C NT flowered earlier under LD than ND when treatments followed 4 or 8 weeks-of 10C NT and ND.
... (Barthlott, 1983). Entretanto, Zappi et al. (2011) acrescentam um terceiro centro de dispersão localizado no Sudeste e Nordeste do Brasil. ...
In order to understand the local distribution of mandacaru (C. jamacaru subsp. jamacaru) and facheiro (P. pachycladus subsp. pernambucoensis), as well as its relation to a rural community, this work was carried out in the peripheral vegetation of the rural community of Santa Rita, Municipality of Congo, Paraíba, Brazil. Using the guided tour, every individual was georeferenced and we recorded data of height, diameter at breast height and diameter at ground level. We recorded 170 individuals of C. jamacaru subsp. jamacaru and 118 of P. pachycladus subsp. pernambucoensis. Cereus jamacaru subsp. jamacaru height was 4,11 m and the P. pachycladus subsp. pernambucoensis height was 4,25. Cereus jamacaru subsp. jamacaru was more associated with the species Croton blanchetianus (79 individuals) and P. pachycladus subsp. pernambucoensis was more associated with the species Encholirium sp. (28 individuals). Regarding the occurrence of plants, C. jamacaru subsp. jamacaru was mainly observed in secondary forest
(97 individuals) and P. pachycladus subsp. pernambucoensis occurs more frequently in the top of the mountain (86 individuals). In this research was
obtained the first evidence that C. jamacaru subsp. jamacaru possibly is having some type of management because the nearest distribution of community and the places where the species occurs, such as backyards, plantation areas, roadsides and gardens, however, more studies are needed to confirm these evidences.
KEYWORDS: Caatinga, mandacaru, facheiro, guided tour.
... The plan for this publication emerged in the early 1990's. First modern maps of phytodiversity had already been published by BARTHLOTT (1983) for the Cactaceae-Rhipsalideae. As a well-known and extensively studied group, compared to other large families, the Cactaceae will act as a role-model for the analysis of biodiversity and biogeography of a larger angiosperm group. ...
The Cactaceae with c. 1,435 species are the most important plant family of the arid regions of the Americas. Recent revisions and molecular studies resulted in an improved knowledge of the phylogeny and taxonomy of this group. Due to their high value as ornamental plants, countless publications with data on ecological preferences and geographic occurrence of the species are available. In this volume, the distribution areas of all cactus species are mapped. On this basis, we identified and characterized seven geographical centers of cactus diversity. Overall diversity patterns of the family, as well as, diversity patterns of all taxonomic subgroups, growth forms, and pollination syndromes are presented and mapped on the phylogeny of the Cactaceae. More than 50% of the species have extremely small distribution ranges, resulting in potential threat and insufficient coverage by existing protected areas. This volume presents the most comprehensive biogeographical analysis of one of the larger plant families, illustrated by 333 colored maps and c. 60 color figures on c. 200 pages.
... Here, we test this hypothesis for Rhipsalis, whose fruits are succulent berries with relatively thick and soft pericarp enclosing a viscous pulp that helps to adhere the many small seeds onto the branches of phorophytes (i.e., host plants) (Bregman 1988). The resemblance of Rhipsalis fruits to mistletoe fruits is such that Rhipsalis are known as 'mistletoe-cactus' (Barthlott 1983). Rhipsalis comprises 37 species occurring exclusively in tropical Americas with one exception, R. baccifera, which occurs in central Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, and Sri Lanka (Anderson 2001) making it the only Cactaceae genus naturally found outside the American continent. ...
Mistletoes represent the best example of specialization in seed dispersal, with a reduced assemblage of dispersal agents. Specific dispersal requirements mediated by the specificity of seed deposition site have apparently led to the evolution of such close relationships between mistletoes and certain frugivores. Here, we provide evidences for another case of specialization involving epiphytic cacti in the genus Rhipsalis, and small Neotropical passerines Euphonia spp., which also act as the main seed dispersers of mistletoes in the family Visca-ceae. With field observations, literature search, and observations on captive birds, we demonstrated that Rhipsalis have specific establish-ment requirements, and euphonias are the most effective dispersers of Rhipsalis seeds in both quantitative and qualitative aspects, potentially depositing seeds onto branches of host plants. We interpret the similar dispersal systems of Rhipsalis and Viscaceae mistletoes, which involve the same dispersal agents, similar fruit morphologies, and fruit chemistry as convergent adaptive strategies that enable seeds of both groups to reach adequate microsites for establishment in host branches. Abstract in Portuguese is available in the online version of this article.
... Vektoren der Epiphytensamen (Longino 1986, Davidson 1988, Davidson & Epstein 1989, Orivel & Dejean 1999. Am Río Suromoni waren zwar nur 8 % der Arten dafür jedoch 49 % der Individuen durch Myrmecochorie gekennzeichnet (Engwald 1999 (Barthlott 1983). Bemerkenswert ist ebenfalls, dass die Samen der Epiphyten in der Regel kleiner und zahlreicher sind als bei ihren terrestrischen Verwandten (Gentry & Dodson 1987). ...
Die Zerstörung der tropischen Bergwälder der Anden durch menschliche Nutzung stellt eine wachsende Bedrohung für die Vielfalt der epiphytischen Vegetation dar. Weite Bereiche der Primärwälder wurden in dieser Region bereits großflächig gerodet, während die sekundären Wälder drastisch an Größe und Bedeutung zunehmen. Bisher ist jedoch kaum etwas darüber bekannt, wie die Epiphytengemeinschaften auf diese Veränderungen ihres Lebensraumes reagieren und ob sie in ihrer Gesamtheit in den entstehenden Sekundärwäldern überleben können. Die vorliegende Studie soll zur weiteren Erforschung der Diversität und Ökologie von Epiphytengemeinschaften in Primär- und Sekundärwäldern sowie deren Zusammenhang mit abiotischen Faktoren beitragen und hat dabei zwei grundlegende Ziele:
1. Die Untersuchung der Artenvielfalt, Zusammensetzung und Ökologie der Epiphyten-gemeinschaften entlang eines Höhengradienten in den Bergwäldern Boliviens.
2. Der Vergleich der Epiphytengemeinschaften von primären und sekundären Bergwäldern in zwei Höhenstufen.
Die Untersuchungen wurden in zwei Lokalitäten an der bolivianischen Andenostabdachung im Bereich der Yungas-Bergwälder im Departamento La Paz durchgeführt. Das erste Untersuchungsgebiet befindet sich in der Nähe des Ortes Sapecho (15° 27-32’ S, 67° 18-23’ W), der auf ca. 400 m Höhe am Grund des „Valle del Río Alto Beni“ liegt, welches im Nordosten von der „Serranía Marimonos“ begrenzt wird. Die mittlere Jahrestemperatur von Sapecho beträgt ca. 25 °C und der jährliche Niederschlag variiert zwischen 1.500 mm im Tal und bis zu 2.000 mm in den höheren Lagen der Berghänge. Das zweite Untersuchungsgebiet liegt im Parque Nacional Cotapata (16° 11-13’ S, 67° 51-54’ W), wo im relevanten Gebiet zwischen 1.500 m und 2.500 m Höhe jährliche Niederschlagsmengen von ca. 2.500 mm und mittlere Jahrestemperaturen zwischen 13-19 °C verzeichnet werden.
Grundlage der Studie ist der Vergleich quantitativer Epiphyteninventare von Primärwäldern mit jenen von nahegelegenen etwa 15 Jahre alten Sekundärwäldern. Dazu wurden in der submontanen Stufe von Sapecho fünf Primärwald- und eine Sekundärwaldparzelle zwischen 500 m und 1.200 m Höhe und in der montanen Stufe von Cotapata drei Primärwald- und zwei Sekundärwaldparzellen in einer Höhe zwischen 1.500 m und 2.200 m bearbeitet, wobei die Aufnahmefläche in jeder Parzelle 0,32 ha betrug. Zur Erfassung des Mikroklimas wurde in verschiedenen Waldstraten innerhalb der Bestände mittels Dataloggern die Lufttemperatur und die relative Luftfeuchtigkeit gemessen.
Insgesamt wurden fast 500 Epiphytenarten aus 25 Pflanzenfamilien und 110 Gattungen nachgewiesen. In Sapecho wurden 255 Arten in 87 Gattungen und 23 Familien, in Cotapata 292 Arten in 76 Gattungen und 24 Familien gefunden. Die Orchidaceae sind in beiden Untersuchungsgebieten mit Abstand die artenreichste Familie (Sapecho: 44 %; Cotapata: 39 %), nur die Gesamtheit der Pteridophyta (29 %; 36 %) reicht an deren Artenvielfalt heran, was die enorme Bedeutung der Farne für die Epiphytendiversität der Bergwälder im Bereich der Randtropen deutlich macht. Die Araceae, Bromeliaceae und Piperaceae erreichen ebenso wie alle weiteren Familien Anteile von weniger als 10 %. Die Artenzusammensetzung der Untersuchungsgebiete ist dabei sehr unterschiedlich, was die geringe Anzahl (54; 11 %) der gemeinsamen Arten belegt.
Die kleinräumigen Epiphyteninventare im Parque Nacional Cotapata weisen mit bis zu 175 Arten pro 0,32 ha eine extrem hohe Artenvielfalt (Alpha-Diversität) auf und belegen, dass die Yungas-Bergwälder von Bolivien zu den epiphytenreichsten Gebieten weltweit gehören. Die Epiphytendiversität der Yungas nimmt entlang des untersuchten Höhentransektes von 300 bis ca. 1.600 m linear zu, um dann bis 2.200 m wieder leicht abzunehmen. Die Araceen zeigen dabei eine stetige Abnahme, die Orchideen und Farne eine deutliche Zunahme ihrer Artenzahlen mit zunehmender Höhe. Innerhalb des Bestandes werden die größten Artenzahlen der Epiphyten im unteren Bereich der Baumkrone erreicht, wo große horizontale Äste mit ihrer wasserspeichernden organischen Auflage günstige Wachstumsbedingungen bieten. In der äußeren Krone nimmt die Artenvielfalt besonders in Sapecho aufgrund der ungünstigen mikroklimatischen Verhältnisse stark ab.
Im relativ dunklen Unterwuchs werden erstaunlich hohe Artenzahlen erreicht, was vor allem durch den dortigen Verbreitungsschwerpunkt einer großen Anzahl von Farnen, Araceen und Piperaceen bedingt ist. Für ein vollständiges Epiphyteninventar sollten deshalb nicht nur Bäume der Kronenschicht bearbeitet werden, sondern es muss auch die Epiphytenvegetation der Sträucher und jungen Bäume berücksichtigt werden. Die vertikale Verbreitung der Epiphyten wird dabei durch mikroklimatische und strukturelle Bedingungen innerhalb des Phorophyten bestimmt und korreliert mit den spezifischen morpho- und physiologischen Anpassungsmerkmalen der verschiedenen Arten. Die meisten Epiphyten zeigen zwar in ihrem Verbreitungsmuster deutliche Präferenzen für bestimmte Wuchszonen, knapp die Hälfte der Arten sind jedoch so anpassungsfähig, dass sie als Habitat-Generalisten potentiell in allen Waldstraten vorkommen können.
Die anthropogene Zerstörung der Bergwälder führt zu einem erheblichen Artenverlust: Die ca. 15jährigen Sekundärwälder weisen zwischen 60-70 % weniger Arten auf als angrenzende Primärwälder, wobei die Orchideen, Hymenophyllaceen und Grammitidaceen besonders stark vom Artenrückgang betroffen sind. Keine oder nur geringe Beeinträchtigung zeigen die ökologisch flexibleren Aspleniaceen und Polypodiaceen sowie die hemiepiphytischen Araceen in den tieferen Lagen von Sapecho. Diese beiden Farnfamilien bieten sich als Bioindikatoren zur Evaluation von veränderten Umweltbedingungen an. Die drastische Abnahme der Epiphytendiversität in den Sekundärwäldern erklärt sich durch ungünstige strukturelle Merkmale der jungen Bäume sowie das trockenere Mikroklima und das Fehlen von Moospolstern. Diese erschwerten Wachstumsbedingungen führen bei vielen Epiphyten zu einer auffälligen Verschiebung ihres Verbreitungsschwerpunktes vom Kronenraum der Primärwälder in den Stammbereich der Sekundärwälder.
... The approximately 1 438 species in 124 genera (Hunt, 2006) occur in North and South America, with a single species of Rhipsalis Gaertn. which is widespread in tropical America, extending to Africa, Madagascar and Sri Lanka (Obermeyer, 1976;Barthlott, 1983;Smith & Steyn, 1997;. Various species, in the Opuntioideae in particular, are widely naturalised in warmer regions of the Old World (Parfitt & Gibson, 2003). ...
... The Cactaceae family includes approx. 1500 – 1800 species (Anderson, 2001; Hunt et al., 2006) of perennial succulent plants widely distributed in North and South America, with only one species, Rhipsalis baccifera, occurring in the Asian and African tropics (Barthlott, 1983). Since the 19th century, three subfamilies of Cactaceae, i.e. ...
Background and AimsSpecies of Cactaceae are well adapted to arid habitats. Determinate growth of the primary root, which involves early and complete root apical meristem (RAM) exhaustion and differentiation of cells at the root tip, has been reported for some Cactoideae species as a root adaptation to aridity. In this study, the primary root growth patterns of Cactaceae taxa from diverse habitats are classified as being determinate or indeterminate, and the molecular mechanisms underlying RAM maintenance in Cactaceae are explored. Genes that were induced in the primary root of Stenocereus gummosus before RAM exhaustion are identified.Methods
Primary root growth was analysed in Cactaceae seedlings cultivated in vertically oriented Petri dishes. Differentially expressed transcripts were identified after reverse northern blots of clones from a suppression subtractive hybridization cDNA library.Key ResultsAll species analysed from six tribes of the Cactoideae subfamily that inhabit arid and semi-arid regions exhibited determinate primary root growth. However, species from the Hylocereeae tribe, which inhabit mesic regions, exhibited mostly indeterminate primary root growth. Preliminary results suggest that seedlings of members of the Opuntioideae subfamily have mostly determinate primary root growth, whereas those of the Maihuenioideae and Pereskioideae subfamilies have mostly indeterminate primary root growth. Seven selected transcripts encoding homologues of heat stress transcription factor B4, histone deacetylase, fibrillarin, phosphoethanolamine methyltransferase, cytochrome P450 and gibberellin-regulated protein were upregulated in S. gummosus root tips during the initial growth phase.Conclusions
Primary root growth in Cactoideae species matches their environment. The data imply that determinate growth of the primary root became fixed after separation of the Cactiodeae/Opuntioideae and Maihuenioideae/Pereskioideae lineages, and that the genetic regulation of RAM maintenance and its loss in Cactaceae is orchestrated by genes involved in the regulation of gene expression, signalling, and redox and hormonal responses.
... American-African disjunctions in vascular plants and animals have long been interpreted as evidence for an exclusively western Gondwanan origin and subsequent vicariance in the late Cretaceous (Axelrod, 1970; Raven & Axelrod, 1974; Nelson & Platnick, 1981; Cracraft, 1988). However, phylogenetic analysis using molecular clocks (Magallón, 2004) and other evidence suggest more recent long-distance dispersal during the Oligocene and Miocene as cause for present day distributions in vascular plant families such as Bromeliaceae, Cactaceae, and Vochysiaceae (Thorne, 1973Thorne, , 1996Thorne, , 2004 Barthlott, 1983; Zink et al., 2000; Renner, 2004; Sytsma et al., 2004; Givnish et al., , 2005 De Queiroz, 2005 ). However, in these instances there is a strong imbalance in number of species and geographic range: American lineages include more than 100 times more species than African lineages and the latter are restricted to small areas on the African continent, patterns that support the notion of chiefly eastward longdistance dispersal. ...
Aim To analyse the historical biogeography of the lichen genus Chroodiscus using a phenotype-based phylogeny in the context of continental drift and evolution of tropical rain forest vegetation.
Location All tropical regions (Central and South America, Africa, India, Southeast Asia, north-east Australia).
Methods We performed a phenotype-based phylogenetic analysis and ancestral character state reconstruction of 14 species of the lichen genus Chroodiscus, using paup* and mesquite; dispersal–vicariance analysis (DIVA) and dispersal–extinction–cladogenesis (DEC) modelling to trace the geographical origin of individual clades; and ordination and clustering by means of pc-ord, based on a novel similarity index, to visualize the biogeographical relationships of floristic regions in which Chroodiscus occurs.
Results The 14 species of Chroodiscus show distinctive distribution patterns, with one pantropical and one amphi-Pacific taxon and 12 species each restricted to a single continent. The genus comprises four clades. DIVA and DEC modelling suggest a South American origin of Chroodiscus in the mid to late Cretaceous (120–100 Ma), with subsequent expansion through a South American–African–Indian–Southeast Asian–Australian dispersal route and late diversification of the argillaceus clade in Southeast Asia. Based on the abundance of extant taxa, the probability of speciation events in Chroodiscus is shown to be extremely low. Slow dispersal of foliicolous rain forest understorey lichens is consistent with estimated phylogenetic ages of individual species and with average lengths of biological species intervals in fungi (10–20 Myr).
Main conclusions The present-day distribution of Chroodiscus can be explained by vicariance and mid-distance dispersal through the interconnection or proximity of continental shelves, without the need for recent, trans-oceanic long-distance dispersal. Phylogenetic reconstruction and age estimation for Chroodiscus are consistent with the ‘biotic ferry’ hypothesis: a South American origin and subsequent eastward expansion through Africa towards Southeast Asia and north-eastern Australia via the Indian subcontinent. The present-day pantropical distributions of many clades and species of foliicolous lichens might thus be explained by eastward expansion through continental drift, along with the evolution of modern rain forests starting 120 Ma, rather than by the existence of a hypothetical continuous area of pre-modern rain forest spanning South America, Africa and Southeast Asia during the mid and late Cretaceous.
... Posiblemente, el primer mapa verdadero sobre biodiver- sidad en cactáceas (i.e. un mapa indicando la ubicación de centros de diversidad en vez de intervalos de distribución de taxa particulares) fue publicado por Barthlott (1983), mostrando los patrones de diversidad de las Rhipsalideae epifitas. Este trabajo continuó en los 1990s por Barthlott y colaboradores en la Universidad de Bonn, rindiendo como fruto un mapa preliminar de biodiversidad para especies y géneros de cactus, publicado hace pocos años (Mutke & Barthlott 2005). ...
For more up to date information regarding our Cactus distribution dataset please compare: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270476747_Biogeography_and_Biodiversity_of_Cacti
The repeated search based on the Darwinian biogeographic paradigm, and its illusory center of origin, has led, over many decades, to all kinds of incompatibilities and priorities regarding the population and biogeography of the Gondwanan biota, thus completely ignoring, the Otto Kleinschmidt's classical theory of vicarious for-mation(Kleinschmidt´Formenkreisstheorie 1926, 1930). Which tends to explain the existence of the same species of vicarious form, that is in multiple coordinates without precedence of a certain center of origin. Thus, the distribution, for example, of Adansonia as well as other Gondwanean elements such as Cavillenesia and Ceiba (Malvaceae), together with Pachydomium and Weltswichtia, in the ancient paleo desert Namib-Kalahari ̶ it would have originated already in a pre-Cretaceous times, most probably in the Upper Jurassic, and before the definitive disintegration of Pangea. So elements such as Adansonia, Pachydomium, Aloe and other succulents, whose basic property reveals the presence of an arid to semi-arid climate with maybe strong seasonal contrasts.
When the displacement that characterizes Gondwana begins, including among others the Australian plate, and the Madagascar microplate. The onset of passive migration, will occur after the continental drift long ago premonitoring in Marburg by the geomobilism of Carl-Christian Ochsenius and Alfred Lothar Wegener on the earth's crust against the fixism of Edward Suess. Where given the special isolation conditions of Madagascar, trough a earlier break up, they produced the high in situ diversification of both Adansonia, Pachydomium and Aloe, a unique case and superlative of biodiversity in all of Gondwana. There is to mention de importance of aridity evolution in the whole process and its origins. and the special characteristic of all involved species, and its particular xerophytic (hidroxerox) fashion, which are equivalent to a water current economy, or paraclimatic propiety conditions.
From there Madagascar, will become the main biodiversity hotspot for all of Gondwana to this day, including around 75% of all its endemism. This including also the presence of Rhipsalis baccifera, considered one of the primitive forms and precursor of the cactii sensu lato. This species form a track along the South America, Africa, Madagascar, and Sri Lanka and only can reflexe a panGondwana origin. Only its high biodiversity in the gondwanean flora origin of the restingas of Cabo Frío, Brazil tend to confirms this fact.
Evidencing the fact that the main objective of geobiological evolution, is the perpetuation of diversity through geological time, and which does not require any illusory center of origin for its emergence or existence. Hence also that all molecular biology studies with a view to fixing the phylogeny through molecular clocks have arrived at entirely confusing results for these Gondwana elements.
In all this mare magnum, produced by a determined perspective of evolution, has been precisely the exceptional occurrence of the only Gondwanic testimony with a fossil record: Weltswichtia, which together with the diversity of the potbellied trees of Cavillensia and Adansonia, of the same Malvaceae family, will shed more light on the problem posed by their origin. this time in close connection with Otto Kleinschmidt's Formenkreisstheory and its basic functioning mechanism discovered and complemented much later by the multi-authored plate tectonics theory in the earlier 60th years.
Dr. h.c. Konrad Ernst Adolf Otto Kleinschmidt; born 13. December 1870 Kornsand at Geinsheim am Rhein; † 25. March 1954 in Wittenberg ) was a German Protestant clergyman and biologist. Kleinschmidt was born as a son of factory manager Adolph Kleinschmidt and his wife Elise (nee Dreydorf) in Geinsheim on the Rhine. The family home was secluded spot among unspoilt nature. About Otto Kleinschmidt it is said that he is interested in early on the nature and the rich bird life of his homeland. Moreover, the activity of collecting and research, was probably of a family tradition that inspired the boy early. Kleinschmidt himself mentions primarily his uncle Dr. Carl- Christian Ochsenius as an influential character in him. During his studies, a personal relationship with this and Kleinschmidt writes later evolved from a epistolary until then: "An uncle I won more, one of the people who take delight in nature seriously, not as a hobby, but as a profound science. " or- "Während seiner Studienzeit entwickelte sich aus einer bis dahin brieflichen eine persönliche Beziehung zu diesem und Kleinschmidt schreibt später: „An dem Onkel gewann ich mehr, einen der Menschen, die die Freude an der Natur ernst nehmen, nicht als Liebhaberei, sondern als tiefgründige Wissenschaft.“
Kleinschmidt recalls that the scientific talent and the inquiring mind of the father lie in the family. Besides Ochsenius, he mentions another family member, an uncle of the father, Theodor Kleinschmidt, who worked for many years as an explorer in the South Seas.
For the medical honorary doctorate from the University of Halle-Wittenberg him in 1923 was awarded. The appointments as honorary member of the German Ornithological Society (1924) and the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina (1926) show that the work Kleinschmidt found recognition in the wider scientific community.
In 1926 he published his major work The Formenkreis Theory, which was shortly afterwards translated into English. After Otto Kleinschmidt had for 27 years, worked as a lutheran minister in the Prussian province of Saxony, he took over in 1927 the position as head of the newly founded "Ecclesiastical research home for ideological customer" in Wittenberg, which helped to shape the scientific life of Wittenberg until well into the 90's inside.
Erwin Stresemann (1889-1972), who was standing with Kleinschmidt in a lively scientific exchange, wrote about him to a friend "Despite its undeniable quirks I consider him a head of unusual talent.".
Bernhard Rensch (1900-1990) also, who was also interested in ornithology and bird collection Kleinschmidt admired during a visit to Dederstedt, described his character as difficult. In his autobiography he wrote: "Later I was then very regrettable that this sensitive man it took me so bad that I could not follow his fusion of biological and Christian ideas and fought him Abstammungslehre represented."
Despite these criticisms, it was supported by the majority of his fellow scientists highly recognized especially for his empirical research in the field of ornithology, but also as a taxidermist and birds signatories granted.
Writing of early panbiogeographers, or perhaps‘pre-panbiogeographers’, León Croizat suggested that Kleinschmidt (1870-1954) was a pioneer, if not creator of panbiogeography: “Suffice it here to conclude that Kleinschmidt is one of the first true biogeographers, to the extent at least that he correctly perceived that form-making is a process not to be dissociated from space and time. In sum, panbiogeography was not born in 1958 with me, but in 1897 with Kleinschmidt, whom everybody does follow today. (see also Croizat 1964:182, 1964:438, 1966: 92, 1977: 18).
Kleinschmidt was an influence on early 20th century ornithologists, including Erwin Stresemann (1889-1972), the professor of Ernst Mayr. It would thus seem, potentially at least, that the biogeographic genesis of Mayr and Croizat might both lead back to Kleinschmidt.There is little doubt that Kleinschmidt’s Formenkreis concept represents, -as claimed by Mayr (1942: 112)- one of the most productive working hypotheses of taxonomy’, and while new work has necessitated the overhaul of certain views expressed by Kleinschmidt (1900, 1930), the principles of the concept have been widely accepted in the scientific world and have won their author imperishable fame.” (Clancey 1950: 32). 4 May 1953 he was transferred from the Church to retire. On March 25, 1954, in their 83 years old, Otto Kleinschmidt died in Wittenberg.
This work deals with the evolution of aridity in South America and its contemporaneous geobiological relictia since the Mesozoic, and the role played by larger natural regression events. Particularly with desertization, glaciation, salinization, and the occurence of extenses droughts and vulcanism in a broad geological sense, factors commonly ignored by modern ecosystem research.
Also this study represents, in addition, the continuation of a former ones (Ochsenius 1999), given more antecedentes and examples, about the important role long- Gonwanean aridity, for the origin of current South American xeromorphism.
Here the paleoclimatic context of South America between the Jurassic and Cretaceous will be analysed, remarking the existence of large paleodeserts on the central-eastern edge, and large evaporite deposits on the western one, called the Ochsenius´s Phanerozoic Belt of Evaporites, in honour to the German geologist and founder of Saltgeology as a branch.
Associated with this extreme biotopes, began towards the Late Jurassic the eruption of vast basalt flows covering an area greater than 1.2 x 106 km2, sometimes larger than the most popular examples quoted in geological literature. This series of basalt sheets, interbedded and underlain by eolian-sandstone sequences, reached nearly 1000 meters thickness (including a typical Dinosauria fauna), and clearly corresponding to a Major Natural Regression Event during which extinctions and the destruction of habitats was a dominant phenomena.
Jurassic aeolian sandstones covered broadly the western Gondwana (later South America) in a surface of nearly 2.5-3 x 106 km2. While towards the Aptian, arid landscapes only in eastern Brazil reached a peak of some 4 x 106 km2. Thus the Mesozoic panorama can be defined as a typical continental arid environment, reaching altogether a surface of ca. 10 x 106 km2.
The most notable of these regions was the Great Erg of Botucatú. a sand desert analogous to the current Arabian Rub’ al Khali. Lacking in general fossils, it is known today as the Botucatú Formation, representing probably one of the most extense sand seas of the all Mesozoic world. The pattern of paleowinds leads us to beliewe that the wind circulation was similar to the present. A conclusion also in accordance with evaporite paleogeography. more or less constant since the Permian. During that time, characterized by the evolution of deserts and evaporite construction, originated also some of the principal philetic groups which still characterize the Neotropical biota (e.g. reptilian fauna. amphibian, aves, archaic mammals, coníferous, bromelias and over all of Cactaceae, etc.). Penecontemporaneously, the Gondwanaland biota suffered fragmentation along suture lines. beginning so an uninterrupted passive drifting which still continues.
Tracks of this geobiological process will be reported, and the extant geobiological relicts of Cretaceous aridity across the continent will be postulated.
From the Lower Tertiary onwards (Paleocene), a progressive climatic amelioration took place, specially when all South America and Africa were at long distance. Reflected not only in a more humid climate and palemastozoological record, but above all in a drastic re-allocation of former aridity in all its forms, which towards the Neogene are markedly absent or replaced by savannahs and gallery forests, particularly around the current Amazonian Basin (see Ochsenius 1998).
Reference is made to the Inter-Andean Arid Track, a conspicuous chain of islands of aridity distributed along the Northern Andes, between Venezuela and Ecuador (ca. 1500 km). Taxonomically, this clustered pattern appears closely related with the coastal arid vegetation of northern South America, and southern Caribbean region. This xerophilous vegetation, surrounded mostly by evergreen or mesic tropical forests, has been largely misunderstood by biogeographical research. In a new appraisal, the author discusses here the probable relictual character of this cactii flora as well as its principal paleogeographical antecedents. The primitive areal appears to have evolved in a region notoriously lower, probably in a landscape of geoclinals, sporadically invaded by shallow seas.
The probable origins of this flora must be traced deep in the pre-Andean history, as part of dominant xeric and desert conditions studied particularly in continental and tropical South America, between the Triassic and the Cretaceous. Its actual discontinuous pattern, must be interpreted as the result of many geological vicissitudes generated by the Andean building, among which, vertical uplifts without folding were specially intense since the Neogene, but particularly during the Pleistocene. This part develops a critical point ofview with respect to Darwin’s biogegraphy still in force. Thus, long- and active dispersal, are confronted with the passive dispersal experienced since the Upper Cretaceous due to the mobility of continenlal plates which formerly conformed the large Gondwanaland (~100 x 106km2).
Chronologically, the Inter Andean Arid Track flora, appears older than the Paramo vegetation, and less old, or penecontemporaneous, respect to the vegetation that presently inhabits almost all coastal territories of Venezuela, Colombia and offshore islands. Such regional links are related to others, more widespread in the continent foreland during the Mesozoic, and were apparently elements of a same atavistic, and extensive xerophylous biota.
A return of continental aridity, but with a different arrangement of deserts and saline districts after the Cretaceous, only occurred during the Pleistocene, and was accompanied with a general drop in global temperatures and the continental water-table. Vast regions of the tropics experienced during this period an extraordinary desertization. As occurs with the Arid Diagonal. Current arid lands’ geography, is in a general way Post-glacial in age, but not its most remote origin which. considered as landscape-type, dates back at least into the Cretaceous.
Die Caatinga
eine Reise in die Vergangenheit.
Paläobiogeographie
seit der Kreidezeit Sambaia Wüste
zum späten Pleistozän
Paraguaçu Wüste
Ursprung, Verbindungen, Vielfalt und Stasis
eines Kontinuums von Trockenheit in geologischer Zeit
bis heute im Kontext von Südamerika
Zusammenfassung
im der Kontext von Südamerika die Originalität dieses Buches liegt in der Zusammenstellung der verschiedenen Themen und Aspekte, die die geologische und paläobiogeographische Geschichte der Caatinga betreffen, zumindest von der Permo-Triassischen Schwelle, voll ins Mesozoikum und in die trockene Jura-Welt des westlichen Gondwana. Da diese Marke im Laufe der Kreidezeit bis Tektonik und Geomorphologie Revolution durch Öffnen ersten Atlantic marinen Korridors, zwischen Südamerika und Afrika, und drückt gegen die Nazca-Platte von evaporite Gürtel produzierte weiterhin beginnt langsam den südamerikanischen Westrand zu erhöhen, um dann endgültig den Einfluss des Pazifischen Ozeans auf das Zentrum Südamerikas zu kürzen, indem er den Verlauf des hydrographischen Netzes von E-W für eines von WE um kehrte. Während für seine Ostfassade epicontinental marine Einträge beginnen, auch im gesamten brasilianischen Nordosten dokumentiert, und vor allem in der Chapada del Araripe. Die Flora des PCAB bevölkern die Küstenebenen und die Kleinen West Indies während des Paläozän-Miozän, so dass die Weiterentwicklung der südlichen Faunen miozänische Alter die letzte Bastion des Kontinents zu erobern (siehe Urumaco Fauna, gegen die La Venta Fauna). Die Bilanz zwischen kontinentalität und Marine einfluss auf der anderen Seite, verhindern darf nicht das Siegel der Trockenheit in der Region fortgesetzt, die so lange unterbrochen wird, wie die Anden Verstärkungshöhe der Passatwindes NE unterbrochen wird und damit die allmähliche Zunahme von Niederschlag und Luftmasse, die von den ersten Gebirgsausläufern fortschreitend beibehalten wird. Mit dieser neuen Ordnung korrelieren die Tertiären-Savannen mit einem prächtigen Folivor-Xilophage und Grazer Megafauna wird geboren. Es ist während der Miozäne, wenn der Phreatophytia in allen arboreal Flora ein inhärentes Merkmal wird, die zusammen mit einer Lithophytia während des Kreide vor allem in der Gruppe der Pflanzeneigenschaften, wie Kakteen und Bromelien geerbt, die im Gegensatz zu die ausgestorbenen Koniferen überleben, um ihm das typischste Siegel der Caatinga-Trockenwälder zu geben.
Spuren, die die Uralt dieser Blumen bestätigen, bleiben heute sowohl in Afrika als auch in Südamerika. In Geobiologische Reliktia von Kreidezeit Alter zu bilden. Das immanente Merkmal dieser Flora zeigt immer wieder die Suche nach Wasser als knappe Ressource, und wirft damit der starken Saisonalität des Regens ein intrinsisches Element der Caatingas vor. Der Kontakt mit feuchteren mesophilen Floren, die heute für die amazonische Biota und die atlantischen Biota charakteristisch sind, geht auf diese Uralte Periode zurück, in der diese auch das nicht näher beschriebene Muster von Savannen darstellt, wo die Galerien Wälder skizziert werden können. Während die Verbindungen mit intra amazonischen Formationen, die Ebenen des Orinoco, und weiter nach Norden mit seinen Artgenossen Peri-karibische Trockengürtel, offenbaren die Vergangenheit der herrschenden Trockenheit während des gesamten westlichen Gondwana.
Erweiterte Tatsache mit der Kreuzung zwischen der Aride Diagonale der Anden-Fassade, mit dem Atlantik Semi-Ariden Diagonale (Cerrado, Chaco, Pampa).
Es ist während dieser Zeit, die kontinuierlich geomorphologischen Architektur im Nordosten, mit typischen Chapadas und sertanesas Depressionen, kronen in einigen Fällen durch Relikt Formationen Amazon oder Atlantic Ursprung beginnen, auf Kosten der transport von Regen. Überlebenden waren die oder wie bei den Inselbergen, die von Kakteen und Bromelien gekrönt werden, was die Stasis und die Beziehung zwischen biologischer und geologischer Evolution zeigen kann.
The specie of the family Cactaceae,Rhipsalis micrantha, was recorded for the first time in the departments of Valle del Cauca, Quindío and Risaralda. Collections of this species were only known for Colombia in the department of Antioquia, without any other registration in databases or floristic inventories in the country.
Autogamous species are usually distinguishable from xenogamous relatives by smaller flowers, fewer or even no floral rewards and lower pollen–ovule (P/O) ratios. Many Rhipsalis spp. are small flowered, selfing and include the most widespread species in Cactaceae. However, Rhipsalis also includes a large number of narrowly endemic species and is most diverse in the Atlantic rainforests of Brazil. To investigate the evolution of floral function and the correlation between floral function and range size, we analysed display size, floral reward and P/O ratios of Rhipsalis and its closest relatives, reconstructed ancestral traits and related these patterns to the distributions and range sizes of the species. Display size and sugar amount are reduced in subgenera Goniorhipsalis and Rhipsalis and secondarily increased in Phyllarthrorhipsalis, whereas the P/O ratio is decreased in subgenera Rhipsalis and Phyllarthrorhipsalis. We interpret this pattern as a switch from a predominantly xenogamous to an autogamous reproductive system, followed by a return to a predominantly xenogamous system. None of the floral parameters shows significant correlations with range size, except for display size. Nevertheless, those species with the smallest flowers, lowest sugar amounts per flower and lowest P/O ratios occur either outside southeastern Brazil and/or have comparatively large distribution ranges. Almost all Rhipsalis spp. occurring outside the Atlantic rainforests are restricted to the clade formed by subgenera Rhipsalis and Phyllarthrorhipsalis. Thus, we believe that the evolution of an autogamous reproduction system enabled this lineage of Rhipsalis to diversify and spread in the Atlantic rainforests, in the rest of the Neotropics and even spread to the Old World, where it is the only member of the family.
Inselbergs occur worldwide, mainly in the tropics and subtropics. Their scattered distribution, uniform structure, and limited number of habitats render inselbergs ideal ecosystems for comparative studies. The regional reports on the vegetation of inselbergs in Chapter 10 (this Vol.), have presented a wealth of information that will be discussed in a more general understanding here.
Cacti and succulents represent some of the most diverse and interesting plants in the plant kingdom. Cacti can have ornamental forms, spines, and large ornamental flowers that are occasionally fragrant. Succulents can have ornamental forms and can have ornamental fragrant flowers on inflorescences that often have a long postharvest life. Aside from their ornamental potential, cacti and succulents are often drought, heat and/or cold tolerant, and can have minimal nutritional requirements. Taken together, cacti and succulents represent a group of plants with potential as ornamental potted, bedding and/or landscape plants. We initiated a project 3 years ago to evaluate the potential of unstudied species in these two plant groups as new ornamental crops. Early studies focused on determining what factors induce flowering and assessing the potential of each species as a new ornamental potted, bedding and/or landscape plant. Thus far, we have determined the flowering requirements for over 75 cactus species across six genera. Among succulents, we have focused on identifying how to induce flowering on already identified ornamental crops (often due to plant/leaf form). Other than flower induction work, we developed criteria for assessing the ornamental potential within each plant group. Follow-up experimentation to develop production protocols were also conducted and will be outlined. This study is an example of a case study of what experiments may be considered when initiating work on a new group of species with potential for ornamental commercialization. Which species show the greatest potential, future experiments planned, breeding needs, and future collections planned will be discussed.
Rhipsalis, the largest genus of tribe Rhipsalideae (Cactaceae), comprises 37 characteristically epiphytic species and a few rupicolous ones. It is well represented in the Brazilian flora, and its center of diversity is in wet tropical and subtropical forests of southeastern Brazil. Rhipsalis dissimilis (G.A. Lindberg) forma epiphyllanthoides and R. floccosa (L.) subspecies pulvinigera are sister species with very distinct habits within the genus. This study analyzes and compares the morphoanatomy of these species aiming to verify which modifications found in the former may be related to its (rupicolous) terrestrial habit. We collected 23 individuals of R. dissimilis in an area of rocky outcrops in Ponta Grossa, State of Parana, and 23 individuals of R. floccosa in a remnant of Atlantic Forest formation in Curitiba, State of Parana. Length, diameter, area, volume, dry and fresh mass, water content, and stomatal and areolar density in the median portion of the stems of both species were measured. Histological slides were mounted to assess tissue thickness and percentage of lignified tissues. Both species present features typical of Cactaceae. Regarding habit differences, R. floccosa subspecies pulvinigera shows significant reductions of some tissues such as absence of ribs and diminished succulence, which constitute selected adaptations to epiphytism. Rhipsalis dissimilis forma epiphyllanthoides presents increased succulence, a lower height/diameter ratio, and ribs, among others. Such features are in line with those observed in other lineages of terrestrial cacti. Considering that Rhipsalis ancestral habitat was epiphytic, R. dissimilis may have retained a more plesiomorphic form suitable for colonizing a terrestrial habitat.
The Cactaceae are a diversified group of New World plants with a wide array of evolutionary and ecological strategies that has given them the ability to adapt to many different habitats. The family is both interesting and challenging because of its varied morphology, adaptations to the environment, and reproductive systems. Of the groups within the cactus family, the opuntias are one of the most successful and widespread, but they exhibit many taxonomic difficulties and are, therefore, not well understood. /// Las cactáceas son un grupo de plantas muy diversificado con una impresionante colección de estrategias evolutivas y ecológicas que les ha dado la habilidad de adaptarse a muchos hábitats diferentes en el nuevo mundo. Esta familia es interesante y desafiante debido a su variación morfológica, diversas adaptaciones al medio ambiente, y a sus sistemas de reproducción. Dentro de los grupos de la familia de las cactáceas, las opuntias son de los más exitosos y ampliamente distribuidas, pero presentan muchas dificultades taxonómicas y por lo tanto no son del todo entendidas.
Rhipsalis Gärtner é um gênero de Cactaceae de hábito epifítico ou rupícola, de ampla distribuição na América do Sul e Central, atingindo inclusive a África tropical e ilhas do Oceano Índico. Este trabalho conclui um estudo que caracterizou morfologicamente as espécies do gênero Rhipsalis que ocorrem no Estado de São Paulo, possibilitando o reconhecimento das espécies e a construção de uma chave de identificação. Entre as espécies do gênero que possuem artículos predominantemente aplanados foram reconhecidas seis espécies ocorrentes no Estado.
Succulent perennials of diverse habit, trees, shrubs, climbers, epiphytes or geophytes; roots fibrous or tuberous; stems columnar, terete, globular, tubercled, ribbed, winged or flattened, often segmented, mostly leafless and variously spiny; leaves, where present, spirally arranged, simple, entire, exstipulate, but usually rudimentary or vestigial; axillary buds developing a persistent cushion-like indumentum of multicellular trichomes (areole), and usually leaves transformed into spines. Flowers solitary or rarely clustered, usually sessile at the areoles, rarely pedicellate in paniculate or cymose inflorescences (Pereskia) or terminal (e.g. Pterocactus), zoophilous, often conspicuous, nearly always bisexual, usually actinomorphic; receptacle enclosing, and more or less produced beyond the zone around the ovary (“pericarpel”) and between ovary and perianth (epigynous hypanthium; “tube”), naked or invested with bractlike scales and aréoles, areolar trichomes, hairs and/or spines, the upper scales often intergrading with the outer tepals; tepals usually numerous in a graded series; stamens often very numerous; anthers 2-locullar, tetrasporangiate, dehiscing longitudinally; ovary inferior (except some Pereskia spp.), unilocular, 3–20-carpellate, placentation usually hypanthial, rarely basal-laminal, ovules numerous; style usually long; stigma 3–20-lobed.
Inselbergs are isolated rock outcrops of considerable geological and geomorphological age. They occur throughout tropical and subtropical Africa and Madagascar. Microclimatically and edaphically they can be considered as arid islands even in perhumid zonobiomes. Thus they bear a flora differing almost totally from the surrounding vegetation. Succulents are amongst the characteristic elements: for the first time a short annotated systematic survey of their occurrence on inselbergs is provided with notes on the geographical distribution and the centres of diversity.
One of the most charismatic American plant families, the Cactaceae, is well represented in Chile. Biogeographic analysis of
the Chilean representatives is rarely undertaken, mainly due to the complex taxonomy of the group. Taking account of the most
recent taxonomic treatments and distributional knowledge, an attempt is made here to develop a biogeographic regionalization
by means of parsimony analysis of endemism (PAE) and the program NDM/VNDM. The first method yields three areas of endemism
in northern Chile bordering the Atacama Desert to the North and to the South, and the second method yields one area which
includes North-Central Chile. Advantages and restrictions of the methods are discussed. Finally, the evolution of the family
is discussed in relation to the rise of the Atacama Desert and the systematic interpretation of the group
In this article, we review the population cycles of cacti, with an emphasis on the large, often keystone columnar cacti of the North American deserts. These and many other cacti often experience dramatic increases and declines in their numbers. Seeds that germinate in years that provide favourable conditions for regeneration and subsequently survive establish a cohort. We first review the limitations to estimating the age of any given individual; without this information, we cannot reconstruct the age of a population and reconstruct its age structure and demography. We then discuss the techniques for so doing, the data that are available, and the work that has been carried out on a few limited and isolated populations, primarily of Carnegiea gigantea. We then link century-scale population fluctuations with micro, local, regional and global climate factors, which include nurse-plant relationships, periodic freezing and El Niño events, and proceed to elaborate on the factors that influence cactus demographics, such as dispersal, pollination, human impacts and climate change.
Some of the most interesting but still most contentious disjunct biogeographical distributions involve Southern Hemisphere tropical and warm temperate families. The PHMV clade of Myrtales includes four families (Psiloxylaceae, Heteropyxidaceae, Myrtaceae, and Vochysiaceae) that exhibit a number of these biogeographical patterns. The related Psiloxylaceae and Heteropyxidaceae are small families restricted in distribution to the recent volcanic Mascarene Islands to the east of Madagascar and to southeast Africa, respectively. Myrtaceae are found on three major Gondwanan regions (South America, Australasia, and Africa). Because the New World taxa are almost exclusively fleshy fruited, it is unclear whether the family distribution is a classic Gondwanan vicariance pattern or results from one or more long-distance dispersal events over ocean barriers. The Vochysiaceae represent one of a handful of families with amphi-Atlantic distributions vigorously argued to support both long-distance dispersal over the Atlantic and vicariance of western Gondwanan biota by Atlantic seafloor spreading. Molecular phylogenetic relationships, fossil dating of nodes, and penalized likelihood rate smoothing of maximum likelihood trees were employed for a Myrtales-wide analysis using rbcL and ndhF and an analysis of the PHMV analysis using ndhF and matK. The results indicate that the PHMV differentiated during the late Cretaceous. The African lineage of Vochysiaceae is nested within a South American clade and probably arose via long-distance dispersal in the Oligocene at a time when the Atlantic had already rifted 80 m.yr. at the equatorial region. The African/Mascarene Island families, most closely related to Myrtaceae, differentiated during the late Eocene, with subsequent but recent long-distance dispersal from Africa to the Mascarenes. Myrtaceae show a rapid differentiation of a basal, paraphyletic subf. Leptospermoideae in Australasia. Fleshy-fruited taxa (subf. Myrtoideae) are not monophyletic. Vicariance of a widespread warm temperate Southern Hemisphere distribution is likely in explaining the South American–Australasian disjunction, with subsequent dispersal events between the two and to Africa and the Mediterranean basin.
Several species of the genus Rhipsalis (Cactaceae) are extremely important as ornamentals and are endangered in their natural habitat. However, only a few studies
have addressed its taxonomy, morphology (including anatomy), phylogeny and evolutionary history. Consequently, the limited
knowledge of the genus coupled with the problematic delimitation of species had led to problems in the identification of taxa.
In the current work six species of Rhipsalis, R. cereoides, R. elliptica, R. grandiflora, R. paradoxa, R. pentaptera and R. teres were studied to evaluate the relevance of anatomical characters for the taxonomy of the genus. An anatomical characterization
of the primary structure of the stem of Rhipsalis is provided highlighting the differences between species. Features of the stem epidermis are found to discriminate best between
species and therefore provide clear and useful characters for the separation of species.
Premise of the study:
The opuntias (nopales, prickly pears) are not only culturally, ecologically, economically, and medicinally important, but are renowned for their taxonomic difficulty due to interspecific hybridization, polyploidy, and morphological variability. Evolutionary relationships in these stem succulents have been insufficiently studied; thus, delimitation of Opuntia s.s. and major subclades, as well as the biogeographic history of this enigmatic group, remain unresolved.
Methods:
We sequenced the plastid intergenic spacers atpB-rbcL, ndhF-rpl32, psbJ-petA, and trnL-trnF, the plastid genes matK and ycf1, the nuclear gene ppc, and ITS to reconstruct the phylogeny of tribe Opuntieae, including Opuntia s.s. We used phylogenetic hypotheses to infer the biogeographic history, divergence times, and potential reticulate evolution of Opuntieae.
Key results:
Within Opuntieae, a clade of Tacinga, Opuntia lilae, Brasiliopuntia, and O. schickendantzii is sister to a well-supported Opuntia s.s., which includes Nopalea. Opuntia s.s. originated in southwestern South America (SA) and then expanded to the Central Andean Valleys and the desert region of western North America (NA). Two major clades evolved in NA, which subsequently diversified into eight subclades. These expanded north to Canada and south to Central America and the Caribbean, eventually returning back to SA primarily via allopolyploid taxa. Dating approaches suggest that most of the major subclades in Opuntia s.s. originated during the Pliocene.
Conclusions:
Opuntia s.s. is a well-supported clade that includes Nopalea. The clade originated in southwestern SA, but the NA radiation was the most extensive, resulting in broad morphological diversity and frequent species formation through reticulate evolution and polyploidy.
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The Cactaceae are a major New World plant family and popular in horticulture. Still, taxonomic units and species limits have been difficult to define, and molecular phylogenetic studies so far have yielded largely unresolved trees, so relationships within Cactaceae remain insufficiently understood. This study focuses on the predominantly epiphytic tribe Rhipsalideae and evaluates the utility of a spectrum of plastid genomic regions. •
We present a phylogenetic study including 52 of the 53 Rhipsalideae species and all the infraspecific taxa. Seven regions (trnK intron, matK, rbcL, rps3-rpl16, rpl16 intron, psbA-trnH, trnQ-rps16), ca. 5600 nucleotides (nt) were sequenced per sample. The regions used were evaluated for their phylogenetic performance and performance in DNA-based species recognition based on operational taxonomic units (OTUs) defined beforehand. •
The Rhipsalideae are monophyletic and contain five clades that correspond to the genera Rhipsalis, Lepismium, Schlumbergera, Hatiora, and Rhipsalidopsis. The species-level tree was well resolved and supported; the rpl16 and trnK introns yielded the best phylogenetic signal. Although the psbA-trnH and trnQ-rps16 spacers were the most successful individual regions for OTU identification, their success rate did not significantly exceed 70%. The highest OTU identification rate of 97% was found using the combination of psbA-trnH, rps3-rpl16, trnK intron, and trnQ-rps16 as a minimum possible marker length (ca. 1660 nt). •
The phylogenetic performance of a marker is not determined by the level of sequence variability, and species discrimination power does not necessarily correlate with phylogenetic utility.
Cacti are a large and diverse group of stem succulents predominantly occurring in warm and arid North and South America. Chloroplast DNA sequences of the trnK intron, including the matK gene, were sequenced for 70 ingroup taxa and two outgroups from the Portulacaceae. In order to improve resolution in three major groups of Cactoideae, trnL-trnF sequences from members of these clades were added to a combined analysis. The three exemplars of Pereskia did not form a monophyletic group but a basal grade. The well-supported subfamilies Cactoideae and Opuntioideae and the genus Maihuenia formed a weakly supported clade sister to Pereskia. The parsimony analysis supported a sister group relationship of Maihuenia and Opuntioideae, although the likelihood analysis did not. Blossfeldia, a monotypic genus of morphologically modified and ecologically specialized cacti, was identified as the sister group to all other Cactoideae. The tribe Cacteae was found to be sister to a largely unresolved clade comprising the genera Calymmanthium, Copiapoa, and Frailea, as well as two large and well-supported clades. Browningia sensu stricto (excluding Castellanosia), the two tribes Cereeae and Trichocereeae, and parts of the tribes Notocacteae and Rhipsalideae formed one clade. The distribution of this group is largely restricted to South America. The other clade consists of the columnar cacti of Notocacteae, various genera of Browningieae, Echinocereeae, and Leptocereeae, the tribes Hylocereeae and Pachycereeae, and Pfeiffera. A large portion of this latter group occurs in Central and North America and the Caribbean.
Tribe Rhipsalideae is composed of unusual epiphytic or lithophytic cacti that inhabit humid tropical and subtropical forests. Members of this tribe present a reduced vegetative body, a specialized adventitious root system, usually spineless areoles and flowers and fruits reduced in size. Despite the debate surrounding the classification of Rhipsalideae, no studies have ever attempted to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships among its members or to test the monophyly of its genera using DNA sequence data; all classifications formerly proposed for this tribe have only employed morphological data. In this study, we reconstruct the phylogeny of Rhipsalideae using plastid (trnQ-rps16, rpl32-trnL, psbA-trnH) and nuclear (ITS) markers to evaluate the classifications previously proposed for the group. We also examine morphological features traditionally used to delimit genera within Rhipsalideae in light of the resulting phylogenetic trees. In total new sequences for 35 species of Rhipsalideae were produced (out of 55; 63%). The molecular phylogeny obtained comprises four main clades supporting the recognition of genera Lepismium, Rhipsalis, Hatiora and Schlumbergera. The evidence gathered indicate that a broader genus Schlumbergera, including Hatiora subg. Rhipsalidopsis, should be recognized. Consistent morphological characters rather than homoplastic features are used in order to establish a more coherent and practical classification for the group. Nomenclatural changes and a key for the identification of the genera currently included in Rhipsalideae are provided.
Explanations of tropical intercontinental disjunctions involving South America and Africa typically invoke vicariance of western Gondwanan biotas or long-distance dispersal. However, many plant groups originated and diversified well after the last direct connection between Africa and South America (ca. 105 million years before the present [mybp]), and it is unlikely that long-distance dispersal accounts for the distribution of all of these. A less commonly invoked explanation, the boreotropics hypothesis, indicates that some tropical disjunctions arose during the Tertiary via high-latitude land connections when northern forests supported tropical vegetation. Malpighiaceae are widely distributed across Africa and South America and have been explained as ancient "Gondwanian aborigines" (i.e., vicariants of western Gondwanan biotas) or more recent "American colonists" (i.e., long-distance dispersalists from South America into the Old World). Fossil and phylogenetic evidence from clock-independent estimates of molecular divergence times indicate that Malpighiaceae originated in South America during the latest Cretaceous (ca. 68 mybp), in isolation from Africa, and that six amphi-Atlantic disjunctions within the family occurred during three major episodes: late Paleocene (ca. 60 mybp), latest Eocene-earliest Oligocene (ca. 34-31 mybp), and early Miocene (ca. 21-17 mybp). These age estimates reject a Gondwanan origin for Malpighiaceae, and strict dispersal scenarios ignore paleoclimate, paleoland configurations, and fossil evidence that indicates that the family once inhabited northern latitudes. Instead, these data suggest that Paleocene-Oligocene amphi-Atlantic disjunct groups in Malpighiaceae moved into North America from South America via the Caribbean Basin, crossed the North Atlantic into Eurasia, and subsequently reached the Old World Tropics during warm intervals when land configurations would have facilitated this migration. Whether Miocene migrations of evergreen thermophilic Malpighiaceae proceeded via northern latitudes or long-distance dispersal is less clear. Organismic and Evolutionary Biology
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