Content uploaded by Elizabeth K Andre
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Elizabeth K Andre on Nov 20, 2017
Content may be subject to copyright.
Benefits of Campus Outdoor Recreation
Programs: A Review of the Literature
Elizabeth K. Andre
Northland College
Nathan Williams
North Carolina State University
Forrest Schwartz
Pennsylvania State University
Chris Bullard
Portland State University
Abstract
Campus outdoor recreation programs and facilities have faced a number of public attacks ques-
tioning their value for students. Climbing walls in particular have become, to some, emblematic
of waste and nancial excess in higher education. Despite these claims, this literature review un-
covers numerous benets for participants and schools provided by campus outdoor recreation
specically and campus recreation more generally. For colleges and universities, these benets
include positive eects on student recruitment, retention, and satisfaction and the opportunity
for recreation programs to support academic programs directly. For students, benets include
increased academic success, smoother transitions to college, better mental and physical health,
lower levels of stress and anxiety, better and more numerous social connections, better intra- and
interpersonal skills, increased environmental sensitivity, and better connectedness to nature and
to place.
KEYWORDS: campus outdoor recreation; campus recreation; outdoor recreation;
outdoor education; higher education; adventure education
15
Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership 2017, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 15–25
https://doi.org/10.18666/JOREL-2017-V9-I1-7491
16 ANDRE, WILLIAMS, SCHWARTZ, AND BULLARD
Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership
Politicians, news media, and books have been saturated with criticisms of perceived exces-
sive spending on college and university amenities (Arum & Roksa, 2011; Blumenstyk, 2012;
Brandon, 2010; Friel, 2003; Hacker & Dreifus, 2010; Martin, 2012; Schuman, 2013; Scott, 2012;
U.S. Department of Education, 2006; Woodhouse, 2015). ese critics have oen singled out
specic campus resources, such as college climbing walls or other campus outdoor recreation
programs (Brandon, 2010; Martin, 2012). Perhaps the peak of this trend was when one politician
commented, “What the hell do you need a rock climbing wall for? Tell the kids at [University of
New Hampshire], ‘Go outside and climb those rocks.’” (Casimiro, 2015, para. 3). Despite these
vocal critiques, this paper will demonstrate that campus outdoor recreation oers numerous
benets, not only for student participants, but also for colleges and universities as organizations.
Before investigating outcomes of these programs, we will dene the scope of campus out-
door recreation as any outdoor recreation activities sponsored by a college, university, or associ-
ated auxiliary unit. is includes academic or nonacademic programs and includes recreational
activities that approximate outdoor settings (e.g., climbing walls or kayaking in pools) but do not
take place in the outdoors. ese types of programs may be housed organizationally within cam-
pus recreation departments, but may also be associated with student organizations, residential
communities, or student leadership programs (Speelman & Wagsta, 2015).
Because of the oen intertwined nature of campus outdoor recreation and campus rec-
reation departments, it is important to mention briey the history and context of campus rec-
reation departments. e rst campus recreation departments were formed at the beginning
of the 20th century and oen included aquatics programs, intramural programs, sport clubs,
tness, camps, adaptive programming, and personal training, in addition to outdoor recreation
(McFadden & Stenta, 2015). e availability of campus recreation is an important factor for
students in choosing which school to attend and in deciding whether, once enrolled, they will
remain enrolled (Haines, 2001). Nationally, students rate campus recreation programs as equally
important to their satisfaction and success as housing, food options, and internship opportu-
nities (National Intramural–Recreational Sports Association, 2004). Providing “extraordinary
experiences,” such as those associated with outdoor adventure, can provide organizations, in-
cluding universities, a competitive advantage in the marketplace (Jeeries & Lepp, 2012, p. 37).
Because of the diverse nature of these departments and programs, it is dicult to make
generalizations about them. is paper casts a wide net and includes some studies that are gen-
eral to campus recreation as a whole and notes instances for which more research is needed into
campus outdoor recreation specically. For this broad approach, in this paper we will answer
the research question, what are the potential benets of campus outdoor recreation programs?
ese benets extend beyond student recruitment, retention, and satisfaction. Campus outdoor
recreation programs also provide students with benets in the realms of mental and physical
health and wellness, prosocial connection and interpersonal skills, pro-environmental attitudes,
academic success, employment opportunities, and other transferable skills.
Method
In response to these public attacks questioning the value of campus outdoor recreation
programs and facilities, the Association of Outdoor Recreation and Education (AORE) formed a
working group, the Campus Outdoor Recreation Assessment and Accountability (CORAA) task
force. is task force was charged with developing eective assessment and advocacy tools to
support its member programs. e rst step in this process was to query AORE members (who
are largely professional sta and students of college and university outdoor recreation programs)
to ascertain what types of support the AORE could provide for them as they advocate for their
programs. rough an online survey, members requested a literature review summarizing the
benets of campus outdoor recreation, for individual participants and for colleges, universities,
and associated auxiliary departments that house these programs.
17BENEFITS OF CAMPUS OUTDOOR RECREATION PROGRAMS
http://www.ejorel.com/
Based on a search of the literature using search terms such as campus outdoor recreation
outcomes, the CORAA working group identied four categories of outdoor recreation benets
relevant to higher education: academic, health and wellness, transferable skills, and environ-
mental awareness. e working group then searched for articles using associated search terms in
aggregate academic search engines, including Ebsco, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. is
resulted in 161 articles to be reviewed. Aer the working group read these articles, the category
of prosocial connection and interpersonal skills was added, in addition to expanding the aca-
demic category to include employment and transferable skills.
is investigation yielded a number of research studies that were tangentially related to
campus outdoor recreation, but few which addressed campus outdoor recreation specically.
Health and Wellness Outcomes
Transitioning to and navigating through college can be a stressful time for students.
Balancing classes, work, social, and family responsibilities pulls students in many directions.
Recreation, especially when it takes place outdoors, can reduce that stress (Clark & Anderson,
2011; Kanters, Bristol, & Attarian, 2002; Mann & Leahy, 2010). Recreation experiences in wild
and natural areas provide participants with health benets that are distinct from those experi-
enced through recreation in built environments. For example, exercising in natural areas im-
proves psychological well-being by enhancing mood and self-esteem and by reducing feelings
of anger, confusion, anxiety, depression, arousal, stress, and tension to a degree that is signi-
cantly greater than what would accrue from the same amount of exercise in a built environment
(Aspinall, Mavros, Coyne, & Roe, 2013; Barton, Hine, & Pretty, 2009, as cited in Louv, 2011,
p. 59; Bodin & Hartig, 2003).
Participants in outdoor experiential programs have reported personal calming and soli-
tude (Hlansy, 2000) and increased self-esteem (Barton, Bragg, Pretty, Roberts, & Wood, 2016).
Participants in college outdoor orientation programs have demonstrated increased emotional
autonomy and purpose (Vlamis, Bell, & Gass, 2011), and students in an extended outdoor ad-
venture education degree curriculum have shown increased hardiness, a psychological construct
that describes the ability to turn stressful events into growth-inducing, rather than debilitating,
experiences (Sheard & Golby, 2006). Female participants in outdoor adventure programming
have also shown increased resiliency, which appears to persist over time (Beightol, Jevertson,
Carter, Gray, & Gass, 2012; Overholt & Ewert, 2015; Whittington, Aspelmeier, & Budbill, 2016).
In addition to the mental health benets, numerous physical benets come from par-
ticipation in physically active recreational activities. Regular physical activity helps control
weight; reduces the risk of numerous diseases; and strengthens bones, muscles, and joints
(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008). Involvement in recreational sports dur-
ing college is a signicant predictor of the importance students place on tness activities aer
graduation (Forrester, Arterberry, & Barcelona, 2006).
Prosocial Connection and Interpersonal Skills
Outdoor recreation has been shown to have a positive eect on participants’ levels of social
support (Clark & Anderson, 2011; Kanters et al., 2002; Mann & Leahy, 2010). Involved students
have more friends, more people on campus with whom they would feel comfortable sharing an
emotional secret (Austin, Martin, Mittelstaedt, Schanning, & Ogle, 2009), and reduced levels
of social anxiety (Ozen, 2015). Participants in campus-organized outdoor trips experienced an
increased sense of community, and trip alumni reported maintaining lifelong friendships with
participants in their university outdoor trips (Breuning, O’Connell, Todd, Anderson, & Young,
2010).
Outdoor orientation programs, wilderness trips that students engage in before they start fall
classes, provide an intense experience that encourages students to bond and create supportive re-
18 ANDRE, WILLIAMS, SCHWARTZ, AND BULLARD
Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership
lationships (Austin et al., 2009; Bell, 2006, 2012; Bell, Gass, Nafziger, & Starbuck, 2014; Frauman
& Waryold, 2009; Howard, O’Connell, & Lathrop, 2016; Wolfe & Kay, 2011). Participants also
feel more committed to their university and experience a smoother transition to university life
(Howard et al., 2016; Lien & Goldenberg, 2012; Wolfe & Kay, 2011). ese experiences result
in not only higher levels of social engagement, but also more reection and a higher sense of
life purpose (Bailey & Kang, 2015). In a longitudinal study, Gass, Garvey, and Sugerman (2003)
reported that 17 years aer an outdoor orientation trip, students continued to feel the positive
eects of this experience.
Recreation experiences oen have benets for specic subgroups within the university. For
example, when college student organizations participate in challenge course experiences, the
members experience gains in group eectiveness, group cohesion, and personal eectiveness
within the group (Hatch & McCarthy, 2005). Outdoor adventure–based orientation trips have
been shown to help university athletic teams replace a culture of hazing ceremonies for induc-
tion of rst year athletes with a more cooperative, egalitarian, and inclusive model that contrib-
utes to long-lasting improvements in team cohesion and functioning (Johnson & Chin, 2016).
All-female trips oen help participants feel more comfortable sharing ideas, feel more empow-
ered to make decisions and take action, and have an increased perception of their capabilities
and power (Mitten, 1992). Experiences developed with and for Indigenous youth may yield an
increased sense of connection with creation and with self (Ritchie et al., 2015).
Campus outdoor recreation programs may also be an avenue for universities to explore
more transformational visions of nondiscrimination and inclusion. Recreation programs have
expertise in adaptive recreation, universal design, and facilitating inclusive groups. ey can
be models for further challenging the “hegemonic discourses that have been used to justify in-
equality and oppression along the axes of race, class, gender, and sexuality” (Promis, Erevelles,
& Matthews, 2001, p. 49). One example is the DIVE (Diversity and Inclusion adVenture
Experience) program at North Carolina State University in which students, within the format
of a 9-day sea kayaking expedition, discuss issues of social justice on campus and in the broader
societal context (NC State University, University Recreation, n.d.).
Environmental Outcomes
Schools with campus outdoor recreation programs that include outdoor trips in wild or
natural areas can support schools’ environmentally focused goals. Many colleges and univer-
sities are incorporating environmental aspects into their missions and intended learning out-
comes, but are having diculty achieving these environmental goals. It is dicult to design a
solely classroom-based curriculum that produces students who engage in pro-environmental
behaviors because, although classroom-based education tends to focus on cognitive outcomes,
responsible environmental behavior is highly correlated with students’ aective and emotional
connections to the natural world. Pro-environmental behavior has been shown to correlate with
a person’s feelings of connectedness to nature (Mayer & Frantz, 2004), level of environmental
sensitivity (Hungerford & Volk, 1990), emotional anity toward nature (Hinds & Sparks, 2008;
Kals, Schumacher, & Montada, 1999), and place identity (Vaske & Kobrin, 2001).
ese aective outcomes are most eectively developed through direct contact with and ex-
periences in the natural world rather than in a classroom (Chawla, 1999; Eisenhauer, Krannich,
& Blahna, 2000; Kals et al., 1999; Palmer, 1993; Sivek, 2002). It is no surprise then that participa-
tion in outdoor recreation activities is positively associated with pro-environmental behaviors
(eodori, Lulo, & Willits, 1998), especially when the outdoor recreation activity is nonmotor-
ized and appreciative of the outdoor environment (Teisl & O’Brien, 2003; apa & Graefe, 2003).
Because society is experiencing a “fundamental and pervasive” shi away from nature-based
recreation (Pergams & Zaradic, 2008), it cannot be assumed that university students will develop
these aective environmental connections on their own.
19BENEFITS OF CAMPUS OUTDOOR RECREATION PROGRAMS
http://www.ejorel.com/
Campus outdoor recreation programs, especially those that include both extended outdoor
trips in wild or natural areas and frequent opportunities for exposure to nature, provide op-
portunities for participants to develop the aective outcomes needed to complement the cogni-
tive outcomes of the school’s formal environmental curriculum. Research shows that both fre-
quent and extended outdoor experiences have led to increased feelings of anity toward nature
(Kals et al., 1999) and that outdoor and environmental education experiences of a sucient
length inuence participants’ feelings toward the environment (Rickinson, 2001; Zelezny, 1999)
and connectedness to nature (Barton et al., 2016). University outdoor orientation trips specif-
ically have been shown to increase place identity (Austin et al., 2009), which correlates with
pro-environmental behavior.
Academic and Employment Outcomes
Participation in campus recreation helps students relieve academic stress (Kanters et al.,
2002; Ragheb & McKinney, 1993) and correlates strongly with academic success and student
retention (Bailey & Kang, 2015; Gibbison, Henry, & Perkins-Brown, 2011; Haines, 2001).
Participation in recreation can positively aects students’ overall experience at a university
(Bobilya & Akey, 2002), and outdoor orientation programs can help students develop appropri-
ate educational plans (Vlamis et al., 2011).
Outdoor adventure education experiences improve students’ ability to work with others
in academic settings. Improvements can be seen in students’ perceived group-work skills, the
functioning of existing student work groups, attitudes and condence toward group work, and
the cooperative and social environment within higher education (Cooley, Burns, & Cumming,
2014). Outdoor adventure education experiences can also help participants shi their per-
ception toward viewing learning as fun and toward understanding that the best learning in-
volves initiative by the learner (Sibthorp et al., 2015). Students who participate in an outdoor
adventure–based rst year seminar course showed signicantly higher learning outcomes than
those who participated in an indoor classroom-based course. e adventure-based rst year
seminar led to higher scores by fostering trust among student participants, thereby leading to
more in-depth personal discussions about curricular topics (Bell & Holmes, 2011).
Campus outdoor programs can also work directly with academic programs to help them
meet their learning objectives. Adventure education components, such as high and low ropes
courses, when paired with university learning communities, increase students’ in-class learning
by developing a support network for academic learning and enhancing connections with other
students, faculty, and the university, as well as by promoting self-learning and helping students
develop transferable skills (Bobilya & Akey, 2002; Schimmel, Daniels, Wassif, & Jacobs, 2016).
A specic example of this type of collaboration is the wilderness adventure programs oered
to engineering students at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the Singapore
University of Technology and Design (SUTD). ese programs help introduce SUTD students to
the culture of MIT, help students develop leadership skills, and increase their understanding of
engineering science and design thinking (Saulnier, Ahn, Bagiati, & Brisson, 2015). In an example
of a longer duration program, Humboldt State University (n.d.) oers Klamath Connection. is
yearlong experience engages students with education focused on the Klamath River, including
periodic eld trips to the river and a multiday summer immersion trip.
Many campuses provide students the opportunity to take leadership roles within a campus
outdoor recreation program, including serving on steering committees, leading trips, and plan-
ning events. is leadership experience may make students more employable aer graduation.
Students who develop recreation skills may also nd careers aer graduation in the outdoor
recreation profession, which employs 6.1 million Americans (Outdoor Industry Association,
2012). Furthermore, graduates in recreation-related elds have employment levels that compete
favorably with graduates in other elds (Carnevale, Cheah, & Strohl, 2012).
20 ANDRE, WILLIAMS, SCHWARTZ, AND BULLARD
Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership
Transferable Skills
In addition to the aforementioned benets of campus outdoor recreation programs,
the literature speaks to a category of participation benets referred to as “transferable skills.”
Transferable skills can be thought of as skills learned during an outdoor experience that have
direct applicability in settings beyond the outdoor arena.
Life eectiveness has been dened as the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects of
human functioning, which determine a person’s ability or eectiveness in responding to life situ-
ations (Neill, Marsh, & Richards, 2003). Participants in outdoor recreation experiences, includ-
ing short 1-day challenge course experiences, have demonstrated signicant increases in life ef-
fectiveness scores. Moreover, many participants have experienced further gains over time in the
dimensions of time management, intellectual exibility, task leadership, emotional control, and
achievement motivation (Flood, Gardner, & Cooper, 2009; Frauman & Waryold, 2009; McLeod
& Allen-Craig, 2007).
With increased life eectiveness comes a stronger belief in oneself and one’s ability to com-
plete complex tasks. Paxton and McAvoy (1998) examined the eects of an outdoor adventure
program on participants’ self-ecacy and found gains immediately aer the experience and an
increase in all scales 6 months aer. Similarly, Garst, Scheider, and Baker (2001) found increases
in participant self-perception immediately aer and 4 months following an outdoor adven-
ture program. In a summary of meta-analyses of the eects of outdoor education experiences,
Neill and Richards (1998) found signicant and long-lasting eects on positive self-concept,
self-condence, and locus of control. Outdoor recreation participants are learning valuable life
skills and the eects are lasting.
Discussion and Limitations
e existing literature shows numerous benets from campus outdoor recreation pro-
grams, but there are weaknesses and gaps in the research. We started with a focus on campus
outdoor recreation, but soon realized there were not enough studies addressing campus outdoor
recreation specically. We, therefore, widened our search to include studies of campus recreation
programs more broadly dened. ere are numerous benets that are common to general cam-
pus recreation programs and outdoor recreation programs, but without more studies on campus
outdoor recreation programs specically, the benets of campus outdoor recreation programs
cannot be adequately established.
Furthermore, much of the research that exists on campus outdoor recreation programs
documents the existence of benets, but more needs to be done to document the extent of these
benets and to compare the degree of benet gained with those benets gained from other types
of campus programming. Providing quantication of these benets, especially as compared with
benets gained from other campus facilities and programs, will aid campus administrators in
deciding how to allocate resources.
Research areas of strategic importance to campus outdoor recreation programs and to the
outdoor profession more broadly have been identied by the AORE, through a process of poll-
ing its membership to determine what research would be most needed. ese research areas
include benets for student recruitment and retention, return on nancial investment, contri-
butions to student wellness and academic success, the role of outdoor programs in developing
pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors, outcomes related to leadership skills and judgment,
and the promotion of diversity and inclusion. Additional research is needed to examine these
questions as they relate to campus outdoor recreation programs broadly and to more specic
aspects of campus outdoor recreation programs, including climbing walls, challenge courses,
outdoor orientation programs, and recreation programming that supports academic courses
(AORE, 2015).
21BENEFITS OF CAMPUS OUTDOOR RECREATION PROGRAMS
http://www.ejorel.com/
Althought is paper was focused on benets of campus outdoor recreation, we did not exam-
ine the alleged contribution of climbing walls and campus recreation facilities to rising tuition
costs. Clearly, however, anyone who wishes to counter the rhetoric that assigns the blame for ris-
ing tuition on campus recreation facilities will need to understand the factors driving increases
in tuition. We recommend starting with a report from the American Institutes for Research,
which concludes that “climbing walls are easy targets, maybe even fair game, but they aren’t
what’s behind the rising price of college” (Kirshstein & Kadamus, 2012, p. 4).
Conclusion
As public rhetoric continues to frame campus outdoor recreation programs and facilities
as symbolic of waste and excess in higher education, directors of campus outdoor recreation
programs will need to be able to communicate the value of their programs to school administra-
tion, political decision makers, the media, and their constituents. Research on nancial return
on investment will also help administrators decide how to prioritize resources. Existing research
documents the benets for the schools and for the participants. ese benets extend beyond the
typically cited improvements in recruitment, retention, physical tness, and social connection,
to include increased academic success, leadership and group skills, environmental connection,
employment opportunities, increased life eectiveness, and other transferable skills. Campus
outdoor recreation programs can also directly support academic programs in achieving learning
objectives, especially ones related to the environment and to diversity and inclusion.
Although the existing research establishes numerous benets of campus outdoor recre-
ation programming and facilities, more needs to be done to quantify the extent of the benets,
especially as they compare with the benets gained from other types of campus facilities and
programming.
References
Arum, R., & Roksa, J. (2011). Academically adri: Limited learning on college campuses. Chicago,
IL: University of Chicago Press.
Aspinall, P., Mavros, P., Coyne, R., & Roe, J. (2013). e urban brain: Analyzing outdoor physical
activity with mobile EEG. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 49, 272–276. https://doi.
org/10.1136/bjsports-2012-091877
Association of Outdoor Recreation and Education. (2015). Research agenda. Ann Arbor,
Michigan: Author.
Austin, M. L., Martin, B., Mittelstaedt, R., Schanning, K., & Ogle, D. (2009). Outdoor orientation
program eects: Sense of place and social benets. Journal of Experiential Education, 31,
435–439.
Bailey, A. W., & Kang, H.-K. (2015). Modeling the impact of wilderness orientations on rst-year
academic success and life purpose. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning,
15, 209–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2014.949809
Barton, J., Bragg, R., Pretty, J., Roberts, J., & Wood, C. (2016). e wilderness expedition:
An eective life course intervention to improve young people’s well-being and
connectedness to nature. Journal of Experiential Education, 39, 59–72. https://doi.
org/10.1177/1053825915626933
Beightol, J., Jevertson, J., Carter, S., Gray, S., & Gass, M. (2012). Adventure education and
resilience enhancement. Journal of Experiential Education, 35, 307–325.
Bell, B. J. (2006). Wilderness orientation: Exploring the relationship between college
preorientation programs and social support. Journal of Experiential Education, 29, 145–167.
https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590602900206
22 ANDRE, WILLIAMS, SCHWARTZ, AND BULLARD
Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership
Bell, B. J. (2012). Assessing the eectiveness of an adventure-based rst-year experience
class. Journal of College Student Development, 53, 347–355. https://doi.org/10.1353/
csd.2012.0031
Bell, B. J., Gass, M. A., Nafziger, C. S., & Starbuck, D. (2014). e state of knowledge of outdoor
orientation programs: Current practices, research, and theory. Journal of Experiential
Education, 32, 31–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053825913518891
Bell, B. J., & Holmes, M. (2011). Important factors leading to outdoor orientation program
outcomes: A qualitative exploration of survey results. Journal of Outdoor Recreation,
Education, and Leadership, 3(1), 26–39. https://doi.org/10.7768/1948-5123.1075
Blumenstyk, G. (2012, January 30). College ocials welcome Obama’s focus on higher-education
costs, but raise some concerns. e Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://
chronicle.com/article/President-Puts-College-Costs/130503/
Bobilya, A. J., & Akey, L. D. (2002). An evaluation of adventure education components in a
residential learning community. Journal of Experiential Education, 25, 296–304. https://doi.
org/10.1177/105382590202500208
Bodin, M., & Hartig, T. (2003). Does the outdoor environment matter for psychological
restoration gained through running?Psychology of Sport and Exercise,4, 141–153. https://
doi.org/10.1016/S1469-0292(01)00038-3
Brandon, C. (2010). e ve-year party. Dallas, TX: BenBella Books.
Breuning, M. C., O’Connell, T. S., Todd, S., Anderson, L., & Young, A. (2010). e impact of
outdoor pursuits on college students’ perceived sense of community. Journal of Leisure
Research, 42, 551–572.
Carnevale, A. P., Cheah, B., & Strohl, J. (2012). Hard times: College majors, unemployment, and
earnings: Not all college degrees are created equal. Washington, DC: Georgetown University
Center on Education and the Workforce.
Casimiro, S. (2015, September 8). Jersey governor decries ‘rock climbing wall epidemic.’
Adventure Journal. Retrieved from http://adventure-journal.com/2015/09/jersey-governor-
decries-rock-climbing-wall-epidemic/
Chawla, L. (1999). Life paths into eective environmental action. Journal of Environmental
Education, 31(1), 15–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/00958969909598628
Clark, B. S., & Anderson, D. M. (2011). “I’d be dead if I didn’t have this class:” e role of leisure
education in college student development. Recreational Sports Journal,35(1), 45–55. https://
doi.org/10.1123/rsj.35.1.45
Cooley, S. J., Burns, V. E., & Cumming, J. (2014). e role of outdoor adventure education in
facilitating groupwork in higher education. Higher Education, 69, 567–582. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10734-014-9791-4
Eisenhauer, B. W., Krannich, R. S., & Blahna, D. J. (2000). Attachments to special places on
public lands: An analysis of activities, reason for attachments, and community connections.
Society & Natural Resources, 13, 421–441. https://doi.org/10.1080/089419200403848
Flood, J. P., Gardner, E., & Cooper, N. (2009). One-day challenge course impact on student life
eectiveness skills. Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership, 1, 55–75.
https://doi.org/10.7768/1948-5123.1009
Forrester, S., Arterberry, C., & Barcelona, B. (2006). Student attitudes toward sports and tness
activities aer graduation. Recreational Sports Journal, 30, 87–99. https://doi.org/10.1123/
rsj.30.2.87
Frauman, E., & Waryold, D. (2009). Impact of a wilderness orientation program on college
student’s life eectiveness.Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership, 1,
189–207.
Friel, B. (2003). e ivory climbing wall. National Journal, 35, 3488–3494.
23BENEFITS OF CAMPUS OUTDOOR RECREATION PROGRAMS
http://www.ejorel.com/
Garst, B., Scheider, I., & Baker, D. (2001). Outdoor adventure program participation impacts
on adolescent self-perception. Journal of Experiential Education, 24(1), 41–49. https://doi.
org/10.1177/105382590102400109
Gass, M. A., Garvey, D. E., & Sugerman, D. A. (2003). e long-term eects of a rst-year student
wilderness orientation program.Journal of Experiential Education,26, 34–40. https://doi.
org/10.1177/105382590302600106
Gibbison, G. A., Henry, T. L., & Perkins-Brown, J. (2011). e chicken soup eect: e role of
recreation and intramural participation in boosting freshman grade point average. Economics
of Education Review, 30, 247–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2010.09.003
Hacker, A., & Dreifus, C. (2010). Higher education? How colleges are wasting our money and
failing our kids—and what we can do about it. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Grin.
Haines, D. J. (2001). Undergraduate student benets from university recreation. NIRSA
Journal,25(1), 25–33.
Hatch, K. D., & McCarthy, C. J. (2005). Exploration of challenge courses’ long-term eects on
members of college student organizations. Journal of Experiential Education, 27, 245–
264.
Hinds, J., & Sparks, P. (2008). Engaging with the natural environment: e role of aective
connection and identity. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28, 109–120. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2007.11.001
Hlansy, G. (2000). e eects of a short-term outdoor experiential program on a student’s self-
concept and their perception of the program (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of
Wisconsin-Stout, Menomonie, WI.
Howard, R. A., O’Connell, T. S., & Lathrop, A. H. (2016). Community development, transitional
value, and institutional anity: Outdoor orientation program impacts. Journal of
Experiential Education, 39, 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053825915623049
Humboldt State University. (n.d.). Klamath Connection Program. Retrieved from http://www2.
humboldt.edu/klamathconnection/home
Hungerford, H., & Volk, T. (1990). Changing learner behavior through environmental education.
Journal of Environmental Education, 21, 178–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.1990.
10753743
Jeeries, K., & Lepp, A. (2012). An investigation of extraordinary experiences. Journal of Park
and Recreation Administration, 30(3), 37–51.
Johnson, J., & Chin, J. W. (2016). Hazing rites/rights: Using outdoor- and adventure education-
based orientation to eect positive change for rst-year athletes. Journal of Adventure
Education and Outdoor Learning, 16(1), 16–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2015.10
50681
Kals, E., Schumacher, E., & Montada, L. (1999). Emotional anity toward nature as a
motivational basis to protect nature. Environment and Behavior, 31, 178–202. https://doi.
org/10.1177/00139169921972056
Kanters, M. A., Bristol, D. G., & Attarian, A. (2002). e eects of outdoor experiential training
on perceptions of college stress. Journal of Experiential Education, 25, 257–367. https://doi.
org/10.1177/105382590202500203
Kirshstein, R. J., & Kadamus, J. A. (2012). Climbing walls and climbing tuition. Washington, DC:
American Institutes for Research.
Lien, M., & Goldenberg, M. (2012). Outcomes of a college wilderness orientation program.
Journal of Experiential Education, 35, 253–271.
Louv, R. (2011). e nature principle: Human restoration and the end of nature-decit disorder.
Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin. https://doi.org/10.1038/477538b
Mann, M., & Leahy, J. (2010). Social capital in an outdoor recreation context. Environmental
Management, 45, 363–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-009-9407-4
24 ANDRE, WILLIAMS, SCHWARTZ, AND BULLARD
Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership
Martin, A. (2012, December 13). Building a showcase campus, using an I.O.U. New York Times.
Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/14/business/colleges-debt-falls-on-
students-aer-construction-binges.html?pagewanted=all
McFadden, C. W., & Stenta, D. A. (2015). Connecting collegiate recreation and athletics to
leadership. New Directions for Student Leadership, 2015(147), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/
yd.20139
McLeod, B., & Allen-Craig, S. (2007). What outcomes are we trying to achieve in our outdoor
education programs? Australian Journal of Outdoor Education, 11(2), 41–49.
Mayer, F. S., & Frantz, C. M. (2004). e connectedness to nature scale: A measure of individuals’
feeling in community with nature. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24, 503–515.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2004.10.001
Mitten, D. (1992). Empowering women and girls in the outdoors. Journal of Physical Education,
Recreation, and Dance, 63(2), 56–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.1992.10604117
National Intramural–Recreational Sports Association. (Ed.). (2004).e value of recreational
sports in higher education. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
NC State University, University Recreation. (n.d.). Diversity and Inclusion adVenture Experience
(DIVE). Retrieved from https://recreation.dasa.ncsu.edu/outdoor-adventures/diversity-
and-inclusion-adventure-experience-dive/
Neill, J. T., Marsh, H. W., & Richards, G. E. (2003). e Life Eectiveness Questionnaire:
Development and psychometrics. Unpublished manuscript, University of Western Sydney,
Australia.
Neill, J. T., & Richards, G. E. (1998). Does outdoor education really work? A summary of recent
meta-analyses. Australian Journal of Outdoor Education, 3(1), 1–9.
Outdoor Industry Association. (2012). e outdoor recreation economy: Take it outside for
American jobs and a strong economy. Boulder, CO: Author.
Overholt, J. R., & Ewert, A. (2015). Gender matters: Exploring the process of developing
resilience through outdoor adventure. Journal of Experiential Education, 38, 41–55. https://
doi.org/10.1177/1053825913513720
Ozen, G. (2015). e eect of climbing community activities as a leisure on university students’
social anxiety. Anthropologist, 21, 558–564.
Palmer, J. (1993). Development of concern for the environmental and formative experiences of
educators. Journal of Environmental Education, 24(3), 26–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/0095
8964.1993.9943500
Paxton, T., & McAvoy, L. (1998). Self-ecacy and adventure programs: Transferring outcomes
to everyday life. In K. M. Fox et al. (Eds.), Coalition for Education in the Outdoors Research
Symposium proceedings (4th, Bradford Woods, IN, January 9–11, 1998; pp. 32–39).
Cortland, NY: Author.
Pergams, O. R. W., & Zaradic, P. A. (2008). Evidence for a fundamental and pervasive shi away
from nature-based recreation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, 105, 2295–2300. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0709893105
Promis, D., Erevelles, N., & Matthews, J. (2001). Reconceptualizing inclusion: e politics
of university sports and recreation programs for students with mobility impairments.
Sociology of Sport Journal, 18, 37–50. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.18.1.37
Ragheb, M., & McKinney, J. (1993). Campus recreation and perceived academic stress. Journal of
College Student Development, 34(1), 5–10.
Rickinson, M. (2001). Learners and learning in environmental education: A critical
review of the evidence. Environmental Education Research, 7, 207–320. https://doi.
org/10.1080/13504620120065230
Ritchie, S. D., Wabano, M. J., Corbiere, R. G., Restoule, B. M., Russell, K. C., & Young, N. L.
(2015). Connecting to the good life through outdoor adventure leadership experiences
designed for Indigenous youth. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 15,
350–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2015.1036455
25BENEFITS OF CAMPUS OUTDOOR RECREATION PROGRAMS
http://www.ejorel.com/
Saulnier, C. R., Ahn, B., Bagiati, A., & Brisson, J. G. (2015). Leadership development through
design-based wilderness education. International Journal of Engineering Pedagogy, 5(1),
47–56. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijep.v5i1.4386
Schimmel, C. J., Daniels, J. A., Wassif, J., & Jacobs, E. (2016). Learning the ropes: A creative
orientation approach for counseling students.Journal of Creativity in Mental Health,11(1),
27–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/15401383.2015.1095663
Schuman, R. (2013, November 26). A ghost town with a quad. Slate. Retrieved from http://www.
slate.com/articles/life/education/2013/11/minnesota_state_moorhead_could_cut_18_
academic_programs_why_do_colleges.html
Scott, A. (2012, July 26). Climbing walls and college costs. Retrieved from http://www.
marketplace.org/2012/07/26/education/climbing-walls-and-college-costs
Sheard, M., & Golby, J. (2006). e ecacy of an outdoor adventure education curriculum on
selected aspects of positive psychological development. Journal of Experiential Education,
29, 187–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590602900208
Sibthorp, J., Collins, R., Rathunde, K., Paisley, K., Schumann, S., Pohja, M., . . . Baynes, S. (2015).
Fostering experiential self-regulation through outdoor adventure education. Journal of
Experiential Education, 38, 26–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053825913516735
Sivek, D. J. (2002). Environmental sensitivity among Wisconsin high school students. Environ-
mental Education Research, 8, 155–170. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504620220128220
Speelman, E. A., & Wagsta, M. (2015). Adventure leadership and experiential education. New
Directions for Student Leadership, 2015(147), 89–98. https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.20146
Teisl, M. F., & O’Brien, K. (2003). Who cares and who acts? Outdoor recreationists exhibit
dierent levels of environmental concern and behavior. Environment and Behavior, 25,
506–522. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916503035004004
apa, B., & Graefe, A. R. (2003). Forest recreationists and environmentalism. Journal of Park
and Recreation Administration, 21(1), 75–103.
eodori, G. L., Lulo, A. E., & Willits, F. K. (1998). e association of outdoor recreation and
environmental concern: Reexamining the Dunlap–Heernan thesis. Rural Sociology, 63(1),
94–108. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1549-0831.1998.tb00666.x
U.S. Department of Education. (2006). A test of leadership: Charting the future of U.S. higher
education. Jessup, MD: Author.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2008). 2008 physical activity guidelines for
Americans. Hyattsville, MD: Author.
Vaske, J. J., & Kobrin, K. C. (2001). Place attachment and environmentally respon-
sible behavior. Journal of Environmental Education, 32(4), 16–21. https://doi.
org/10.1080/00958960109598658
Vlamis, E., Bell, B. J., & Gass, M. (2011). Eects of a college adventure orientation program on
student development behaviors. Journal of Experiential Education, 34, 127–148.
Whittington, A., Aspelmeier, J. E., & Budbill, N. W. (2016). Promoting resiliency in adolescent
girls through adventure programming. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor
Learning, 16(1), 2–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2015.1047872
Wolfe, B. D., & Kay, G. (2011). Perceived impact of an outdoor orientation program for rst-year
university students. Journal of Experiential Education, 34, 19–34.
Woodhouse, K. (2015, June 15). Lazy rivers and student debt. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from
https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2015/06/15/are-lazy-rivers-and-climbing-walls-
driving-cost-college
Zelezny, L. (1999). Educational interventions that improve environmental behav-
iors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Environmental Education, 31(1), 5–15. https://doi.
org/10.1080/00958969909598627