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STATE-OF-THE-ART PAPER
Halal Meat Fraud and Safety Issues in the UK: a Review
in the Context of the European Union
Awal Fuseini
1
&Steve B. Wotton
1
&Toby G. Knowles
1
&
Phil J. Hadley
2
Accepted: 15 January 2017
#Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017
Abstract Since the discovery of horsemeat in some processed beef products in early 2013,
there has been increased speciation testing of products of meat origin within the EU. This led
to the detection of porcine DNA and subsequently pork meat in some processed BHalal^
products in the UK. This situation caused a great deal of panic and distress among the UK
Muslim population, as the consumption of pork or its derivatives is strictly forbidden in Islam.
This paper considers what makes meat Halal and discusses existing gaps in Halal certification
and the regulation of Halal meat that potentially expose the Halal market to fraudulent activity.
Keywords Halal meat .Food safety .Meat fraud .Stunning .Slaughter
Introduction
The adulteration and mislabelling of meat and other food products is not a new phenom-
enon. Within the EU, there are stringent measures in place to protect and promote foods
that are traditional specialties and have geographical indications such as Protected Geo-
graphical Indication (PGI), Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) and Traditional Spe-
cialties Guaranteed (TSG) and law protects these. Relevant EU food safety and labelling
legislation also seeks to prevent the adulteration and production of foods that may pose a
public health risk, as well as the misrepresentation (through mislabelling) of food in order
to deceive consumers. Despite these preventative measures, certain individuals, in using
unapproved methods, succeed to produce food that is unfit for human consumption or not
correctly described. These individuals are more often than not, motivated by greed, and a
desire to maximise profits. Halal meat is that derived from animals slaughtered in
Food ethics
DOI 10.1007/s41055-017-0009-1
*Awal Fuseini
awalfus@yahoo.com
1
School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK
2
AHDB, Creech Castle, Bathpool, Taunton TA1 2DX, UK
accordance with the Islamic dietary laws enshrined in the Quran (Islamic Holy Book)
and the Hadith (The traditions of the Prophet of Islam, Mohammed). The majority of
practicing Muslims will only consume Halal meat, as many regard the consumption of
such meats as a form of worship. Due to the spiritual significance of Halal meat to
Muslims consumers, in addition to the economic benefits associated with trading in such
meats due to the expansion in the global Muslim population, there has been competition
for a share of the Halal market by mainstream food business operators in the
industrialised world. The Pew Research Centre (2015) projected that if the current trends
continue, the global Muslim population will increase by 73% to 2.8 billion by the year
2050. Despite the apparent economic benefits associated with trading in Halal food
products, many Halal consumers have expressed concern about the lack of understanding
of the rules surrounding the slaughter of animals, and the subsequent processing or
handling of these products for Muslim consumption. The situation is exacerbated by the
fact that many Halal Food Business Operators in the West are non-Muslims with limited
or no understanding of the Islamic dietary laws. Also, the recent discovery of fraudulent
activities in the Halal industry (BBC 2014,2015; Huffington Post 2014a;MailOnline
2015) has aggravated the situation. The detection of undeclared horsemeat (and horse
DNA) in some products in the UK (Food Standards Agency, FSA 2013;TheGuardian
2013a) led to more stringent tests of processed foods for undeclared materials (FSA
2014), which has resulted in prosecutions (FSA 2015; Food Safety News 2015). The
subsequent increase in product testing led to the detection of pork meat and porcine
DNA in various BHalal^products destined for Muslim consumption (The Guardian
2013b;ITVNews2013). Muslims are forbidden to farm, trade or consume pork or
any by-product from pigs.
Whilst many fraudulent activities in the Halal industry, such as the intentional mislabelling
of non-Halal meat as Halal, or the contamination of Halal meat with pork (and its derivatives)
or other non-Halal materials, may be motivated by the desire of some unscrupulous Food
Business Operators (FBOs) to maximise profits, the inability of Halal Certification Bodies
(HCBs) to agree on a unified Halal standard may be considered to be partially to blame for
some of the lapses in the understanding of the requirements of the Islamic dietary laws. Some
HCBs, for instance, approve food-processing sites, which, in addition to processing Halal
products, may also process pork or other non-Halal materials using the same equipment and
processing lines. Although these sites claim to ‘thoroughly’clean the equipment after the
processing of pork, other HCBs are of the view that the cleaning may still expose Halal
products to porcine DNA contamination and will not certify such a site. In the UK, porcine
DNA has been detected in ‘Halal’savoury beef pastry products originating from a processing
plant where pork and the BHalal^products in question were processed using the same
equipment (The Guardian 2013b). Notwithstanding the disagreement on the processing of
Halal and pork or pork derivatives on the same processing lines by HCBs, there appears to be
differences in Halal standards regarding the acceptability of pre-slaughter stunning of animals,
machine (mechanical) slaughter of birds, thoracic (chest) sticking of ruminants and some
aspects intensive livestock production systems.
This paper attempts to define Halal meat, whilst highlighting gaps and loopholes within
Halal certification and enforcement that expose Halal meat to fraud. It also considers the
differences that exist between the Halal standards used by different Halal authorities across the
EU. The paper contributes to the literature regarding the definition of Halal in terms of animal
welfare and food safety.
Food ethics
What is Halal
Halal is an Arabic word that literally means anything that is permissible or lawful (Riaz
1996; Fuseini et al. 2016a). When used in relation to meat, such meats must be derived
from specific animals slaughtered in accordance with requirements specified in the Quran
and Hadith. Extensive reviews of the requirements of Halal slaughter have recently been
conducted (Farouk 2013; Fuseini et al. 2016a,b). It is generally agreed within the Muslim
community that for meat to be acceptable for consumption by Muslims, the animal must be
a species that is accepted for Halal, more importantly, it must also be fit and well at the
time of slaughter and that sufficient time must be allowed for the loss of blood, which
leads to irreversible loss of brain function. The Quran expressly forbids Muslims from
consuming blood. This may be due to the role residual blood (in the carcass) plays in the
spoilage (and palatability) of meat, particularly against the background that at the time the
Quran was revealed, there were no advanced technologies such as refrigeration systems for
the preservation of meat. Kirton et al. (1981) suggested that poor bleeding-out at exsan-
guination results in poor keeping and eating quality. There is lack of evidence to support
the hypothesis that the method of stunning or slaughter affects the loss of blood as quoted
below. It must be emphasised, however, that blood loss at exsanguination cannot be
literally complete, as residual blood will always remain in the capillaries whether animals
are slaughtered with or without stunning. Hence the religious ban on the consumption of
blood must be interpreted as an intention for proper bleeding, i.e. removing as much blood
as it is practically possible from the carcass.
Despite the fact that Islamic authorities around the world unanimously agree on some of
the requirements of Halal slaughter, there are other aspects of Halal slaughter that have
divided opinion among Islamic jurists, leading to confusion among Halal consumers, food
business operators and other stakeholders in the Halal industry as to what is authentic
Halal meat. For instance, European Council regulation, EC 1099/2009 requires the pre-
slaughter stunning of all animals before slaughter in order to induce immediate loss of
consciousness, however, paragraph 18 EC1099/2009 gives derogation for slaughter with-
out stunning, it is enshrined within this legislation as well as in some member states for
faith groups. Some Islamic jurists have vehemently argued against the use of any form of
stunning for Halal slaughter, whilst others are of the opinion that pre-slaughter stunning is
Halal compliant, on condition that the stunning itself is fully recoverable and does not lead
to injury (to the animal). Opponents of pre-slaughter stunning for Halal slaughter have
often cited the possibility of animals dying following stunning and before exsanguination
as the main reason pre-slaughter stunning contradicts the Islamic dietary rules. Others are
of the opinion that the stunning of animals prior to slaughter results in the retention of
more blood in the carcass in comparison with those slaughtered without stunning. How-
ever, repeated research has demonstrated that there is no difference in animals that are
slaughtered either with or without pre-slaughter stunning in terms of the total blood lost at
exsanguination (Khalid et al. 2015;Aniletal.2006;GomesNevesetal.2009). In
addition, some methods of stunning e.g. head-only electrical stunning support the full
recovery of animals if they are not slaughtered post-stunning (Wotton et al. 2014;Orford
et al. 2016). These misconceptions produce disagreements within the Muslim community,
which, in addition to the lack of an overarching regulatory authority for Halal food in EU
member states, and other countries in the developed world, opens the door for misinter-
pretation and potential fraudulent activities in the Halal food industry.
Food ethics
The Market for Halal Meat
The demand for Halal meat is on the rise and it is projected to continue to grow (Farouk 2013;
Sungkar 2008; Bonne and Verbeke 2008). Many factors contribute to the exponential growth
in demand for Halal meat. Lever and Miele (2012) cited the UK and France as the two EU
countries where for over a decade there has been uninterrupted growth in the demand for meats
slaughtered according to the Halal rules. The global expansion in Muslim population (Pew
Research Centre 2015) may be responsible for the continued growth of the Halal meat market.
However, some researchers have suggested that the growth of the Halal meat market within the
EU is attributed to the increased migration of Muslims across Europe in recent years
(Bergeaud-Blackler 2004). Although this observation was made over a decade ago, the recent
exodus of Muslim refugees from countries such as Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan and Libya into the
EU, due to the surge in religious extremism and on-going wars in those countries, has
reaffirmed migration as one of the most important factors influencing the growth of the EU
Halal meat market. Also, the continued increase in the export of Halal certified meat and
processed meat products from the EU to Muslim-majority countries such as Turkey, Indonesia,
Malaysia, the UAE and Singapore is another important factor influencing the growth of the
HalalmeatmarketinEurope.Temporal(2011) reported that the Asia Pacific region accounts
for the largest share of the global Halal export, whilst Singapore was identified as the single
most important centre for the transit of Halal products en-route to the major importing
countries. It must be noted that the consumption of Halal meat is not restricted to Muslim
consumers. In the UK and other parts of Europe, many non-Muslims continue to patronise
Halal restaurants and fast food chains that clearly advertise their meat as Halal with little or no
information as to whether animals were pre-stunned or not. Notable among these restaurants
and fast food chains include Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC), Subway, Nandos, and a large
number of Indian restaurants on the high street. Some of these establishments are solely BHalal
restaurants^and all products in such restaurants are usually certified Halal by one of the
numerous HCBs that exist. It is therefore not surprising that the mainstream retail multiples
within the EU, including Albert Heijn, Aldi, Asda, ,Carrefour, Marks and Spencer, Morrisons,
Sainsbury’s, Tesco and Waitrose have all started stocking fresh or processed Halal meat
products (Awan et al. 2015; The Telegraph 2014). These retailers are always quick to
emphasise that they do not sell unstunned meat under their own label, however, unstunned
meat may still be sold in some of the stores, usually under a third party label. Despite the
scramble for a share of the Halal meat market by the major retail multiples, the preferred point
of purchase of Halal meat by the majority of Muslims is the local Halal butcher (Riaz 1996;
Becker et al. 1998; Glitsch 2000;Ahmed2008; Bonne and Verbeke 2008). This may have
influenced the recent opening of Muslim-butcher stalls in many of the supermarkets within the
UK. In a survey involving 300 UK Halal consumers, the majority of respondents (90%)
indicated that they were unaware of the fact that some of the major supermarket chains sold
Halal meat. The findings also revealed that the majority of Halal consumers (96%) prefer to
shop at the local Muslim-butcher shop because they trusted their compliance with Halal more
than the supermarket chains (Ahmed 2008). Although some non-Muslims continue to con-
sume Halal meat willingly (or unknowingly), others avoid it for the reason that they consider
such meats can be from animals slaughtered in an inhumane manner, albeit a significant
proportion of Halal meat is stunned prior to slaughter. In fact, within the EU, the proportion of
Halal meat stunned before slaughter has been reported as 65% of cattle, 50% of small
ruminants and 50% of poultry (DIALREL 2010). In the case of slaughter by followers of
Food ethics
the Jewish faith (Shechita), all forms of stunning have been rejected, leading to the slaughter of
all animals without stunning. It does appear however, that, a significant proportion of the
animals slaughtered according to the rules of Shechita cannot be consumed by the Jewish
community due to the presence of the Bforbidden fat^(tallow) and the sciatic nerve in the
hindquarters. These Bunfit products^are therefore passed onto the non-Kosher market
(Conway and Lichtenstein 2015; RSPCA 2015), because within the EU, there is currently
no legal requirement for meat to be labelled with the slaughter method or, more specifically,
whether the meat originates from animals stunned pre-slaughter, post-cut stunned or
unstunned. Whilst some animal welfare proponents are calling for meat to be labelled as either
stunned or unstunned (if the legislation continues to permit non-stun slaughter) to provide
clarity to consumers (RSPCA 2015), organisations representing the veterinary profession have
called for a total ban on the slaughter of animals without stunning within the EU on animal
welfare grounds (BVA 2015;FVE2016).
Halal Meat Certification in Europe
The ultimate goal of the certification of meat as Halal by third-party HCBs is to provide
assurance to Halal consumers that some key requirements have been met during the
slaughter, processing, packaging, storage or transport of the meat. This is particularly
important within the EU and other industrialised countries where many FBOs may be
unfamiliar with the requirements of Halal, additionally, there is increased risk of cross
contamination of Halal food with non-Halal products such as pork during further process-
ing, storage or transport. The concept of Halal certification within the EU is a relatively
new phenomenon. In the UK, the first HCB ever to certify meat as Halal, the Halal Food
Authority (HFA), was established in 1994. According to this organisation, their main
objective at inception was to Bmonitor and authenticate^the Halal status of poultry and red
meat because the Halal status of up to 85% of BHalal meat^in the UK at the time could not
be verified (HFA 2016). Opponents of Halal food certification have often questioned the
motives of those ventures. It has been suggested that the exponential increase in the
population of Muslims across Europe in recent years may have contributed to the increase
in the number of unregulated HCBs, all with the aim of independently verifying Halal
status, and facilitating the trade in Halal products (Fuseini et al. 2016b). Within the UK
alone, there are over 10 HCBs who are all competing applying varying Halal standards in
their quest to assure consumers about the authenticity of Halal meat certified by them-
selves. There have been accusations and counter-accusations among the certifiers as to
whose Halal standard is genuine. The lack of government involvement or a central
monitoring body of HCBs has meant that any individual can set-up an HCB with little
or no technical expertise about meat, potentially a lack of specific religious knowledge
and/or non-mainstream agreement about what makes meat Halal. Lack of technical
understanding has led to a lack of proper monitoring and scrutiny of some Halal certifi-
cated sites, which has resulted in the contamination of Halal products at processing sites
where Halal and non-Halal products are produced in tandem but with poor segregation
and/or cleaning (Talib and Johan 2012). Others have been accused of approving slaughter
technologies that violate the basic requirements of Halal slaughter. Although many
Muslims would appear to prefer meat from animals slaughtered without stunning because
the method guarantees a live, uninjured animal at the time of slaughter (EBLEX 2010),
Food ethics
recent covert filming at non-stun Halal slaughterhouses by animal welfare activists in
Belgium and the UK have highlighted systemic abuse and suffering of animals destined
for the Halal food chain (PETA 2009;Newsweek2015). These practices would have
undoubtedly violated the animal welfare requirements of Halal slaughter enshrined in the
Quran and Hadith. It must be emphasised that such violations are also common in Muslim-
majority countries where very painful and violent methods are used in coercing and
restraining animals prior to slaughter. These include the hoisting of conscious animals
(usually ruminants) by the hind leg prior to slaughter, slashing of tendons in the hind legs
in order to immobilise conscious animals prior to slaughter and the lifting of small
ruminants by their wool or limbs (CIWF 2007,2008,2012). There is therefore a need
for proper monitoring and regulation of Halal slaughter in Muslim-majority countries too,
the mere fact that an animal is not stunned prior to slaughter does not necessarily make the
meat compliant with all the Halal slaughter requirements. Some of the problems that exist
within Halal certification could be rectified with a unified global Halal standard. This
would ensure that all HCBs operate under the same rules, and would be analogous to the
current EU ‘Organic’standard overseen by a number of certification bodies all operating to
the same overarching rules. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), an inter-
governmental organisation with 57 member states is currently working on the develop-
ment of a global Halal Standard (OIC 2015). Pointing et al. (2008) pointed out that until
there is clarity or consensus on the correct definition of Halal, enforcement agencies would
find it difficult to protect Halal consumers. Further, consumer law, according to Pointing
et al. (2008), does not currently give sufficient protection to Halal consumers despite the
Muslim authorities having made attempts to develop quality standards to instil some
confidence in Halal products.
The high cost of Halal certification to FBOs is another area that has attracted attention. The
annual certification fee for an abattoir or food-processing site in the UK in 2016 can range
from a few hundreds of pounds to tens of thousands of pounds, depending upon the HCB. The
certification fee may be insignificant to the major players in the meat industry, however, to
small throughput plants and food businesses, this potential cost can be significant. In an
attempt to avoid a fee, some FBOs have been found to intentionally mislabel non-Halal meat
as Halal, others have resorted to Bself-certification^, this is where an FBO verifies its own
Halal status and communicates this to the Halal consumer. This practice is common among
Muslim owned food businesses. Whilst some businesses have successfully implemented this
model, others have struggled to effectively put it into operation. The practice of Bself-
certification^can only be used where the target consumers are local, this is because most
Halal importing countries require a Halal certificate to accompany all Halal meat products
before such products can be given clearance. Lever and Miele (2012) cited a French Halal
lamb distributor, Halaldom, as a company that has successfully utilised Bself-certification^of
its Halal products. According to the authors, this has been possible due to a Bstrong commu-
nication strategy with Muslim consumers^and their commitment to the community displayed
by donating a percentage of the income received for every order back to the community.
Despite the shortfalls of HCBs highlighted above, many Halal consumers regard them as
the enforcers of the Islamic dietary laws in the developed world. They are also regarded by
many FBOs as facilitators for Halal trade. This is because certificates issued by some of these
organisations have become respected and are accepted by local Halal consumers and importers
of Halal meat to Muslim-majority countries. It is worth noting that despite the existence of a
large number of HCBs across the 28 EU member states, only a handful of these organisations
Food ethics
can issue certificates for export to the international Halal market. This is because certificates
issued by the local HCB can only be accepted in the importing destination if authorities in
those countries accredit them. Table 1is a list of some of the major HCBs within the EU and
the countries where their certificates are accepted.
Halal Meat Safety
The procedure for the slaughter of animals for consumption by Muslims is not markedly
different from conventional slaughter, with the exception of where animals are slaughtered
without any form of pre-slaughter stunning. Halal slaughter with pre-slaughter stunning
involves the same procedure as conventional slaughter, however, the former requires the
recitation of a short prayer before or during slaughter to satisfy the religious requirements.
One may therefore assume that the safety of meat should not be affected by the two methods
described above, albeit post-slaughter processing or handling may affect food safety. At the
time the Quran and other Islamic scriptures were revealed some 1400 years ago, there were no
food safety regulations, however, the concept of Tayyib (wholesome/safe foods) was incorpo-
rated into Halal to cater for food safety, albeit this aspect is seldom given the attention it
deserves within the Muslim community. It has been suggested that the concept of Halal food
safety according to the standards of the major HCBs is ambiguous (Demirci et al. 2016). This
may be due to the fact that many HCBs have concentrated on the issue of slaughter whilst
ignoring other important aspects such as the Tay yib requirements. Sirajuddin et al. (2013)
noted that the failure of Muslim authorities to incorporate Tayyib into Halal meat production
has exposed gaps in the safety of Halal meat, they have suggested a more holistic approach in
interpreting the scriptures regarding the BHalal-Tayyib^concept of food production. Nonethe-
less, Cutler (2007) pointed out that Halal and Kosher (religiously slaughtered meat for Jews)
meats are prepared under much stricter standards in comparison with meat from convention-
ally slaughtered animals (for consumers with no religious requirements governing meat
production). This improves both the quality and safety of Halal and Kosher foods (Asghar
Tab l e 1 Major HCBs within the EU and the countries in which their certificates are recognised
Halal Certification Body (HCB) Accreditation of HCB in Halal-importing country
Malaysia
(JAKIM)
Indonesia
(MUI)
Singapore
(MUIS)
UAE
Halal Control, Germany Yes Yes Yes No
Halal Feed and Food Inspection Authority, The Netherlands Yes Yes Unknown Yes
Halal Food Authority, UK Yes Yes Yes Yes
Halal Food Council of Europe, Belgium Yes Yes Yes Yes
Halal Institute of Spain, Spain No Yes Yes No
Halal International Authority, Italy Yes Yes Yes Yes
Halal Monitoring Committee, UK No No No Yes
Halal Quality Control, The Netherlands Yes Yes Yes Yes
Islamic Information and Documentation Centre, Austria Yes No Yes Yes
Ritual Association of Lyon Great Mosque, France Yes No Yes Yes
The Grand Mosque of Paris-SFCVH, France No Yes Unknown Unknown
The Muslim Religious Union in Poland, Poland Yes Yes Unknown Unknown
Total Quality Halal Correct, The Netherlands Yes Yes Yes Yes
Food ethics
et al. 1990;Farouketal.2014). On the contrary, the hygiene of the premises of most Muslim
local butchers has often raised serious meat safety concerns, some of these premises often lack
basic hygiene facilities such as facilities for hand washing or designated changing areas. It is
not uncommon to see a local Muslim butcher handling or cutting meat with no hairnet, coat or
apron. Huffington Post (2014b) reported that although Halal meat may guarantee spiritual
purity, it does not necessarily guarantee safe meat. The report cited a number of incidents
where Halal meat was found to be unfit for human consumption (Food Safety News 2009,
2013). One of the biggest seizures of unsafe Halal meat by food safety officers was recently
reported in Glasgow (The Evening Times 2016). Approximately 1 tonne of unsafe meat,
believed to be lamb was supplied to two Halal butchers operating in the Glasgow area. The
Evening Times (2016) reported that these butchers were suppliers to some of the city’smany
food outlets.
The majority of the issues surrounding Halal meat safety include illegal slaughter of
livestock, poor labelling and documentation, and poor hygiene and sanitation of Halal meat
premises and personnel. These incidents of food fraud and food safety are not by any means
restricted to the Halal meat industry. In Belgium and Ireland, the introduction of dioxin into the
human food chain through the use of contaminated fat in animal feed (Casey et al. 2010)isstill
fresh in the minds of many Belgian and Irish consumers. Tahkapaa et al. (2015) suggested that
these incidents might have prompted the adoption of EU Regulation 178/2002 in the EU. This
regulation lays down the general principles pertaining to feed and food safety within the EU
andatnationallevels.
Halal Meat Fraud
Some researchers have described food fraud as an ancient practice usually driven by profit
(Manning et al. 2016). The fraudulent trading in meat that is claimed to be Halal can take many
forms, from the sale of illegally slaughtered animals generally associated with poor animal
welfare, to the sale of unwholesome meat for human consumption, which poses a risk to
human health. Manning and Soon (2014) argued that the fraudulent trading in foods that pose a
public health risk are more often detected at a stage where the food is already at a point of sale
or has potentially been consumed. In a recent food crime annual strategic assessment report in
the UK, the Food Standards Agency (FSA) in conjunction with Food Standards Scotland
(FSS) defined food crime as Bdishonesty on the part of the producer or supplier^(FSA/FSS
2016). Table 2shows different forms of food crime and the threat each may pose (FSA/FSS
2016), food crime within the Halal industry may fall under one of these categories. Food
businesses (including Halal producers) are expected to be familiar with these offences, and
steps must be taken to prevent them. In the UK, organised criminal gangs are usually involved
in these activities, a situation which because of the potential scale, raises food safety concerns
among regulatory and food safety professionals (Pointing and Teinaz 2004). These authors
explained that the most common offences included the sale of reprocessed chicken sludge
bleached to improve its aesthetic value, the importation of unfit bush meat and Bsmokies^from
parts of West Africa where such products are considered as delicacies. Blow-torching the skin
or hide of an animal before splitting the carcass produces a Bsmokie^, and is thought to
improve the taste of the meat. Although banned within the EU (EC Regulation EC1662/2006),
these products continue to be illegally imported into Europe for human consumption in some
member states (Chaber et al. 2010;BBC2010). Aside the dangers these products pose to
Food ethics
Tab l e 2 An outline of the different forms of food crime (Adapted from FSA/FSS 2016)
Food Crime Type Threat Meaning Example
Pure
Serious criminal activity in which the
intention is to compromise the
authenticity or safety of food
Adulteration Rendering food poorer in quality by
adding extraneous substance
The addition of methanol to Vodka in order to
fraudulently increase volume
Substitution Replacing all or part of a food stuff
with another substance of a similar
kind without altering its overall
characteristics
The substitution of lamb with another from a
less expensive species of red meat e.g. beef
Diversion Turning a foodstuff or another
substance away from its intended
course or purpose
Using animal waste (intended for destruction)
in products for human consumption
Misrepresentation Selling a product as something it
is not (whether in terms of
origin, quality, safety for
consumption or nutritional
benefits)
Sale of shellfish from prohibited beds (owing
to E-coli levels). False declaration of
geographic origin.
Indirect
Detrimental impact on the safety
or authenticity of food as a
consequence of other criminal
activity
Identity theft Fraudulently using the identity
of a legitimate business for
financial gain
Procurement of a consignment of chicken
from a supplier using false company
identity. The product is not stored or
handled in accordance with food law
and enters the food chain through informal
channels
Cyber-enabled
Serious criminal activity facilitated
or enabled by the internet
Misrepresentation Selling a product as something
it is not (whether in terms of
origin, quality, safety for
consumption or nutritional
benefits)
DNP, a harmful industrial chemical, is sold
online as a weight-loss supplement.
Dishonest concealment is then used to
defeat detection in the course of shipping.
Food supplements are sold online with
exaggerated or entirely false claims
made about their benefits
Food ethics
public health, there are concerns for animal welfare and also conservation of endangered
species. It has been reported that carcasses of endangered species such as giraffes, gorillas and
chimpanzees have all been imported from Africa and sold within the EU as bush meat
(Pointing and Teinaz 2004). Some products may end up in the Halal food chain with no
proper documentation of their Halal status.
Illegal Slaughter
Illegal slaughter is the slaughter of animals for human consumption outside a licensed
establishment (EC853/2004), except where permission is granted for the slaughter to be
performed outside a licensed premise, such as the on-farm slaughter of animals for personnel
use only –on-farm slaughtered meat cannot be sold to the general public, it must be used by
the owner (usually the farmer) or his/her immediate family. In addition to meeting the EU
legislative requirements specified in EC1099/2009, animals destined for the Halal food chain
must also be slaughtered in the Islamic tradition. Any meat that falls short of the two
requirements above is deemed unfit for Muslim consumption. Guidance issued to Local
Enforcement Authorities in the UK (FSA 2009) highlights the following scenarios that should
arouse suspicion regarding the legality of meat:
&The slaughter of animals at unlicensed establishments
&The cutting of meat at unlicensed premises
&Unlabelled or poorly health-marked meat
&Meat that may have been imported through illegal channels
&Meat that is advertised, marketed and sold by itinerant vendors at car boot sales, pubs,
clubs and other public gatherings
&Meat that was slaughtered legally but may become unfit to consume within the interpre-
tation of EC178/2002 due to storage under unsanitary conditions or at temperatures outside
the legal limits.
Table 3below lists examples of fraudulent activities discovered in the Halal meat industry
in the UK. Muslims are instructed, according to the Islamic scriptures (Quran and Hadith) to
consume only Halal meat, many Muslims therefore regard the consumption of Halal meat as a
religious act, hence the significance of consuming Halal meat to a Muslim cannot be
underestimated. It is therefore surprising, that some Muslims or food businesses owned by
Muslims have been implicated directly or indirectly in the majority of the crimes committed
regarding the falsification of the status of Halal meat. This, according to experts in the Halal
certification or regulation industry is why some production is motivated by greed and a desire
to maximise profits by means either by fair or foul.
Mislabelling of Halal Meat
The accurate labelling, presentation and advertisement of foodstuffs within the EU must
comply with Article 2 of Council Directive 2000/13/EC. This specifically makes it an offence
for the labelling of any food product to mislead consumers regarding the characteristics,
identity, constituents, quantity, method of manufacture, durability and geographical origin of
the product. Despite the lack of clarity regarding the true meaning or definition of Halal, the
intentional mislabelling of non-Halal products as Halal in order to mislead consumers into
Food ethics
purchasing such products constitutes an offence. The doubts surrounding the true meaning of
Halal meat is brought about by the sketchy interpretation of the Islamic scriptures by Muslim
scholars with regard to modern livestock farming and animal slaughter practice. This lack of
agreement between HCBs makes it difficult for Local Enforcement Officers to identify
fraudulent activities in the Halal meat trade. On one hand, some Muslims are reluctant to
accept any farming, animal slaughter or meat processing technique that was not used by the
Prophet of Islam, on the other hand, there are Muslims who have recognised the need to accept
technologies that do not explicitly violate the Islamic slaughter guidelines, as they were not
available at the time of the Prophet. Halal meat may be mislabelled in two ways; false
declaration of meat species and the presence of undeclared meat species (Chuah et al.
2016). A series of surveys regarding the labelling of chicken products in the UK concluded
that there was widespread mislabelling of chicken (FSA 2001,2003). With regard to chicken
labelled as Halal, the following worrying conclusions were reached:
&There was widespread mislabelling of Halal chicken.
&The addition of water to ‘pump up’chicken was a common practice. In some instances,
over 50% of the chicken weight was added water..
&The water used in Bpumping-up^the chicken was found to contain proteins to aid the
retention of water in the carcasses, these proteins were of porcine and bovine origin. As
mentioned above, it is forbidden for Muslims to consume pork or its derivatives, in
addition, the bovine protein may have been derived from animals slaughtered contrary
to the Islamic slaughter requirements.
&Additives used in chicken were often not included on labels.
Tab l e 3 A list of some of the reported crimes involving Halal meat in the UK
Incident Fine imposed Source
A Halal Meat Company in Bradford used
counterfeit Halal labels on meat products
and sold them as Halal
£20,000 http://birminghamnewsroom.
com/meat-supplier-ordered-to-
pay-nearly-20000-for-fake-halal-labels/
A Halal meat wholesaler in Birmingham
mislabelled and sold non-Halal meat
as Halal.
£62,000 http://www.halaltimes.
com/fake-birmingham-halal-meat-
company-fined-62000-pounds/
A Halal Meat supplier in Birmingham
misled Halal consumers by claiming
their products were certified by the
Halal Monitoring Committee
£1100 http://birminghamnewsroom.
com/halal-meat-supplier-fined-
for-misleading-customers/
Halal Meat butcher in Manchester
mixed cheap minced beef with minced
lamb and sold it as 100% lamb
£18,000 http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.
uk/news/greater-manchester-news/halal-
butchers-food-fraud-trafford-11178552
A meat processor in Newry, Northern
Ireland, falsely labelled non-Halal
burgersasHalal
£70,000 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-
ireland-33317601
A meat supplier in Walton Summit,
supplied Halal Bchicken^kebabs to
one of the major retailers which
werefoundtocontainmainly
connective tissues and beef.
£10,000 http://www.lep.co.uk/news/business/
food-firm-hit-by-kebab-fine-1-4670081
Four men illegally slaughtered sheep
for the Eid festivities at unlicensed
premises without prior stunning
£2075 http://www.express.co.
uk/news/uk/580745/Islam-Muslim-halal-
slaughter-farm-UK-Llechrydau-Farm-court
Food ethics
Aldi Supermarket had to apologise to its UK Muslim consumers after a product containing
pig blood and pig skin was mislabelled as Halal by its producer (International Business Times
2015). The retailer indicated that it was an isolated incident and that it did not pose any food
safety risks to consumers. The adulteration and mislabelling of Halal meat is not restricted to
the EU, Chuah et al. (2016) tested 143 processed BHalal^meat (beef and poultry) products in
Malaysia for the presence of Halal-prohibited proteins from pigs, rats, cats, donkeys, dogs and
other undeclared Halal-acceptable species. They found that 78% of the products were
mislabelled. In addition, buffalo DNA was detected in 40 out of 58 products labelled as beef
whilst 33 out of the 58 products contained undeclared chicken. However, none of the Halal-
prohibited products were found in those tested.
Contamination of Halal Meat
Meat derived from pigs, carnivorous animals, birds of prey and animals slaughtered contrary to
Islamic principles are regarded as non-Halal. The cross-contamination of Halal meat with any
of these products will negate the Halal status of the meat. Pork appears to be the most
important product of concern for the majority of Muslims living in the West, this is because
most Halal meat producing facilities in these countries also handle and process pork alongside
Halal meat products. This practice increases the risk of cross-contamination between the Halal
products and pork, particularly where there are poor segregation and cleaning between the two
products. The detection of even very low levels of pork or porcine genetic materials in Halal
products will render the products non-Halal. Due to this concern, a number of researchers have
attempted to use different testing techniques to determine the identity of meat protein in Halal
products in order to reassure Halal consumers of the authenticity of Halal products (Murugaiah
et al. 2009;Demirhanetal.2012; Stamoulis et al. 2010;Ulcaetal.2013). The Malaysia
government recently signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with a UK based testing
facility, Fera Science, for the provision of Halal proficiency testing (Global Meat News 2016).
The aim of the agreement is for Fera Science to develop protocols for the detection of pork and
alcohol in low levels in Halal products. These protocols are therefore restricted to species and
alcohol detection and not the wider ethical issues in the Halal industry.
Conclusion
The consumption of Halal meat is an important aspect of the dictums of the Islamic faith.
However, the desire of some Halal meat suppliers to maximise profits has led to a series of
incidents involving the mislabelling of products that do not meet the Halal dietary laws as
Halal. Incidents of this nature can cause significant distress to practicing Muslims. Divergent
views within the Muslim community regarding what is authentic Halal have resulted in
confusion among FBOs, Halal consumers and stakeholders in the industry. This also makes
it difficult for law enforcement agencies to identify and prosecute offenders of Halal meat
fraud. Nonetheless, in recent years, there have been a number of successful prosecutions of
Halal meat suppliers who intentionally sold non-Halal meat as Halal. The health and safety
aspects of Halal meat has also been questioned, as a significant proportion originates from
smaller, potentially less well managed and regulated processors. Some researchers have
suggested that the adoption of a holistic BHalal-Tayyib^concept of livestock agriculture and
meat production would alleviate some of the food safety risks associated with post-slaughter
Food ethics
handling of Halal meat. Further research is needed to understand the Islamic scholarly
interpretation of the Halal-Tayyib concept and how this can be incorporated into modern
livestock agriculture and food processing systems. The successful implementation of this
concept would improve animal welfare during Halal slaughter as well as eliminate the food
safety risks associated with Halal food production. Halal Certification Bodies need to engage
to play this vital role in ensuring the successful implementation of this concept.
Acknowledgements AF acknowledges the support of the Humane Slaughter Association (HSA) through an
Animal Welfare Research Training (PhD) Scholarship and also the support of AHDB Beef and Lamb
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