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Developing basic conversational ability in a second language: A case study of an adult learner of Portuguese
... Swain (1995) hypothesized that under certain circumstances, output promotes noticing. The sense in which Swain and Lapkin (1995) have used noticing coincides with that of Schmidt and Frota (1986), who state that by noticed, they mean "in the normal sense of the world, that is conscious". There are several levels of noticing. ...
... Learners may simply notice a form in the target language due to the frequency or salience of the features themselves. Or learners may notice not only the target language form itself but also that it is different from their own interlanguage (Schmidt and Frota, 1986). Or, learners may notice that they cannot say what they want to say precisely in the target language (Swain, 1985). ...
... He appears to equate noticing with attention plus awareness. To support his argument for the role of consciousness in the sense of awareness at the level of noticing in SLA, Schmidt cites primarily a diary study of his own personal attempts to learn Portuguese (Schmidt & Frota, 1986) and SLA studies that have addressed (a) enhanced input designed to draw learners' attention to specific forms in the input; (b) discourse studies demonstrating limited occurrences of acquisitionenhancing negotiation sequences; (c) factors such as saliency of forms; (d) competition between form and meaning; and (e) uptake studies, that is, learners' claims regarding what had drawn their attention and what they had learned during the lesson. He operationalized noticing as a cognitive operation that takes place both during and immediately after exposure to the input that is available for self-report. ...
For many second language (L2) learners and teachers, producing languageis generally considered to constitute an important part of L2 learning.However, how beneficial it is to produce language is often not so clear.Proponents of the Noticing Hypothesis of Second Language Acquisition(SLA) state that intake is the part of the input that the learner notices, and itrequires focal attention and awareness on the part of the learner. It ishypothesized that output promotes noticing, and stated that the importanceto learning of output could be that output pushes learners to processlanguage more deeply, with more mental effort, than does input. Thisacademic paper discusses the roles of output in SLA in noticing. Withoutput, the learners are in control and can play more active, responsible rolesin their learning. It constitutes a potentially important factor in theacquisition process. This is important if there is a basis to the claim thatnoticing a form in the input must occur in order for it to be acquired. Thus, it is interesting to obtain a more precise understanding of whether outputpromotes noticing of a grammatical form in the second language.
... Since the late 1970s, entries recorded in students' and teachers' diaries, or journals, have been used to study the process of language learning and teaching (e.g., Bailey, 1990Bailey, , 1983Bigelow & Ranney, 2005;Campbell, 1996;Carson & Longhini, 2002;Halbach, 2000;Lotherington, 2007;Numrich, 1996;Schmidt & Frota, 1986). This type of research is known as diary study, defined by Bailey (1990) as a "first-person account of a language learning or teaching experience, documented through regular, candid entries in a personal journal and then analyzed for recurring patterns or salient events" (p. ...
... As mentioned in the beginning of this section, diaries have been used extensively to study to process of language learning and teaching. In the area of language learning, one of the most comprehensive diary studies was conducted by Schmidt and Frota (1986) in which the first author's attempt to learn conversational Portuguese while living in Brazil for a period of five months was carefully documented and analyzed. This study was rather ambitious in its scope, as it covered Schmidt's linguistic development in several aspects, including vocabulary, grammar, conversational ability, pragmatics, and formulaic speech. ...
... and its lack of external validity (i.e., how can conclusions based on a small number of subjects be generalized to other people?), Nunan (1992) contends that it is difficult to see how the rich data yielded by diaries, such as those seen in Schmidt and Frota's (1986) study, could be collected otherwise. These first-person accounts, as Bailey and Ochsner (1983) argue, often unveil facets which are "normally hidden or largely inaccessible to an external observer" (p. ...
The current study reports on a group of Taiwanese college students’ first-person diary accounts of their private, transactional listening activities outside the classroom. Issues related to students’ material selection, listening problems, and perceived usefulness of keeping a listening diary were explored. It was found that most students chose audiovisual materials to listen to, and the most frequently chosen material was ted talks. In their diaries, the most frequently reported listening problems were unknown vocabulary and speed. Most students perceived the experience of keeping a listening diary positively. It was found that keeping a listening diary facilitated the development of future study plans, linguistic knowledge, listening and writing skills, and self-confidence. Data also suggest that students need to take more responsibility of their own learning to be able to benefit from the abundant resources available in the digital age. The study concludes with a set of recommendations to further the research on using listening diary as a pedagogical and research tool.
... Both theoretical perspectives and empirical research in the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) underscore the importance of review for language development. First, the Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt, 2001;Schmidt & Frota, 1986) asserts that conscious attention to linguistic features is essential, supported by longitudinal evidence from Schmidt and Frota (1986). Second, Associative Learning Theory (Ellis & Wulff, 2014) highlights how repeated exposure strengthens memory, with studies showing that repeated vocabulary encounters lead to greater lexical gains (Elgort, 2011;Webb, 2007). ...
... Both theoretical perspectives and empirical research in the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) underscore the importance of review for language development. First, the Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt, 2001;Schmidt & Frota, 1986) asserts that conscious attention to linguistic features is essential, supported by longitudinal evidence from Schmidt and Frota (1986). Second, Associative Learning Theory (Ellis & Wulff, 2014) highlights how repeated exposure strengthens memory, with studies showing that repeated vocabulary encounters lead to greater lexical gains (Elgort, 2011;Webb, 2007). ...
Metacognition plays a crucial role in language learning, enabling learners to reflect on and adjust their strategies for more effective learning, particularly when reviewing for quizzes and exams. Technology can be a powerful aid in this context. This study examines the extent to which review-focused cognitive strategies, delivered using an online blended learning tool, support the metacognition of university-level English learners in Japan. Thirty learners in total participated in the study. They were enrolled in the teacher-researcher’s thirty-week, first-year, compulsory English reading and writing course. The instruments employed were two learner reports, an endof-course questionnaire, learner records from the tool’s database, and the teacherresearcher’s research journal. Findings indicated that: (1) the tool supported learners’ metacognition by raising their awareness of gaps in their English-related linguistic knowledge, aiding their strategic planning for upcoming quizzes and exams, and providing opportunities for learners to explore new cognitive strategies; (2) many learners used their metacognitive skills to maximize their effort and select and use cognitive strategies with intentionality; and (3) the overall assignment had a positive impact on the test-anxiety of many learners. These findings confirm the potential of blended learning tools for fostering out-of-class review behaviors and learners’ metacognitive development. Pedagogical implications are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided.
... Use appropriate terminology, follow grammar rules, and pronounce words carefully, among other things. They may note the gap (Schmidt & Frota, 1986) between what they want to say and what they can say or between what they say and what other people say. By designing speaking tasks that require students to negotiate meaning, lecturers can provide students with essential opportunities for practice and language development. ...
... Addressing and rectifying inadequacies or insufficiencies in the instruction and cultivation of oral communication abilities within the realm of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) constitutes the concept of "filling the gap in teaching speaking in EFL." Schmidt and Frota (1986) believe that this awareness is required before a student can make the necessary changes to her evolving competence. Noticing the disparity is not the same as gauging one's output, as Krashen (1985) mentions. ...
The purpose of this study is to undertake a comprehensive investigation of collaborative learning in teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) speaking: a case study in Indonesian higher education context, with a focus on the perspectives of both lecturers and students. A case study was conducted using a qualitative research method to gather the data. Data were collected through in-depth interviews, focus group discussion, field notes, observations, document analyses, and audio recordings. To analyze the data, an interactive data analysis technique was utilized consisting of four stages: gathering, reducing, displaying, and drawing conclusions. According to the results, lecturers’ perceptions were categorized into three categories: (1) highly perceived collaborative learning (HiperCoL), (2) moderately perceived collaborative learning (MoperCoL), and (3) low perception of collaborative learning (LoperCoL). This study revealed two main stages of collaborative learning implementation: (1) integrating the ELT curriculum, and (2) designing collaborative learning: planning, monitoring, assisting, consolidating, reflecting, and evaluating. The impact of CL in EFL classrooms affects students’ achievement and changing behavior, such as (1) improving social interaction skills, (2) strengthening students’ psychological ability to speak more confidently, (3) increasing academic achievement, and (4) developing language (speaking) productivity. This study identified (1) highly responsive collaborative learning (HirCoL), (2) moderately responsive collaborative learning (MorCoL), and (3) low response to collaborative learning (LorCoL). Nevertheless, this study did not explore lecturers’ or students' perceptions of the impact of CL on their progress in their listening skills. Therefore, future studies should use phenomenological, narrative inquiry, and ethnographic design. Additionally, students’ expectations and motivation to collaborate were not explored in this study. However, this limitation should be addressed in future studies.
Keywords: Case Study, Collaborative Learning, Implementation, Impact, Perception.
... Use appropriate terminology, follow grammar rules, and pronounce words carefully, among other things. They may note the gap (Schmidt & Frota, 1986) between what they want to say and what they can say or between what they say and what other people say. By designing speaking tasks that require students to negotiate meaning, lecturers can provide students with essential opportunities for practice and language development. ...
... Addressing and rectifying inadequacies or insufficiencies in the instruction and cultivation of oral communication abilities within the realm of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) constitutes the concept of "filling the gap in teaching speaking in EFL." Schmidt and Frota (1986) believe that this awareness is required before a student can make the necessary changes to her evolving competence. Noticing the disparity is not the same as gauging one's output, as Krashen (1985) mentions. ...
The purpose of this study is to undertake a comprehensive investigation of collaborative learning in teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) speaking: a case study in Indonesian higher education context, with a focus on the perspectives of both lecturers and students. A case study was conducted using a qualitative research method to gather the data. Data were collected through in-depth interviews, focus group discussion, field notes, observations, document analyses, and audio recordings. To analyze the data, an interactive data analysis technique was utilized consisting of four stages: gathering, reducing, displaying, and drawing conclusions. According to the results, lecturers’ perceptions were categorized into three categories: (1) highly perceived collaborative learning (HiperCoL), (2) moderately perceived collaborative learning (MoperCoL), and (3) low perception of collaborative learning (LoperCoL). This study revealed two main stages of collaborative learning implementation: (1) integrating the ELT curriculum, and (2) designing collaborative learning: planning, monitoring, assisting, consolidating, reflecting, and evaluating. The impact of CL in EFL classrooms affects students’ achievement and changing behavior, such as (1) improving social interaction skills, (2) strengthening students’ psychological ability to speak more confidently, (3) increasing academic achievement, and (4) developing language (speaking) productivity. This study identified (1) highly responsive collaborative learning (HirCoL), (2) moderately responsive collaborative learning (MorCoL), and (3) low response to collaborative learning (LorCoL). Nevertheless, this study did not explore lecturers’ or students' perceptions of the impact of CL on their progress in their listening skills. Therefore, future studies should use phenomenological, narrative inquiry, and ethnographic design. Additionally, students’ expectations and motivation to collaborate were not explored in this study. However, this limitation should be addressed in future studies.
... Schmidt based his noticing hypothesis on two long-term seminal studies of Wes, a Japanese adult trying to learn English in the U.S., and Schmidt's acquisition of Portuguese while staying in Brazil (Schmidt & Frota, 1986). He recorded in a diary which items in the input he consciously noticed and later found that all of the items he had noticed were salient in his communicative output. ...
... He takes Schmidt's hypothesis further and distinguishes between different noticing types. First, noticing is based on the relationship between form, meaning, and function, which was claimed by Schmidt and Frota (1986). It is not enough to notice the form, for instance the conjugation of a verb, but its meaning and function in communication also need to be acknowledged. ...
A plethora of research has investigated the effects of mindfulness intervention in education, but few have researched the benefits of mindfulness intervention on learning English as a foreign language (EFL). This action research explores a holistic approach to improving EFL education for 10th-grade students in an Israeli high school by integrating a 13-week Mindfulness-Based Intervention (MBI) program taught in the target language into the EFL school curriculum. The research assesses the impact of the intervention on reading comprehension skills, vocabulary acquisition, self-efficacy, well-being, and foreign language enjoyment. The motivation for this study stems from the significant role of EFL proficiency in Israeli education and the growing need for innovative pedagogical strategies. The intervention program, Attention Please, combines elements of the author's teaching experience and Broderick's Learning to Breathe program, adapted for Israeli students.
A mixed-methods approach was employed in an Israeli high school with two 10th-grade classes, a total of 57 pupils (experimental and control), combining quantitative tests, questionnaires, qualitative interviews and a qualitative teacher's journal.
Key findings indicate significant improvements in productive vocabulary and self-efficacy (SE) in the experimental group compared to the control group. Moreover, the experimental group demonstrated higher levels of mindfulness in the post-stage of the experiment. Correlations were not found between levels of mindfulness and productive vocabulary scores or self-efficacy scores. The data from the semi-structured interviews conducted with half of the experimental group reveal a positive attitude and overall satisfaction with the intervention program, decreases in school-related anxiety, increases in focus on school work, a meaningful experience and enjoyment in the EFL classroom and potential improvements in emotional regulation. The teacher's journal provides valuable insights for pedagogical recommendations for future mindfulness-based interventions in foreign language classrooms.
Overall, this research can act as a catalyst, encouraging scholars and practitioners in the field of foreign language acquisition (FLA) to embrace mindfulness as both an instructional holistic strategy in the target language and a focal point for investigation.
Keywords: Mindfulness, Mindfulness-based interventions, EFL, SE, FLA
... 'Accorgersi' significa, secondo Schmidt (2010, 32), «the conscious registration of attended specific instances of language», ovvero la registrazione conscia di aspetti della L2 a cui si è in primo luogo prestato attenzione. Schmidt notò in due case studies (Schmidt 1983;Schmidt, Frota 1986) che alcuni domini della grammatica di una L2 (in particolare la morfologia) erano 'resistenti' all'acquisizione: nonostante gli apprendenti venissero esposti ampiamente alla L2, e nonostante venissero anche sovente corretti da insegnanti e conoscenti, le mancanze in ambito morfologico perduravano. 14 Opponendosi all'ipotesi krasheniana, che sostiene che l'apprendimento linguistico possa avvenire solo in maniera inconscia (Krashen 1982), Schmidt meccanismo necessario per la consapevolezza, ma non necessariamente tutto ciò a cui facciamo attenzione diventa consapevolezza. ...
... Per meglio capire come la scienza dell'educazione linguistica abbia integrato e adattato tale costrutto, nel prosieguo del capitolo 5 Cf. le osservazioni in Schmidt 1983;in Schmidt, Frota 1986 sulle difficoltà nell'apprendimento di questo aspetto linguistico. ...
The current volume explores the key construct of Focus on Form (FonF) and its practical applications to a variety of second language teaching and learning contexts. FonF is a type of cognitive process occurring during the reception or delivery of a linguistic message, in which the smooth flow of discourse is disrupted by a momentary attention to its form. In L2 learning settings, this can be prompted by the deliberate attention to specific language aspects driven by a language instructor or more competent user, or by comprehension problems experienced by learners during interaction. FonF has been shown to have a powerful impact on L2 development, and has been studied especially within interactionist and usage-based approaches to Second Language Acquisition. Given its cognitive nature, it is linked to the notions of attention and noticing, and has been widely studied in both classroom and naturalistic L2 learning settings also in relation to the related processes of Focus on Meaning (FonM) and Focus on Forms (FonFs). The book is divided into four chapters, which move from a theoretical definition of FonF to examples of its emergence and use in formal and less formal L2 English and L2 Italian learning settings. In these terms, the volume aims to stimulate both academic and pedagogical reflection among teachers, students and applied linguists. The first chapter provides a background to FonF by describing the characteristics of L2 input and the key cognitive constructs of selective attention, noticing and memory. Chapter 2 outlines a brief history of FonF within the cognitive-interactionist and usage-based perspectives, followed by its conceptualization in the foreign language teaching field. Chapter 3 describes the continuum from FonM to FonF up to the explicit practice of FonFs, each one having different applications and pedagogical potential. Such potential is clearly illustrated in Chapter 4, which shows concrete examples in L2 English and L2 Italian teaching and learning practices, useful for both learners and teacher reflection.
... In L2 writing pedagogy, models have not only been used successfully in supporting the development of writing strategies, but also as a means of corrective feedback (see Garcia Mayo & Labandibar, 2017, for a review). In theory, by comparing their own writing with models, L2 writers are invited to notice the gap between their own interlanguage and target language use (Schmidt, 1990;Schmidt & Frota, 1986). In addition, they will be exposed to writing samples that may function as positive input they could align to and exploit these models to revise their own compositions. ...
... Yet, the coders checked both source texts and GPTM for potential textual borrowing and coded them as potential triggers accordingly, whenever changes of content and larger text chunks occurred. Therefore, it is safe to assume that the actual trigger in these cases is noticing gaps in the students' own language output (Schmidt, 1990;Schmidt & Frota, 1986) while re-reading. This is even more plausible given the participants' advanced language proficiency (García Mayo & Labandibar, 2017, p. 110) and the task sequence of writing -guided judgement task based on models -revising that has been documented to promote 'inner feedback' (Nicol, 2021). ...
Since its release, ChatGPT has raised concerns in many teaching contexts given its threat to reliably evaluating learners’ knowledge and skills. Within task-based pedagogy, however, this technology opens new avenues for second language (L2) teaching when adopting the technology as a writing buddy. Our study explores how ChatGPT as a model impacts the revision process of advanced L2 writers of German. Twenty-two university students participated in a two-week classroom-based intervention, producing two summaries of popular-scientific texts in L2 German. After writing a first draft, they compared their summaries with texts produced by ChatGPT (3.5) and revised, where necessary, their own text. In this paper, we analyze all students’ rubrics-based ratings of the ChatGPT models and present data of six focus students’ screen-recorded revision processes that we coded for revision focus, source, and success. Results reveal students’ growing awareness of characteristics of ChatGPT-output, such as linguistic accuracy and fluency, as well as its flaws in content provision. Revision data demonstrate that students skillfully made use of the models to improve their own texts. To conclude, our study provides evidence that using ChatGPT as models in writing and revision processes can stimulate higher-order thinking in the revision process of advanced L2 students.
... The roots of the NH can be found, paradoxically, in one of Krashen's papers (Krashen, 1983), which proposed that acquisition occurs when the learner unconsciously 'notices' a feature of the input and the 'gap' between it and their current knowledge of the language. Schmidt and Frota (1986) cited Krashen's idea and proposed a crucial change, that the noticing has to be a conscious experience, giving birth to the concepts of noticing and noticing the gap as they are now understood. These ideas were developed in the context of Schmidt's efforts to acquire Brazilian Portuguese, the primary conclusion being that the features he used in his production were those he had noticed in his input. ...
... Meaning-focused input activities require noticing. Schmidt and Frota (1986) describe two types of noticing required for language learning: 1) learners must notice the linguistic forms of the language being received, and 2) learners must notice disparities between their current comprehension level and the level of the input. Positive psychology also explores the importance of noticing. ...
This article outlines an approach to integrating positive psychology with language learning classes to enhance learner well-being. Building on previous research (Helgesen, 2016, 2019; Walters, 2020A, 2020B), it explores how instructors can leverage synergetic washback effects to positively influence learners' development. By aligning teaching activities and classroom language with universal criteria for psychological fulfillment, connectedness, and productivity, learners are better equipped to develop metacognitive skills for self-directed learning, reduce anxiety, and embrace their L2 identities. The article describes the suitability of Nation's "four strands" approach to language learning (2007) and provides practical recommendations for applying positive psychology to this framework. After briefly discussing relevant needs-fulfillment models, the article suggests specific classroom procedures, language, and activities aimed at creating positive feedback loops to increase and reinforce life satisfaction and self-efficacy among diverse student groups. The previously speculative connection between language education and positive psychology has, in recent years, evolved into a more rigorous area
... This instructional approach emphasizes planned or incidental attention to forms within a meaningful communicative context. Similar conclusions were drawn in a case study from Schmidt's personal experience learning an L2 in an immersion setting (Schmidt & Frota, 1986). The researcher reported that instruction and interaction were important, but he also proposed the noticing principle. ...
Second language acquisition (SLA) is known as both the process of learning an additional language and the field where issues pertaining to the teaching and learning of a second language (L2) are discussed (Ellis, 2010; Nunan, 2001). The field of SLA has experienced exponential growth over the past 3 decades. As Ellis (2010) states it rightly, SLA is “now an established discipline” (p. 182). This is evident in the growth of SLA research, SLA textbooks, and increase in number of theories, principles, and strategies that are found in the field of SLA. While this tremendous advance has been heavily demonstrated particularly in the United States, growth seems sparing in other countries. In fact, few are higher education institutions that offer Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) programs where SLA courses should normally be offered. Without proper knowledge and understanding of how L2s are taught and learned, it is quite likely that teaching English to nonnative speakers in these non-English speaking countries is negatively affected. This paper synthesizes important topics pertaining to SLA to help TESOL experts with some fundamental understanding.
... Also, Schmidt reflected on his experience in learning Portuguese through his diaries and realized that acquisition might not be possible even if he was exposed to input without noticing how these forms were used. He concluded that only what had been noticed was acquired and indicated in his output (Schmidt & Frota, 1986). ...
... El entorno puede determinar la adquisición de elementos pragmáticos (Niezgoda & Roever, 2001). El aprendizaje en contextos de L2 o de inmersión puede proveer un mayor beneficio en el desarrollo de habilidades pragmáticas que lingüísticas (Schmidt, 1983;Schmidt & Frota, 1986;Cohen, 1997), por ejemplo en el control de expresiones formuláicas o la rapidez en el desarrollo de la competencia pragmática. ...
Pragmatic competence is essential for acquiring communicative or intercultural competence in a language. It helps speakers become proficient and avoid pragmatic failures in intercultural communication contexts. Despite its significance, pragmatics has often been overlooked in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms. The main objective of this research is to implement and analyze the effect of online pragmatic instruction on the production of refusal speech acts among advanced EFL learners.
To achieve this goal, we designed an online training program focused on pragmatic input to enhance both pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic knowledge. The participants included 27 advanced Mexican speakers of EFL (C1 level according to the Common European Framework of Reference). The training lasted for four weeks and comprised both asynchronous and synchronous tasks aimed at developing pragmatic comprehension and production.
We used a mixed analysis model in this study, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative approaches, which allowed us to observe the pragmatic and discursive nuances before and after the training. The results indicated that participants became more aware of the contextual features affecting the speech act by developing their sociopragmatic knowledge in their target language. Consequently, they altered their pragmatic production by selecting different semantic formulas, rearranging their order, and showing less variation in their formula choices while modifying their content.
As a result, the speech act became more direct, accurate, polite, and precise, as participants moved away from pragmatic behaviors in their first language (L1) that may differ from those expected in the second language (L2). This research is significant as it demonstrates the effectiveness of pragmatic instruction in enhancing pragmatic competence.
... Pragmatic routines are specific sequences of words or semi-fixed expressions with conventionalized meanings that are recurrently used in certain social contexts representing particular social purposes (Taguchi, 2011). Many researchers have probed the role of pragmatic routines in prompting the process of SLA by beginning L2 learners in the last decades (Hakuta, 1974;Wong-Fillmore, 1976;Hanania and Gradman, 1977;Krashen and Scarcella, 1978;Schmidt and Frota, 1986;Rescorla and Okuda,1987). Coulmas (1979) argued that the most important function of pragmatic routines is to facilitate social interaction. ...
This study examines the development of pragmatic routines' recognition by Algerian EFL learners throughout the investigation of the efficiency of corpus-based instruction in boosting pragmatic routines recognition. 60 Algerian EFL learners participated in this study. The participants enrolled at the University of Mohammed Seddik Ben Yahia in Jijel city in the eastern north of Algeria. The participants were divided into two groups with 30 participants in each. The experimental group received instructional intervention on the meaning and function of pragmatic routines, whereas the control group did not. Both groups responded to pre-test and post-test. A modified version of the multilevel Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) is adopted to examine learners’ recognition of routines. The results of the study revealed that the corpus-based instruction plays a critical role in developing the Algerian EFL learners’ recognition of pragmatic routines.
... Atkinson discusses case studies of two language learners with contrasting approaches: "Wes" (Schmidt, 1983) and Schmidt (Schmidt & Frota, 1986). These can be considered in relation to the key assumption underlying PLLT: "that different patterns of proactive learning behaviors contribute to qualitative and quantitative differences in L2 learning outcomes" (from our original article). ...
We thank Dwight Atkinson for his thought-provoking commentary, which invites us into dialogue and provides an important opportunity to clarify points regarding the assumptions underlying proactive language learning theory (PLLT). Insightful discourse and scholarly exchange of ideas undoubtedly benefit the field and help us approach a much-needed basic consensus in second language acquisition (SLA) theory, which we believe PLLT helps to provide. Below, we discuss Atkinson's observations and offer clarification about the foundational principles of PLLT.
... In contrast, we have Schmidt's case study of himself as a Brazilian Portuguese learner over a 5-month period (Schmidt & Frota, 1986). Schmidt appears to have gone from zero L2 proficiency to being able to converse comfortably around a dinner table, and he apparently did so by focusing his attention on the language itself, using most of the proactive learning behaviors that Papi and Hiver hypothesize. ...
... The question of whether focused or unfocused WCF is more effective remains unresolved, as is the case for the effectiveness of direct versus indirect feedback. Unfocused WCF might not be suitable for lower proficiency (e.g., elementary level) learners, as they might not be able to engage with the feedback and may perceive a gap between what they can produce and what they are expected to produce (Gass, 1997;Schmidt, 2001;Schmidt & Frota, 1986). Furthermore, several researchers have questioned the ecological validity of focused feedback in situations where a more holistic approach might be more beneficial (e.g., Bruton, 2009Bruton, , 2010Storch, 2010;Van Beuningen et al., 2012). ...
The positive effects of dynamic written corrective feedback (DWCF) on linguistic accuracy are well-documented (Evans et al., 2010). However, studies on DWCF without exception have adopted a pretest-posttest research design; therefore, they were unable to explore the dynamics of development (Larsen-Freeman, 2006). In addition, all of the previous DWCF studies exclusively provided indirect feedback to students. Consequently, our knowledge is limited as to whether a modified version (providing direct feedback) of DWCF would be effective. To address this issue, in this study 24 university undergraduate students composed a total of 288 essays and received modified DWCF (direct feedback) on a weekly basis in two advanced writing courses over 12 weeks. The essays were analysed by applying both pretest-posttest and time-series analyses. Statistically significant differences were found in the linguistic accuracy indices (errors per words, errors-free clause ratio) in the student’s data between the pretest and posttest. The time-series analysis showed dynamics of the development of linguistic accuracy. This study showed that a modified version of DWCF is also effective and provides deeper insight into the dynamic processes of linguistic accuracy development.
... Different theories (Bialystok, 1979;Krashen, 1982Krashen, , 1985 what would be the type of such a virtual connector? Another suggestion is the one proposed by Schmidt (1993, 1994, Schmidt and Frota, 1986, which presents a concept related to conscious learning that focuses on what Skehan opposes as a "critical concept of consciousness" (Skehan, 1998, p. 48). ...
The current study was set to examine whether input flooding and input enhancement of vocabulary affected the reading fluency of Iranian EFL learners. It also evaluated whether there was any substantial difference between the impacts of input flooding and input enhancement of vocabulary on the reading of Iranian EFL learners. To this end, 120 out of 150 Iranian EFL intermediate learners at three language schools in Iran were randomly selected and divided into three groups, each consisting of 40 learners. The first experimental group received input flooding as treatment. To this aim, the frequency of the vocabulary items in the reading texts used during the course was increased. In other words, learners were flooded with the vocabulary items via different examples and using the words several times in the reading texts. The participants in the Input Enhancement (IE) group received IE through underlining, boldfacing, italicization, capitalization, and other strategies such as color coding, using different fonts, and diverse forms of vocabulary. To this end, in this experimental group, the vocabulary items appeared in the texts by using underlining, boldfacing, italicization, and capitalization. In order to do so, the researcher retyped the selected materials and carried out the required modifications on them. In contrast, the control group received the traditional method for teaching reading. The results were analyzed via ANCOVA. The findings revealed that both input flooding and input enhancement of vocabulary had positively significant impacts on Iranian EFL learners' reading fluency. Input flooding of vocabulary was more effective than input enhancement of vocabulary regarding their impacts on Iranian EFL learners' reading fluency. Some pedagogical and theoretical implications are also presented.
... • dictogloss has a long pedigree in comunicative language teaching • the activity ties in well with several prominent strands of research in second language acquisition in terms of learners 'noticing the gap' in Schmidt and Frota's (1986) terms between their ongoing interlanguage development stage and the target language system. • the activity has a number of easily identifiable stages and can be adapted for different proficiency levels from pre-intermediate to advanced (roughly B1 and above). ...
This paper reports on an evaluation of a workshop to introduce dictogloss procedures to a group of student EFL teachers using classroom response system (CRS) tools in a high-tech learning environment. Response tools allow students to interact anonymously with the projector/interactive whiteboard (IWB) using their own devices (computer, tablet, smartphone etc) not only synchronously in the classroom but also remotely and asynchronously. For shyer, more introverted students reluctant to participate orally in the lesson, interaction via their own mobile devices permits an alternative avenue towards a more active participation in classroom lessons. The response tool used was Wooclap which was fully integrated into the students’ Moodle VLE. Dictogloss is a well-established listening comprehension activity based on dictation in which a short text read to learners is re-constructed and reformulated in pairs. The activity permits a focus on linguistic form within the context of a communicative classroom. Results from the three response tasks indicated a high level of involvement and response among the student teachers.
... Schmidt (1990) maintains that it is important for adult learners to notice the linguistic forms. His assertion is based on his own experience of learning Portuguese and the analysis of his own language development with a native-speaker researcher (Schmidt & Frota, 1986). Therefore, Schmidt (1995) claims that in adults' L2 learning, CF has a crucial role in promoting 'noticing.' ...
The current study aimed to investigate EFL teachers' use of different corrective feedback types in face-to-face and online classes across levels of proficiency, as well as their perceptions of the use of corrective feedback (CF) in their classrooms. To this end, six teachers (three face-to-face and three online) from two language schools were selected as the participants based on convenience sampling. It's worth noting that in terms of design, the current investigation qualifies as a case study. In an attempt to triangulate data collection, both observation and interview were used as the instruments for data collection. In so doing, each teacher's class was observed for two sessions, and the interaction between learners and each teacher was audio-recorded. Furthermore, structured interviews were conducted with the participants following observations. The study was guided by Lyster and Ranta's (1997) and Sheen's (2011) framework for CF types. As the findings revealed, recast was the most commonly used CF type in elementary and intermediate levels in both classroom modes, as well as the advanced face-to-face class, with the only exception being the advanced online class in which elicitation featured as the most preferred feedback type. Furthermore, the results of the interview data revealed that all teachers had positive perceptions of using CF in EFL classrooms. The findings offer some fruitful implications for EFL teachers who are engaged with face-to-face or online modes of instruction, particularly as they highlight the importance of offering more explicit CF types to bring about more noticing and uptake.
... Interaction is a key component of second language (L2) teaching and learning as it provides speakers with opportunities to experience input (Gass & Mackey, 2015), negotiate for meaning (Long, 1996), receive feedback (Mackey, Gass, & McDonough, 2000), notice language structure (Schmidt & Frota, 1986), and produce output (Swain, 2005), all through meaningful communication. Researchers have focused on various features of interaction that could make it more or less beneficial for L2 speakers (Loewen & Sato, 2018), including the nature of a speaking task (e.g., information-gap vs. opinion-gap), composition of speakers (e.g., dyads vs. small groups), their relative language skill (e.g., expert vs. novice), and interactional behaviors (e.g., engagement, responsiveness). ...
People are frequently concerned about the impressions they make on others (referred to as metaperceptions), but their insights are often inaccurate. Illustrating the phenomenon called the liking gap, speakers interacting in their first language (L1) and second language (L2) tend to underestimate how much they are liked by their interlocutor, and these judgments often predict their desire to engage in future interaction and collaboration. To understand the scope of this bias and its consequences, we focused on L1-L2 dyadic interaction, examining metaperception as a potential barrier to conversations between university students. We recruited 58 previously unacquainted university students to perform a 10-min academic discussion task between one L1 and one L2 speaker. Afterward, the speakers (a) assessed each other's interpersonal liking, speaking skill, and interactional behavior; (b) provided their metaperceptions of their interlocutor's assessments of the same dimensions; and (c) estimated their interest in future interaction with the same interlocutor. All speakers showed a reliable metaperception bias to underestimate their interpersonal liking, speaking skill, and interactional behavior. However, only L1 speakers' desire to engage in future interaction was associated with their metaperceptions of interpersonal liking. We discuss implications of this finding for understanding and promoting academic communication.
... Noticing-defined as the conscious attention to the form of input-has long been recognized as a requisite for language learning [14]. Schmidt and Frota [15] succinctly stated, "those who notice most, learn most." Noticing serves as a trigger for learning by directing learners' attention to the gap between the features in their own language production and those target-like ones present in the input. ...
ChatGPT can promptly reformulate a text and improve its quality in content and form while preserving the original meaning. Yet, little is known about how learners respond to such reformulations. Here, we employed a 3-stage writing task (composing-comparison-rewriting) to investigate how learners notice, integrate, and perceive ChatGPT's reformulations as feedback in English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom context. We collected learners' written notes made during the comparison of their original texts and the reformulations, categorizing them based on language-related type of noticing (vocabulary, discourse, and form) and quality of noticing (depth of processing: low, intermediate, and high). We also analyzed the instances of reformulations integrated in learners' rewriting and their answers to a questionnaire. The results showed that (1) the reformulations directed learners' attention to the gaps in their original writing, especially in word choice, and prompted them to integrate ChatGPT-generated changes in their rewriting; (2) the number of instances integrated into the rewriting was directly related to the quantity, type and quality of noticing in the comparison stage; (3) learners generally appreciated the pedagogical value of ChatGPT in EFL writing, particularly during the revision stage, although they believe occasionally ChatGPT might misinterpret their intentions. The study suggests that ChatGPT's reformulations should be complemented with peer and teacher feedback to create a comprehensive and personalized learning environment.
... These outcomes align with the reports in the review by Cao and Mao (2022), lending support to the notion that the noticing of problems (vocabulary) during initial output could motivate learners to look for solutions (lexical features in model texts) to these issues (Swain, 1985(Swain, , 2000. Such noticing might facilitate their learning gains (Schmidt, 1990(Schmidt, , 2001 as those who noticed the most (i.e., vocabulary) could benefit the most (i.e., lexical gains) (Schmidt & Frota, 1986). Thus, it can be indicated that MTFI has the potential to promote L2 learners' cognitive and lexical development. ...
The potential of model texts as a feedback instrument (MTFI) in second language (L2) writing has been explored for about two decades and continues to receive increasing interest from L2 scholars. However, to date, there is still an absence of a comprehensive review of studies in this particular area. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) procedure, this study aims to fill this gap by systematically reviewing 25 empirical studies on MTFI dating up to 1 April 2023, specifically focusing on three main aspects: study contexts, methodological characteristics, and primary areas of focus and key findings. The results revealed that existing MTFI studies (1) largely targeted low-intermediate English as a foreign language (EFL) learners at primary schools, (2) primarily adopted a quasi-experimental design involving a three-stage narrative writing task in a classroom-based setting, (3) predominantly focused on writing as a process, and (4) consistently reported MTFI’s potential for promoting L2 writing gains, especially in terms of lexical aspects. These results not only further our understanding about the effect of MTFI on different dimensions of task performance and L2 learning (i.e. L2 writing), but also provide some pedagogical implications for practices. Suggestions for addressing methodological issues in future studies are provided to advance this research domain.
... Items 2, 3, 8, 9, and 10 have to do with language learning usefulness, while items 4-7 gauge the success of the partnership's contribution to each member's feeling valued. Items 8-9 determine whether the participant noticed (Schmidt & Frota, 1986) a difference in her foreign language ability during the conversations, and item 10 determines the participant's perception of what knowledge will be retained as a result of the conversations. ...
Past studies in language teaching have addressed the issue of whether the benefits of formal instruction outweigh those of naturalistic instruction, or vice versa.1 This study examined 1 aspect of naturalistic instruction closely: the conversation partnership. There were 3 conversation partnerships (English/Mandarin, English/Arabic, and English/Korean); each partner played the role of native speaker (NS) and nonnative speaker (NNS) of 1 language. An underlying idea of this study is that the repercussions of a relationship in which members are equal partners in language learning may extend beyond the relationship and into the community. These pairs were organized by the ESL Center at the Monterey Institute of International Studies (MIIS). Transcripts of 10-minute English parts of 6 conversations (2 from each partnership) were examined for uses of certain negotiation strategies, and the participants’ opinions regarding the usefulness of these strategies in learning English, Mandarin, Arabic or Korean were sought.
... The noticing hypothesis (Schmidt, 1990) states that learners must consciously notice input items if they are to incorporate these items into their developing interlanguage (IL) systems. It has also been argued that learners must notice the "gap" between their own output and the target for learning to occur (Schmidt & Frota, 1986). A number of methods have been proposed as promoting noticing of target input items. ...
L2 input, such as a reading text, constitutes a rich source of information on how meanings are expressed in the L2. Helping learners to use this information effectively should be one of the main goals of L2 teaching. In this article, I propose text-based guided output (TBGO) as a technique for “pushing” learners to make better use of the learning opportunities that L2 text has to offer. I make a case for the integration of TBGO into text-based ESL lessons for adults and conclude by discussing important features of design and my own experience with this type of task in teaching a group of upper-intermediate–advanced university students during 1 semester.
... Mas é depois do behaviorismo que surgiram diferentes pontos de vista destacando a aprendizagem da L2 como uma tarefa cognitiva, envolvendo tanto a automaticiade quanto a integração de habilidades (McLaughlin, 1987). Entre os estudos que apóiam os drills estão Schmidt & Frota (1986). ...
Este estudo descreveu e interpretou as crenças do professor de inglês sobre o ensino e a aprendizagem da língua estrangeira, particularmente, sobre o ensino da gramática. Buscou conhecer a origem das crenças e os fatores de formação, as influências na prática do professor, a organização em sistemas individuais de crenças e a cultura de ensino. Participaram desta investigação dez professores de inglês de escolas particulares de línguas do sul do Brasil. A pesquisa utilizada foi de natureza etnográfica, e as técnicas de coleta de dados foram as entrevistas e as observações de aula. Concluiu-se que as crenças são originadas a partir de experiências significativas vividas pelos professores, principalmente como alunos de LE e como professores em sala de aula, e que eles, compartilhando ou não estas crenças, pertencem a uma cultura de ensino comum, a cultura de ensino da língua inglesa.
... Incorporating a diverse array of CF techniques into language teaching practices is instrumental in cultivating a supportive and enriching learning atmosphere tailored to meet the varied needs of learners and facilitate effective language acquisition (Lyster, 2023). This aspect of CF aids learners in recognizing the disparities between their current language performance and their desired proficiency levels, a critical step in the language learning process, as emphasized by Schmidt and Frota (1986). ...
This quasi-experimental study aimed to investigate the effect of polite corrective feedback (CF) on Iranian EFL learners' immediate and delayed grammatical accuracy. The participants included a convenient sample of 60 intermediate male/female EFL learners (four 15-member groups) selected from a private language institute in Tabriz. After the researcher ensured the homogeneity of the participants, a researcher-made multiple-choice pre-test on present and past English tenses was administered. Later, the first and second experimental groups were treated with +Polite Explicit Feedback (in the form of elicitations) and +Polite Implicit CF (in the form of recasts), respectively while the control groups were provided with-Polite Feedback of the same forms. Following the assessment of the learners' oral grammatical accuracy immediately after the treatment (uptake), a multiple-choice post-test was administered two weeks after the immediate post-test to assess their delayed recall. The independent samples t-test and ANCOVA conducted on the pre-test, immediate learning scores, and delayed post-test scores indicated that, although polite CF in both groups had a significant effect on learners' grammatical accuracy, +Polite Explicit Feedback had a more significant effect on participants' performance than-Polite Explicit Feedback and +Polite Implicit Feedback. The results underscore the significance of integrating politeness element into CF discourse, bearing implications for educational planners, materials developers, and EFL instructors.
... A second approach to such items where there are multiple possible synonyms is to provide a scrambled set of the letters with the L1 term. This approach can help prime students to notice cues available for inflection and derivation marking (Schmidt & Frota, 1986). In this case, the cues are the past tense in the L1 term and the letters are provided with the scrambled set of letters. ...
Plain language summary
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instructors face the dilemma of not only choosing which vocabulary items to teach their students but also which level of knowledge to target for practice and assessment. To address this dilemma, this study examines the design, implementation, and evaluation of a Quizlet vocabulary curriculum for a pre-intermediate English course at International University (IU) (pseudonym) in Japan, specifically investigating how a Quizlet vocabulary curriculum can promote recall level knowledge on high-frequency vocabulary lists. Research was conducted to investigate the impact of digital flashcards via Quizlet designed to improve students’ ability to recall specific vocabulary words as opposed to choosing the vocabulary word from a set of multiple-choice options. Quizlet was selected as the tool because it allows instructors to make flashcard material and track student progress. The results of the study demonstrated that compared to recall test items, multiple-choice test questions resulted in a 20% overestimation of new vocabulary knowledge. In addition, 138 Japanese pre-intermediate English language learners responded very favorably to the recall-focused practice and assessment method in a post-semester survey. The findings show that test items for vocabulary tests should change from multiple choice to recall test items to promote a deeper knowledge of high frequency words.
... of feedback. These include the particular features of language being corrected, the appropriateness of the student's stage in his/her language learning process to benefit from the correction, and finally the ability of learners to notice a gap between what they want to say and what they can say (Schmidt & Frota, 1986). The disagreements regarding the relative efficacy of different feedback types have motivated several experimental studies. ...
The pursuit of best practices and the promotion of excellence and effective performance in the teaching process are the ultimate goals of the educational endeavour. Throughout this process, teachers’ feedback is crucial and helps to improve students’ performance. The current study attempted to look at the topic of feedback in the learning of second languages. The main goals of this study were to find out how well-informed teachers were about the value of feedback in second language acquisition, to investigate the types of feedback teachers use to correct their students’ spoken errors, and finally to assess teachers’ knowledge of the various types of feedback that can be used in EFL classrooms to foster learning. A survey was administered to 20 English instructors from Moroccan high schools as a sample because of the quantitative nature of the study. ‘SPSS’ was used to analyse the data obtained from the survey. The results showed that English teachers in Moroccan high schools have a sufficient level of knowledge about feedback because they employ various feedback strategies, using them in accordance with the requirements of the learning context and, most importantly, considering the psychology of learners before responding to their incorrect statements. Numerous pertinent pedagogical implications were raised by these findings.
This quasi-experimental study explored the role that translation-based previewing interventions might play in fostering incidental vocabulary learning through audiovisual input. We investigated the effects of viewing dual-subtitled videos on EFL learners’ immediate vocabulary gains and vocabulary retention under an output-input viewing condition and an input-only viewing condition. A total of 38 Chinese-speaking intermediate EFL learners, who were studying at university, participated in this study. A counterbalanced 2×2 experimental design was utilised to allow all participants to experience vocabulary learning in both viewing conditions. Between-group and within-group results indicated that viewing dual-subtitled videos under an output-input viewing condition may lead to a significantly stronger level of immediate vocabulary gains and vocabulary retention compared to an input-only viewing condition. The article ends with a discussion on how the incorporation of translation-based activities prior to viewing dual-subtitled videos may help students to foster incidental vocabulary learning. This study contributes to the literature on language learning through audiovisual materials by providing empirical evidence which suggests that previewing interventions with the use of translation activities may help mediate the effects of incidental vocabulary learning through dual-subtitled video viewing.
Studies have shown that non-anglophone students greatly benefit from watching pop-cultural products such as films and videogames in English, as these support unsupervised language learning, and that scripted dialogue in films and in videogames both resemble spontaneous speech in many ways. But are there any lexico-grammatical features that a person is more likely to encounter, and consequently learn, when playing videogames compared to when watching films? To answer this question this study contrasts scripted dialogue in videogames to film dialogue and spontaneous interactions, at the level of part-of-speech categories. Results highlight a small set of features that are significantly more frequent in videogame scripted dialogue. Such features are mostly connected to the ludic aims of videogames.
Reflexive and Reflective Research Approaches in Applied Linguistics moves the field of Applied Linguistics into new methodological territory. Applying both the newer reflexive methodologies of currere and duoethnography as well as the more established methodologies of autoethnography and narrative to the broad field of Applied Linguistics, international authors in the field examine the affordances, limitations, and ethical challenges and benefits of these methodologies to Applied Linguistics from multiple perspectives. A parallel structure in the book encourages the reader to critically compare and contrast the uses of these methodologies within Applied Linguistics.
The current volume explores the key construct of Focus on Form (FonF) and its practical applications to a variety of second language teaching and learning contexts. FonF is a type of cognitive process occurring during the reception or delivery of a linguistic message, in which the smooth flow of discourse is disrupted by a momentary attention to its form. In L2 learning settings, this can be prompted by the deliberate attention to specific language aspects driven by a language instructor or more competent user, or by comprehension problems experienced by learners during interaction. FonF has been shown to have a powerful impact on L2 development, and has been studied especially within interactionist and usage-based approaches to Second Language Acquisition. Given its cognitive nature, it is linked to the notions of attention and noticing, and has been widely studied in both classroom and naturalistic L2 learning settings also in relation to the related processes of Focus on Meaning (FonM) and Focus on Forms (FonFs). The book is divided into four chapters, which move from a theoretical definition of FonF to examples of its emergence and use in formal and less formal L2 English and L2 Italian learning settings. In these terms, the volume aims to stimulate both academic and pedagogical reflection among teachers, students and applied linguists. The first chapter provides a background to FonF by describing the characteristics of L2 input and the key cognitive constructs of selective attention, noticing and memory. Chapter 2 outlines a brief history of FonF within the cognitive-interactionist and usage-based perspectives, followed by its conceptualization in the foreign language teaching field. Chapter 3 describes the continuum from FonM to FonF up to the explicit practice of FonFs, each one having different applications and pedagogical potential. Such potential is clearly illustrated in Chapter 4, which shows concrete examples in L2 English and L2 Italian teaching and learning practices, useful for both learners and teacher reflection.
ChatGPT, an innovative large language model that has impressed worldwide audiences with its exceptional generative capabilities, is now positioned to significantly transform the field of education. The purpose of this exploratory study is to investigate how accurately ChatGPT generates feedback on the content and organization components of EFL compare and contrast essays and the extent to which the feedback length provided by ChatGPT differs from that of the human teacher.To address these questions, a ChatGPT prompt incorporating evaluation criteria for content and organization components was developed, generating feedback on 10 compare and contrast student essays using the ChatGPT 3.5 version. The ChatGPT feedback and teacher feedback were assessed quantitatively and qualitatively according to the predetermined evaluation criteria. Furthermore, two types of feedback were compared descriptively and by conducting the Wilcoxon Sign Rank Test. The findings revealed that ChatGPT produced highly accurate feedback for both content and organization components, surpassing the teacher in the length of feedback provided. While the accuracy rate of the generated feedback was high, issues such as holistic assessment of the essay, false positives, failure to provide feedback where needed, and discrepancies in the depth of feedback compared to teacher feedback were identified. The results suggest that while ChatGPT shows promise in providing educational feedback, teacher-AI collaboration in giving feedback for EFL compare and contrast essays is important for delivering feedback that optimally benefits learners.
Few works in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) can endure multiple reads, but Selinker's (1972) "Interlanguage" is a clear exception. Written at the inception of the field, this paper delineates a disciplinary scope; asks penetrating questions; advances daring hypotheses; and proposes a first-ever conceptual and empirical framework that continues to stimulate SLA research. Sparked by a heightened interest in this founding text on its 40th anniversary, 10 leaders in their respective fields of SLA research collectively examine extrapolations of the seminal text for the past, the present, and the future of SLA research. This book offers a rare resource for novices and experts alike in and beyond the field of SLA.
Despite the plethora of studies on the role of noticing in second language learning, little is known about the role of AI-operated feedback in noticing errors and uptake during and after writing. To address this gap, this study primarily aimed to investigate the impact of feedback modes and timing on L2 students’ noticing of errors and writing scores. In pursuit of this objective, a quasi-experimental design was adopted in which 75 university undergraduate EFL participants were randomly distributed into four groups representing four feedback conditions. These included receiving feedback (a) from Grammarly while composing, (b) from E-rater after composing, (c) from the teacher after composing, and (d) a no feedback condition. Three argumentative prompts taken from IELTS task 2 were used as writing tasks and Noticing Sheets (NSs) were employed in recording and analyzing participants’ noticing. The findings generally demonstrate that participants exhibited increased noticing with teacher input compared to AI-operated feedback from Grammarly and E-rater, yet they still noticed errors when using the AI systems during and after writing. The results also show that noticing occurred in all feedback conditions, including the fourth one which involved no feedback from any source. This suggests that feedback is not an absolute prerequisite for noticing, but the source and timing of such corrective feedback can influence students’ noticing focus and intensity. The study provides further insights into the role of noticing in L2 learning and offers practical implications for teachers seeking to optimize conventional and automated feedback strategies for enhanced language learning.
Abstract
This thesis lays the foundations for a new pedagogical approach to some and any, an area of language that poses substantial difficulties for learners. It describes research with the Oxford English Corpus and the Cambridge Learner Corpus which provides the basis for a provisional new pedagogical description of this complex language area. The research with the Oxford English Corpus reveals that the descriptions provided in grammar books are unsatisfactory, as they give a distorted account of the some-any distinction in negative clauses and after implicit negatives, pay scant attention to the use of any in affirmative clauses and provide insufficient information on the pragmatic and semantic factors governing the choice between some and any in interrogative and conditional clauses.
The research with the Cambridge Learner Corpus reveals that learners of all levels and many L1 backgrounds have difficulty with all the main uses of some and any that are poorly explained in grammar books, particularly those involving negative and conditional clauses and the use of any in affirmative clauses. Data from the learner corpus is interpreted in the light of the findings from the reference corpus in order to identify possible causes of learner errors with some and any.
The thesis then explains the changes to the pedagogical grammar descriptions of some and any which will need to be introduced as a result of the corpus research, accounts for decisions regarding which aspects of some and any to explain at different proficiency levels and presents a rationale, illustrated by sample explanations, of how to explain new or modified aspects of the description. It then provides a brief discussion of other aspects of the new pedagogical approach, such as which methodologies are appropriate for teaching some and any and how to train teachers in this area of language.
The final chapter examines the need for further research into some and any and discusses the possibility of using the research methods employed in this study to improve the description of other complex areas of language. The main conclusion from this study is that there is no place in language teaching for fundamentally incomplete or inaccurate descriptions of the kind often provided for some and any.
Las Pruebas de Juicio de Gramaticalidad se consideran un método estandarizado para medir el uso del idioma de los estudiantes porque se les pide que hagan un pronunciamiento intuitivo sobre la precisión de la forma y estructura de oraciones individuales y descontextualizadas. Por lo tanto, existe una investigación limitada sobre las reflexiones metalingüísticas detrás de la emisión de un juicio de gramaticalidad. En este estudio se busca que además de emitir juicios gramaticales, los estudiantes detecten reglas subyacentes de uso para para corregir y justificar errores gramaticales de manera colectiva; ya que esto podría tener un impacto positivo en su aprendizaje del inglés como L2. Apoyada del marco de la Teoría Sociocultural para el desarrollo de la Conciencia Metalingüística entre pares y de la verbalización de los procesos reflexivos involucrados en la cognición mediante tareas gramaticales y la evocación estimulada como técnica metodológica, la presente investigación explora el proceso por el que dieciséis universitarios mexicanos pasaron al crear, editar y aplicar sus propias reglas gramaticales para tratar de entender cómo funcionan los complementos infinitivos y gerundios en inglés; uno de los temas más complejos de adquirir por estudiantes del inglés como L2, por carecer de reglas de uso. El objetivo es el de contribuir al campo de la investigación empírica en el desarrollo de la conciencia metalingüística en la que se atiende al proceso de aprendizaje de estructuras que los estudiantes normalmente memorizan. Los hallazgos señalan la existencia de posibles factores cognitivos que vinculan el aprendizaje de estos complementos con la reflexión metalingüística y el andamiaje cognitivo entre pares. Las actividades que fomentan la reflexión metalingüística, tal como las entrevistas de evocación estimulada, pueden conducir a los estudiantes de nivel intermedio - avanzado a que desarrollen sus propias reglas gramaticales las cuales son generadas con un fundamento sintáctico y posteriormente, semántico; como sucedió en este estudio. Aunado a lo anterior y a partir de un cuidadoso análisis microgenético de los procesos de desarrollo metalingüístico y metacognitivo en los estudiantes, se generó el modelo REBUCREA, en el que se observa la revisión, búsqueda, creación, evaluación y aplicación de las reglas gramaticales.
Palabras clave: complementos infinitivos y gerundios, conciencia metalingüística, inglés como L2.
Emphasizing the necessity for theory-driven language acquisition research, the studies in this collection aim to formalize the kinds of information available to first and second language learners, as well as to shed light on how that information is used to solve a variety of learning problems. The volume pays homage to the scholarly contributions of Susanne E. Carroll, delving into the impact she has had on the field of language acquisition. The central themes of input, evidence, and exposure – found throughout Carroll’s work – are explored in this volume. The contributions cover a range of topics such as the emergence of linguistic theorizing in language acquisition research, the acquisition of grammatical gender, classroom language learning, learning on first exposure, asymmetries between developmental trajectories in first and second language acquisition, and the effects of grammatical complexity on language development.
Interaction is common in second language (L2) learning both in and out of the classroom. Many consider interaction an essential element in L2 learning because interaction allows the development of communicative competence necessary for learners to use the L2 successfully in everyday tasks. This chapter aims to provide an overview of interaction, how it contributes to learning by directing learners’ attention to elements in the language, and what teachers can do with interaction to improve learning. The chapter focuses on three key constructs of interaction, namely input, negotiation of meaning, and output, and explores interaction in both classroom and technology-assisted L2 learning. This chapter begins by elaborating on the interaction concept and its relationship with L2 teaching and learning based on the Interaction Hypothesis (Long, 1996). This will be followed by discussing variables in interactional activities that teachers can manipulate to benefit L2 learning, with evidence from recent research and examples of classroom applications. The chapter ends with classroom research ideas about interaction.
Onlarca yıldır ikinci dil eğitiminde "olumsuz kanıtların rolü" hakkında süregelen tartışmalar çok sayıda teorik ve amprik araştırmaya konu olmuştur. Olmsuz kanıt, öğrencinin belirli bir dil formunun hedef dilin standartlarına göre kabul edilemez olduğunu anlamasını sağlar. Ayrıca olumsuz kanıt öğrenciye yanlış kullanım hakkında bilgi verirken öğrencinin ne anlaması gerektiğine dair az da olsa bilgi verir. Bu bilgilendirmeyi gramere odaklanmadan yapar. Dil eğitiminde girdinin önemi ve düzeltici dönüt kolaylaştırıcı etkisi bilinse de öğrencinin dili ile hedef dil arasındaki boşlukların dil öğrenim sürecinde kullanılan ortak dilin bu boşluğu nasıl doldurduğuna, olası yanlışlık ve eksikliklere dair etkilere yönelik elimizde çok az veri vardır. Bu amaçla makale, öğrencilerin genel olarak dil derslerinde ve özel olarak Arapça'da, düzeltici dönüt sürecinde gördüğü ve analiz ettiği olumsuz kanıtların rolüne ışık tutan literatürü gözden geçirmeyi ve tartışmayı amaçlamaktadır. Araştırma aynı zamanda öğrencilerin örtülü dönütü fark etmesi ve dönüt sürecinde öğretmenin niyeti ile öğrencinin algısı arasındaki olası uyumsuzluk gibi bu alanda ortaya çıkan bazı farklılıkları da tartışmaktadır. Olumsuz kanıt kavramı örtülü dönütle ilişkilendirildiğinden bazı örtülü dönüt yöntemleri ve bunların ikinci dil eğitimindeki etkinlikleri de tartışılacaktır.
Input is the name of a topic – the way that language 'out there' impacts the development of interlanguage, within the individual. It is perhaps the most important aspect of second language learning. This Element offers an overview of the key concepts related to input and the major lines of research exploring its nature and its role in second language learning. It then puts things together into a coherent, if controversial, picture of input and its role in development, emphasizing the place of consciousness. In this and most other current perspectives, implicit (unconscious) input-based learning is the heart of second language acquisition. This suggests two general options for teaching: (a) trust the natural implicit processes, trying to create optimal conditions for them; (b) direct those processes to selected features of the input, probably using explicit instruction. The conclusion is that (a) appears preferable.
This quasi-experimental study was an attempt to examine the effects of two types of corrective
feedback, namely recast and metalinguistic feedback on the acquisition of English regular past tense-
ed by Iranian EFL learners. To this end, 45 female learners of English at a low intermediate level
were randomly selected as the participants of this study and were assigned into two experimental
groups and one control group. The experimental groups received recast and metalinguistic for-
focused feedback on the target form following picture description tasks while the learners in the
control group received no feedback. The acquisition of regular past tense-ed was measured by means
of metalinguistic knowledge and oral imitation tests. The results of the one-way ANOVA showed
that the experimental groups who received corrective feedback outperformed the control group who
did not receive any feedback. The findings of the study also indicated that there were no significance
differences between the two types of corrective feedback in terms of learners’ performance in an EFL
context. The results of this study are considered to be useful in error correction techniques, syllabus
and task designers especially in EFL contexts.
This descriptive study explored college students' perceptions of written corrective feedback (WCF) and its effects on their writing. CARES, spelt out in the domains such as Challenges, Adeptness, Reception, Effectiveness, and Satisfaction were differentiated upon surveying the freshmen college students under the college of education in a provincial HEI. The research investigated students' preferences for WCF strategies. Descriptive statistical data revealed that there are no significant differences in the students' perceptions on written corrective feedback when classified according to specialization as categorized to Challenges (F=.412, p=<0.799); Adeptness (F=2.425, p=<0.56); Reception (Affective Domain) (F= 1.478, p=<0.218); Reception (Revision) (F= 1.226, p=<0.328); Effectiveness (Benefits) (F= 1.389, p=<0.247); Satisfaction (Source of Correction) (F= 1.170, p=<0.332); and Satisfaction (Extent of Correction) (F= 1.292, p=<0.282). It was notable however, that a significant difference was on the reception of the ink when providing WCF (F= 2.541, p=>0.047), a minor difference, that could be attributed to the consideration of the ink or color to be used when providing WCF on students' written work. Results in the survey on perceptions imply that students tend to show a positive attitude towards written corrective feedback, with the non-significance in the differences among groups of specialization attributed to their intrinsic and integrative motivations. The study's findings provide insights into students' attitudes towards WCF and its role in enhancing their writing skills. The research also sheds light on the effectiveness of different WCF strategies and the importance of tailored feedback practices to support students' language learning and error correction. The study's recommendations include the need for continuous training to improve students' writing skills, the importance of using corrective feedback to develop students' written competence, and the value of future research to further explore the impact of WCF on students' writing. The study's findings have significant implications for language education and assessment, providing valuable insights into the role of WCF in supporting students' language learning and writing improvement.
Over the decades, researchers and educators have sought to understand how extramural language exposure impacts formal language learning outcomes, a topic that has evolved dramatically with technological advancements, particularly in recent years with the rise of artificial intelligence (AI). Early studies, like Rubin (1975), highlighted the significance of "good language learners" utilizing opportunities outside the classroom, which were limited to activities like radio listening and cinema visits. Today, learners benefit from a plethora of technological resources, shaping what is known as extramural English (EE), notably observed among English as an additional language (EAL) students in Norwegian schools. This chapter explores the evolution of EE, examining the diverse forms it takes in contemporary contexts, driven by extensive digital and social media use among Norwegian teenagers, which has facilitated widespread exposure to English, a factor believed to strongly correlate with enhanced English proficiency. Understanding this exposure’s nature and its impact on scholastic achievements is pivotal for educational institutions and language educators, influencing language learning beliefs, motivation, and pedagogical strategies. In terms of specifics, the chapter presents recent research findings addressing the scarcity of EE studies, offering insights into EE’s integration into language curricula and practical suggestions for educators. Emphasis is placed on the need for teacher education programs to align with students’ actual EE experiences, bridging the gap between perceived and actual exposure. While providing a comprehensive overview of EE literature, the chapter also adopts a forward-thinking approach, highlighting the evolving landscape of EE in English language teaching and proposing future research directions to deepen our understanding of its complex interplay with EAL learning.
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